CONTENTS SETI {ntransitive and Transitive verbs The Subject ‘ Categories functioning as Subjact fi Anticipatory Subject "IT and “THERE* ot Cleft sentences ‘The Direct Object PEE Categories functioning as DO The Anticipatory object “It* Transitive and intransitive use of verbs The Indiract Object | Categorias functioning as 10 Omission of the DO Order of DO and 10 (eases in which the 10 must necéssarily be introduced by "To" intended 10 Verbs that may be followed by TO and FOR The passive construction with 10 as. Subjects ” ihe Subjective Complement or Predicalive : Catagories that function as SC ‘The Objective Complement Calegories that function as OC Verbs that may be used as T.VJILP Quasi-predicatives intransitive Phrasal Verbs ‘Transitive Phrasal Verbs Preposilional Verbs Phrasal Propositional Verbs Middio.Verbs Word Order - Inversion of Order Classification of sentences Classification of clausés Noun clauses Functions of the Noun Clause That-Clauses Functions of the That-Clause Winlerrogative Clauses Functions of the Wh-inlerrogative Clauises Nominal Relalive Clauses Functions of the Nominal Relative Clauses “ Relalive Clauses , Adverbial Clauses Conjunctions Classification of conjunctions Reduced Clauses Reduced Noun Clauses Reduced Relative Clauses Reduced Adverbial Clausos Indirect Speech Changes in verbs Changes in pronounsOther changes: deictie words | —~ ~~ Exceptions (o backshitt Reporting feelings and thoughts: Reporting Verbs Questions Commands and Requests Exclamations ‘The modal auxiliary and Indirect Speech Mixed types ol indirect Speech late response Free Indirect Speech Ellipsis Apposition 4, Restrictive and Non-resirictive apposition Explicit Apposition Appositive Clauses Conditional Sentences Yet ype i Type It inversion : Other IF-clatises St 51 53 53 53 54 55 55 56 56 56 57 59 59 59 60 60 6t 62 62 63. ESCRITA IL 4 SET? SENTENCESTRUCTURE—> z Hig GentenceeIy ammpalical unit MEME UDOT ZA TUOISCL: GNU TAPES SS: CANE ABUT Sy s GiaeEaNW Aven piace (S = NP +.vo}-The only dMerence NAS MGENE STG UP ae oe lagoiles whereas S> Pare Canes ; {Salegoras ene g TRAVEL US WE BRGTOOTIC URIS TFG ORO VENTSE WOHlemvig, The boy Wont away, the boy isa NP tal precedas te P and won away loa i ev lone ere ee 98 5 ard the VP lunctions as P. These functions are defined on he basts 6 positon (seayence, order) The Subject is the Subject of the sentence: the S lo the P. None] The boy | BOW BUOP TY Redieate or Web Mose INTRANSITIVE AND TRANSITIVE VERBS. 1 SoREbceuicale aways Rae aCOMIOTAIEATETD, The verb may.be explicily mentioned, ort may be omited =, (implicit, implied or understood). TIEVETO IS Ie HOGIGUS ol the Patho vero'maybariinranshive er eansilve—— 1 W(doott have an obec t-po (have otfee one ableety Fish swim, He cult his finger. + He's steeping, He is eating an apple. He Is sleeping under a vee He painted the door. : Refers ro, the Person The ball rang. He has already read thal book, gets Yhat vs! eae Me Ne0n- Phrase = fromcan | The bell rang twice. I don't like to write teiters, scttan of the 1 He works very hard. Ineed a pen. x CINE. VERTIS UUTETE-aTETIO Obleca T NeTe rts: eihbevertrisrrttere asec ye hag OT Wo Sra Giecl ObSeaNTEN GNELT ODEO, Reewas = oo : tect ANE ees TS SAIS GET bye th? (ae ieee | sent him a teller. Ruiter _oeteer aS : SPimrep. 12,whau? fot whou ? He told us the most fantastic slovies. EPS the Peeper of TE weet She teaches us gcammar. < 5S [rows - Povo 8} ‘Then we may say the verb is-b-iransitve (or d-eansitive) SUMMING UP: more agjunets: he structure of the Sentence is: jwo obligalory major constituents and in addition one or S+V + (IO) + (D0) + (adverts of adjuncts) CRiclearconstivenisD ena TCIearconstivents—y Fam swimming, will write to you Jain writing a letter. twill send you a letter. Iwill send you a-letler nex week. NOTE: Il a sentence has no verb, or no subject, present in deep structure. It must be hypothe: has been omilled; e.g. Shant'be a minulel is Is implied. At nol observable on the suilace, bul il is 0 al an absifacl, unobservable level, We miss! assume that Is,fc oF forked Sudace, heeds Funehoos (Gjoussots col > fos ) Surhect reoh ahRochire, EuNstOuS (logyol- sexenke) Powonon Deee shQuctuze 0 Gebtermined by Monn] THE SUBJECT «The Subject is a function, There are two kinds of funclions: surface structure funcllons (gram sal or formal) and deep structure functions (logical, semantic) ; The surlace structure functions are determined by form; mainly posttion and agreement (or concord), ‘Th deep structure funcilons are determined by meaning. in STiie grammatical subject] dotintion by postion and agreomont (or concord) cee & uxt Hens un The subject as a surfaée structure function |s delined as the NP that Immediately precedes the Verb (in aitiemallve sentences}: that . eo nety | Gafiolstucies Engish gene | E Is adociot. eigen iiaoath d i the fee, Lith pened and Iwent in. Z ode of 2 uord “There Is very litle agreement or concord in English because the verb has very fovitallexlons}In fact only one lnlesion enters ite concordat elton with he Subject he goes (he thd porson singular The Preset Indetinite Tense), { The notional sublect|detinlion by meanihg. the becks were ution sLoho. Beouuahect Soblect Noha! calbtect The subject as a deep structure function (also called the logical subject}, when the verb Is a-verb of action, May be delined as the doer of the action expressed by the verb; the aclor or agent uahin studies English The door opened andirenting ag 9 When the verb is not a verb of action, the subject is the person or thing zbout which we may predicate a quailty, location, ele. : : Alioun - Moun Phrase, A {renown A Sern d ey Tapio We Tho caris white. John studies English A pow cheese f Eggs ave bad for th liver. ‘CATEGORIES FUNCTIONING AS SUBJECT: 1) A noun/Noun Phrase: 2) A pronoun: Hes tall, Someone |s singing. 3) A gerund: ‘Smoking ls bad for your lungs. Complimenting is lying, Complaining to the autherities wow't ba ntuch good, Meeting you hore has been just splendid, Working in thase conditions Is a pleasure, ; 4) An tntialtive: To smoke cigarettes ts very bad. To see you Is always a great pleasure. To act like that is foolish To know ail about Englisi ls one thing: to know English is quite another. 8) ANoun Clause: Wihat hie sats tightThat he came yesterday is re Q What puzzles me is that he got hold ofthe key. Whatever Fhave is at your disposal What you ave doing seems very citicul. That he will retuse the ofler Is unikely How the prisonor escapedis.a.complete-tnystery-—— {THE ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT “IT” AND “THERE”. > ‘The anticipatory subject !t is @ subject that doesnt have any meaning In itself but Is used to comply with the Principle of end-weight (a short subject and a tong predicate). We need the anticipatory subject to leave the Information at the end and,’at the same time, full tha necessity of a subject. There are two anticipatory (or preparatory] words tn Engilsh: M and thera. They may anticipate tho real Subject - 5% Subject 4) AO infin ve WantepatesZ 2 A noon elsere, with 2 nesstve elenesT” 7 3 A gern deat Phrase 7 i De 41) An Intinttive S fred. Plies Its nice to see you. Its easy f0 do that. twas useless fo try Its apily lo waste it. * Itwill be wiser to drive stow. Itwould be a mistake to ignore his advice, Mtseemed useless to go on Htseems a pily not fo use it twas hard for him to live on his small pension. 's iteasy fora rich widow to find a handsome husband? ‘twas the rule for men and women to sit apart. In the sentence To see her is to fove her, we cahnol use the anticipatory it because thera Is another inf alter the verb to be. In the sentence To err Is human; to forgive, diving. wa don't use the anticipatory It because this fs a proverb, 2) A Noun Clause: Is itirue that he dig i Iwas a pily (Ural) you couldn't come. twas unfortunate thatthe weather was so wet. ‘His strange that she should havo said that. Itis splendid news that you tiava won the prize. Its likely thal there will be rain belore evening. fs a mystery how the burglars got into tha house. Its doubttul whether he will be able fo come. |s itpossible that he misunderstood what you said? Its awonder you weren't allied! Hdoesn't maller whether we start now or later. Is ita fact that you are goirig to gat married? NOTE: It was very Interesting what he said at the party the other day about space explorations.(colloqutal) 3) A gerundlal phrase: 8) with a negalive element: ifs no use crying over spilt milk, {ts no use your Irying to do that. twasn't much use my pretending thet I didn't know the rules. IFS NO good hoping for their help. Itwion't be much good complainitig to the authorities. ~ It doesn’t seem much good gaing an.i Iwas a dillicult business getting everything ready in time. 1s foolists botraving lke that. b) fixed phrases: Its been nice talking to you. itwas nice meeting you the other day. " its been a pleasure seeing you again. yh an adverb O} ce “THE! i fe Noun whe aduers of Plece 1S OMmatted THERE anticipates Za 3 Goss ueuae (werkored or 7uPhed) 4) A Noun: a a) wilh an adverb ot place: : There is a book on the table. There are many churches there ‘Aro thera many apples on your trees this year? There are three windows tn this room. There are some boys at the door. Thore comes an endto all things. (Discuss) = & There is a map on page tive. 4s ee There was very lille work done that day. (Disctiss) 1) The adv. of place is omitted. i There was no wind. (outside) There was much foolish talking. (at the meeting) There have been many such incidents. (in our town) There enitered a strange-looking lille man. (Ihe room) ¢) An adv. of place does nol seem lo be possible. There seems to be an Ady. of {ime («ientioned or implied). There won'l be enough time. (torortow) There's no doubt about it. (non) There is no time for us la visit the museum. (now) 2) A gerund: There's no use denying the fact that this government is very inefficient. There's no gelling over it. a CLEFT SENTENCES AND THE IT-IS EMPHATIC TRANSFORMATION 1 ZT Cleft Sennewte” ciel i Tin te fohowing sentences CueF SenTences: Ses vad, SR sa Itis the wile that decides. S oleach s TD Connect wh Iwas the colonel | was looking for. Snot ngpetend TO’ whet ig New TO Wis you that must sutter for i ne i Hd PS TO Fows on Me, Oe \nforuats on, what we really mean Is: - The wile decides. | am looking for the cotone. You must sulter fori but we want lo emphasize: the wie, the colonel and you. So lo the kemiel sentences we apply the ills ein phatic transformation in order to derive the emphallc or clelt sentences, Its possible lo emphasize any one phrase: John went to the cinema yesterday. a) twas Jolia thal went to the cinema yesterday. ’) Iwas (0 the cinema thal John went yesterday. ¢) twas yesterday that John wen! fo the:cinema,‘This consituction gives themalic and local prominonce to a particular olement of the clause.‘The sentences > called a clott senton i divides a single clause into lwo separate sections, each wilh ils own verb. > Clelt sentences vsually begin with the emply pronoun It followed by the verb bo; then comes the element on “> \ which the focus falls. From a single clause such as ohn wore his best suil to the dance last night. __ lis possible to derive lour clett sentences, each highlighting a particular efement of the clause: Subject as focus: Il was John who wore his best suit lo the dance last night. DO as focus: Il was hls best sult thal Jolin wore to the dance last night Adv. of tine as focus: Il was last night (thal) John wore his best suil lo the dance. Adv. of place as focus: It was to the dance thal John... (formal) was the dance that Jolm...10. (intormal) i Less common clause elements such as 10 and OC can also acl as the focal element of a clell sentence: Ws me he gave the book to Ws dark green we painted the kitchen. OD pgecion Ooteer Be the te i “| THE DIRECT OBJECT 7 é ere. “THE DIRE JECT @ erratum obree Paverece tRochRE- Pouuskeal svoleer] Do Te Fhe PeeaTT OF the athon. The direct object Is a surtace slructure lunction which may be delined as a noun phrase which ‘has the ~y following characteristics: G) it may becorne the subject of the passive @hivanewers the question "what" or "who" Inthe structure: Wh- do they V? 3) it usually follows the verb immediately (a TV, of course) A the semantic level the DO may hold various relations with the verb. (In deep structure,'the DO is whatis >. ‘allécled by the action expressed by the verb) > ‘¢1) Atfectum object: the nouit refers to a person or thing that is allecled by the action expressed by the verb. > ‘The OO here is the receiver, sullerer of patient. It existed belore the action was performed and it was allected by i : He broke a glass. He painted the house. Vldig the ground. Light a famp. ‘They murdered the chiel. Méther cut the pie. He hurl himsel : 2) Elfectum object or object of result: The object is the result of the aclion expressed by the verb: “> He manulactures glasses. He painted a picture. dig a cave. Light a fire. Moths eal holes in curtains. . The archilect built a house. NOTE: The.cognate object Is @ noun that has tho saine (oF similar) form ‘or foot as the verb- IIs a spacilic kind of Oot result.” a The noun Is usually modilied by an adjective:rommate DO He Elves he atop S Ye * Adreamt a horrible dream, She laughed a shor sily laugh, Les tun a race, Sing a song. 9} insttumentat Object the obec is tho nsrument with which the acon Is performed: He pointed his finger at Arthur. <4 ya He struck his hand upon his knee ‘The dog waved its tall 4) Locative Object: the object Is the place where tho action takes placo: ‘The horse jumped the fence: He walked the streets. He swam the river, Ho left London yesterday. He passed the notice. He entered the room, He climbed the hil Other verbs: tum, surround, penetrate, mount, cross. 5) Object to verbs of emotions (expressing feelings) (modality verbs: volition) {love you, She hates him, Other verbs: dare, hope, want, wish, etc: 6) Object to verbs of perception (modality verbs: cognitiori) } saw John this morning, Theard you. Othor verbs: know, understand, meet, remind, remember, taste. 7) Object to verbs of communication otd him that | ordered him to do it Other verbs: deseribe, inform, etc 8) Object to verbs expressing (absttact) relations Thal does not concern me. Jt depends on the circumstances. Othor verbs: rely, counl, etc. 7 Jade POR Ae tent Slr Vetcene : ye eine Fs A Now CATEGORIES FUNCTIONING AS DIRECT OBJECT A RjAMolin I\ & 00 hse. He bas ita cigar. | A carund 2) A Pronoun: An in Don't hit me, i : Hove you. ‘ : 9) A Noun Clause: = Describe what you saw, Hla said ria) they woutd come ard soe w: fi ? O We intetwlet iat his son should inierit the business, He told James why he must work harder Wd you what I want you to do, Hike reading poetry. He loves skating, Your hair needs cutting. Slop wasting my time, 5) An Infinitive: twanl to go away. bid you remamber fo feed the cat? Hdidiv' dare to ask for a rise in salary. NOTE: Apparenily, according to the datinition of DO ch page, the infinlive and the gerund CANNOT function as DO. because they are nol NPS, nor can they be the S ol the passive. I is better to analyze | want to go as containing a modality verb and consider the inlinilive as the main verb In deep structure A modatily verb exprossos the mode or atlilude that the speaker or subject has towards the event. Whenever the verb is followed by an infinilive or gorund, three situations may arise: 1) A verb of action + an infinitive of purpose: He works to make money. 2) An aspectual veib + a verb of action: He began to work, 3) A modalily vorb + the main verb: | want to work. : An infinite, THE ANTICIPATORY OBJECT “IT” — & on classe R aerund ‘The anlicipatory object ft may anticipate: 2 Vry 1) an Infinitive: | consider itwrong (0 cheatin examinations. 20 Dorit you think ir unwise to climb the mountain without a guide? {think ita pity to waste them. = | count it an honor to serve you. i {ink it wrong to li, ook upon it'as wrong (o lie always make ila rule fo verily all quotations. They considered ita great compliment for the President to visit them. ©") Everyone thought it most fool for youl to elimi the mountain alone, { inust teave it 0 your own judgment to decide whether you should come or not. aaa We owe it to sociely 16 thelp in the apprehension of criminals y € You mustn't take # upon yourselt fo sper! such large sums of money without geting the treasurer's approval. : We have itin our power to do great harm or great good. A 2 2) a noun clause: (> {ind itfiecessary that you should bring your own exanples Do you think it odd that | should ve by nipself? od Uhink ita pty (thal) you didn't try harder. . 4, ‘We all thought itwrong that they shoutd b@ wasted. © * Uhéught ita pily that Mary should be absent just qhen. . Hooked upon it as very awkward (hat Hv changéd the subject just then: » He owes ifto his father’s influence that the Committee appointed him to the position. put i110 you whether this man could have acted'in such a crsel way. * 3) a gerund: pry We think a mast darigerous your climbing the mountali alone, F212 Uhinkitvather dnnaarous your venturing ou! tera“TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE USE OF VERBS 4) Object deletion. Pseudo-Intransitive vorbs: In $5 but TV In DS. Transitive ' intransitive He plays the violin. He plays very well He Jeff London, He left yesterday. Smoke cigars. She doesn't smoke, He is eating an apple. Men eat o preserve ile. Have you Just seen the tightning? Anew-bomn child sees, but kitten Is born blind, He writes novels. He writes wel We usually eaf soup for dinner, We never eat before 8 o'clock. ‘The verb becomes intransitive when it is used In such a ganerat sense that no particular object Is thought of In connection with il. The verb is interently transitive, but the object may be deleted. Or else it is evident fromm the situation, NOTE: Many verbs are used intransiively in epecial Idiomatle combinations. {i doesn’t pay, That wi do. The ship put to sea al dusk, The fire caught rapidly, He takes after his father. Neither fond nor borrow. Deletion of reftextve object: He drew (himsell) near ma. He made (himself) mer didn’t shave (myset!) this moming. I washed and dressed (mysell) In a jlly. Get (yoursel!) out of my way. He burnt (himselt) with rage, Move (yourselt) on a fille faster. z ‘The mouse steals (sell) into its hote, Let us bother (ourselves) here. Bals hide (themselves) during the day. He turned {himsell) to ma. Many men feed (themselves) on rice. The sheep gathered (themselves) round their shepherd. Discuss: ; The day breaks at six. The sun sets at 6 pm. The fog has ited. ‘The mist spreads over the earth. The clouds have dispersed trom the sky. 2) Object permutation. Ergative Sentences: O —> S (ag) a) Same lexical items: TRANSITIVE » INTRANSITIVE Mave a stone That slong 1 Chanaa the evn oTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE Wabal , The bal ros: inthe leal The current tums. -ginAne.play.. the-play-begins-at 8: 'd the discussion. ‘Tho meeting ended at 10. sss the wine. Tha train passed. e soldiers burnt everything, Thal vould burn, ven the door. Tha door opened. op the car. Tha car stopped. U are growing a beard stood the box on the floor. boiled the water. ran a thorn inlo his hand, Flow bis kite. grows wheal in the field. Tioated the boat rang the bell, sclased the business. . sun melts the snow. arithe machine, vitthe butter. . rrorists blew up the dam, an shines the brass. mantic groupings: start, begin, stop an, close 9k, crack, split ve, change, grow, develop Similar lexical tems: falls the trees with an axe, annot raise this box. e man lays down hi's coal ve seated the baby on the bed. Ditteront lexical tems: 'e frosl has killed the flowers. nn killed Bil ve doctor brought the patient round. ent the children to the playground, ‘ul the book on the table, rave the fetter to John. tal experience look away this enthustasm, >uld you show me the room please? silme the story. aught him French ‘ill remind you to do it Your beard is growing beautitul, ‘The box sfood on the tloor, Water boils. ‘A thom san into his hand, ‘The kito flew into the air. Wheat grows in the field. ‘The boat floated. ‘The dinner bell rang, ‘Tho meeting closed at 6. Tha snow melis in the sun, ‘The machine started. ‘The butler is mehting. ‘The dam blew up. The brass shines. The tree fas. The sun wil rise al 6. The cow fies on the grass. He must not sit here, ‘The flowers Nave died. Bil died. The patient came round. The children went to the playground. ‘Tho book is on the table. John fras the totter. He lacks enthusiasm. Could | see the room please? Let me fear the story. He knows French, Remember to do it. Verbs and adjectives which are the same lexleal item:Transtttve They narrowed the road. ‘The flash alinost blinded me ~ He warts the milk, Tho milk is wacm, Clean and dry the shit. Tho shit's glean and dry. Slow down the car when you reach the crossroads. This Is a very slow tain, ‘The police cleared the streets o!tralic. The streets wero clear of traltic He busied himsell packing, + He was busy getting ready for his journey. Adjective The road became narrow. almost went bind, €) Verbs morphotogically related to adjectives: They enriched the soil by adding special fertilizers. We must strengitien our Association, We cannot ensure success. Wtwould be better to enlarge the photograph, What can we do lo enliven the panly? Have you faslened all he doors? ‘The land is very rich in minerals. ‘The Association will soon bo strong, Im not sure that we will succeed. This photograph Is not farge enough, ‘The patty Is now gelling lively. Make tho boll fast 1) Ergative sentences: 0~-S (+49) John watked the horse, The horse walked, gallop gallop mun tun jump jump Don't starve the horse. ‘They trotted out the horse. He walks oul the prisoners. He marches out the soldiers. They sicod Joe against (he wall, He worked his servants hard. The horse will starve. Tho horse trotted out. Tho prisoners walk out. Tho soldiers marched out, Joe stood against the wal. His servants worked hard. ‘These sentences contain two agents (an agentive Subject and an agentive Object). They are called double agenlive sentences. Double agentive constructions are usually manifested wilh causative verbs such as make, get, have, cause: John made Bill move, é John got Bill to move, Jolin had Bill move, John caused Billo move. 3) Verbs with passive meaning Detergents sell well His plays won't act, and his poems won't sel The mud will brush off when itis dry. The words would not form on his lips. None of the babies photograplied well This dress washes better than the blue one. Overcoats that would not warout ‘This papor cuts east, : This rod its easily. Your composilion reads well. The house does not let ‘The horse does not sel. The car wouldn't staut.fe The meaning here Is neatly the same as in the passive of the same verb; yet thera are certain dilferences, I 's tat possible to say, in speaking of a single act of selling “The housa sold yostarday”. And il we say His books Soil very well we think to some extent of the books as acive themselves, rather than of the activity of the beck. seller, We Indicale In such a sentence something that Is tell as chiaracterisic of the subjct: therefore the, verb generally requires some futher descriptive lan: eee ee he Meal Culs easly His scientific papers read like novels, : : Olten the pseudo activity of the subject Is shawn by the use of the verb wil The figures will not ada. s The suitcase would not fock, Cr. also: Riches tend fo accumutate. In those cases Il would seen thal iis by virtue of some quality of the object that the process can take place The books sold themselves, as It were. In Spanish the construction takes the passive wilh se: Los libros se venden bien, In most cases this pattern Includes the expresstonis dant or wont. ct 1) The books sold qulckly z 2) The books were sold quickly. 3) They sold the books quickly. 1) process-orlented:it was by virtue of some qually of the books that they were quickly disposed of 2) agent-orlented: 1! was the (unspecilied) agent who was responsible for the rapidity with which the books were sold, 9) active sentence: this sentence carries the Implications of 2) ina more detinite form. ‘There is similar double use of many verbs deiived Irom adjective. Clear up a difficulty The weather has cleared up. Coorone’s enthusiasm, The earth cools down, ‘Thelr company wearied her. She wearied of their company. He filled his pockets. Her eyes filled with tears, ‘The sun sipens the apples. Apples ripen in the sun. Is > ahr vetere Poncho efae eae (THE INDIRECT OBJECT She gave largely to hospitals. (money) I shall speak to him. (about this) | ORDER OF DO AND IO. so ILIs debatable whether there Is a normal order: I wrote my cousin a feller. or Iwrole a letter to my cousin, Is elther of these “normat’? Why? On what criteria is this decision mada? This question Is al best controver- sia. CASES IN WHICH THE 10 MUST NECESSARILY BE INTRODUCED BY “TO” 1) When the 10{follows (is placed alter} the DO, i must be preceded (or Intcoduced}.by the preposition lo. This order is Used obtigatorily: a) When we want to emphasize the 10: { wrotp a lottar to my cousin. Let's Give the prize fo him, not to his brother. Bring the box fo me, not fo my brother, b) Whon the DO is the objective pronoun it or its plural ther: | gavé ito them He has shown them fo me. ¢) When the 10s comparatively tong: wrote a leltar fo the ofd man I met at Bristol last year. He sold his car to a man front Leeds. I havd written letters fo most of my old pups 2) Wilh some verbs of Latin origin, such us E He admitted to his employer that he had made a mistake. The secretary of the society affirmed to us thal the statement was true. They have announced to us thal Mr A and Miss B will be martied next month, He agcribed his failure to il-health, This play is sometimes ascribed to Shakespeare. He alfributes his success to hard work, He attributes wisdom to his teacher. He communicated the news to us. He ednfessed to her that he had spent all his monoy. ‘This picture will convey to you some Idea of the scenery. Iwill convey the information to him. Did ybu delivermy message to you falher? Can you describe it to me? He devotes all his time to study. Its wrong fo devote yourselt only to amusement Don'tjdevoie too much time to games. Businiessmen ofetate ther letters to thoir sacrotaries. He explained to everyone present thal the delay was inevitable. He exposed his body to the sunlight A sigtpost indicated |o us that thal was the right road to follow. They proposed to ys that we should chanae our plans. iThe evidence provedto us thalihg accused was gully. He referred his success to:the good teaching he had had. He reveated the secret to us. 7 et | suggested o ther thal il might be belter to wail He swore to us that he hadn't been thera. Parents transmit some of thelr characteristics to thelr children. 3) The verb to say. Thave something to say to you. : 4) When the DO Is omitted: Vhave waitten to him. Talk fo him. In colloquial style, to Is often omilted in these cases: twas given me the day of my birthday. Have you written hin? FOR + NP: Intended 10 Intended Reciplent or Recelyer Intended 10 10 to another verbs I've found you a place. She made herself a new dress. He made a beaulill doll for his daughter. Til make you some tea. We must choose Mary a good birthday present, Can you get me a copy of that book? ‘She cooked her husband a pound of sausages. Will you reach me my hat? This machine will save you a ot of work. Will you keep me company tonight? (Idiom) He ordered himsell a good dinner. Can you spare me a few minutes of your valuable time? (idiom) They played us a good many tricks. (idiom) He Jaid a trap tor his enemies. He reviews books for the Guardian. He bought his mother abunch of flowers, 1 grow you a beautifut kind of rose-bush next season. i Do tne a favour. Weigh me these apples, please. Will you spel! me that word? My cousin, who is an architect, will build us a beautiful cottage by the sea. \ Sho must gather them some. Prepare them a good meal. | 1 gave John a sweater. {bought John a sweater. gave a swealer to John, ! bough! a sweater for John, 2) [bought a sweater, b} I gave itto John, ‘Attar looking at these four sentences we see, that the sentences containing tha verbs to give take the prop sition “to” lo introduce the 10. Any other preposition would be wrong, At the same lime the 10 in a sentence containing the verb to buy must be introduced by for, and not by ary other preposition, This [sa reflection of what goes on in the OS of the four sentences. That is, while the "GIVE-sentence contains a true 10 to that same verb, the "BUY-sentences are nol simple sentences in the sense that they ara{her @ Compression of two sentonces, which are: | bought a sweater with the Intention of giving it to John, ‘Hirelore, wo cant say that ihe 10 (lor Joly fs ain 1 fo tha verb to buy, bul an 10 to tha varb 10 yive wich i Implied in the sentence ——Blseuss-Fixed phrases Give rise to suspicion, Is Interesting to me Give birth fo a son. “obvious Pay altention to me. hholptut Make love to her. Injurious a pleasure to ma Nsooms to mo.. a great help to me What's that to you? ww a calamity lo me VERBS THAT MAY BE FOLLOWED BY TQ AND EOR: Read: Read the answer fo me for ma. He read the letter fo all his trends. He always wanled to read me his latest poems. Write: I've written a letter fo them. - for them, I must write her a letter, Write this leller for me (to send It to John) Leave: He Ielt his house fo me. He felt a note for me. ‘Sing: Sing a song fo them, for them, Bring: Ive brought a present for you. Bring ve brought you this for Mary. Take: We'll take some loys fo them. for them. : Say hello fo them for me, 10 derived from DO through lexical derivattot Certain verbs may be transformed Into expressions with give and olher vorbs (pay, owe, elc.). The expres- sion is often more colloquial than the verb alone. ‘gave the door three kicks. (! kicked the door thrae times. ) ‘paid her a visit: (I visited her.) Vowe you a treat, (I ough! to treat you.) + "an apology. (I ought to apologize.) an excuse an explanation, Also: give @ smile, a spanking, an order, a shoul, ar explanallon, an excuse, as chance, etc, CONSTRUCTIONS SIMILAR TO V +104 DO DERIVED FROM V4.0 + Agjuncts: .play youa gaine ol chess, "Ul pliy a game of chess with you. She asked Jina favour. She asked a favour of Jin ‘THE PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION WITH IO AS SUBJECT When bitransilive verbs are used in the Passive, they fall nto threa classes: a) The 10 must be used as the S of the passive, b) Either O may be used as the S of the passive. . ©) The DO must be used as the $ of the passive, In classes a) and ¢) there are a fow verbs that do not always fcllow the rule, but hese exceptions are not impor- tant. In class b) the 10 of the active voice Is usually preferred as the S ol the passive since i gives a smoother structure. a) 10 becomes the S: ‘The most important verbs belonging to this class are: tell, ask, allow, change, envy. Tmust be told the truth. You were asked a question. He's been allowed three of them. We'll be changed a pound. You're envied your good taste. b) Elther O may become the S: {In the case of verbs that admil elther © of the aclive voice as § o! the Passive, certain preferences are ‘observable. Al times the choice is determined by semantic factors. ‘With the following varbs the 10 Is olten preferred as Subject: show, pay, deal, hand, leach, sell, give, leave, lend, olfer loass DOas$ He was paid enough, Enough was paid to him. You shail be given more. More staal be given to youd She's been handed her ticket. Her ticket has been handed to her. I may be felt a fortune. ‘fortune may be left to me They'te boing olfered help, Help is being offered to them. . With the following verbs the DO is oflen preferred: owe, gel, read, send, find, do, buy, save, bring, recommend. boas s loass A ol is owed to ther. They're owed a lol One is being bought for us. We're being bought one. ‘Some supper has been saved for you. You've been saved trom trouble. Anite shall be sent to her, ‘She shail be sent a not. A job has been found for him, He's been found a Job. ¢) Direct Object becomes the Subject When the DO of the aclive voice Is used as the S of the Passive the other person, or thing involved iriust bo Introduced by to or for, The following are typical verbs with which this structure is used: build, describe, explain, gather, grow, Introduce, make, open, pass, post, prepare, say, sing, speak, spell, suggest, take, throw, weigh, wile. Your letter has been passed to us for act “AThe door was opaned for them by a servant. ‘The letter will bo wrillen to me, Notiving must be Said to them, A pound of tomato has been weighed for you, —that.word.has.been spellfor-you-alieady.— ‘You plan had baen suggested lo the manager. “The man has already been described to me. ‘The papers will have been posted Io you by now. ‘The parcet must have been taken to your aunt, The difficulties are being explained to your sister, ‘Some grapes are being gathored for you. Was the soup being made for you mother? NOTE: Your cousin should have been introduced to the others, ‘The others should have been inlreduced fo your cousin. PROBLEMS: Ha envies you your lovely garden They charged us a pound. Lwish he government ali possible success, (I wish the gov, will have all the possible success) They meant us no harm. allowed hin three. (I allowed him to have three} ‘The dolay caused us a good deal of trouble. (gave) ‘THE SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT OR PREDICATIVE 4) Stative verbs: Be web fou tetion’ 2 Sarat A 8) The verb to be Is always followed by something. is.2 ebpuialivpor linking vero, It's algo called an Intranst- lve verb of Incomplete Predication, Whal follows the verb to be (and others) s the Subjective Complemont or Prodicative. The Subjective Commplament predicates something about the subject an essence: ‘Sugar is sweet. an accident John Is perplexed. - a place: He is inthe room. a class ol objects: This fs a book. Identification: That Is vohn, o> addectwg CATEGORIES THAT. AN FUNCTION AS SC 2 pardrapie, h ral Phos 1) An adjeatve: > freposihae! Phrase Iwas dark > 004 OF Proroun She every prot p ‘Thal lady is very old. PD 90a Cau ‘This exercise is not so dificult. 2) Aparticlpte: ‘ Thal is interesting Ro ofoibre The tilm was fascinating. Your fcket i fom 3) A prepositional phrase: itis near London. (ebt) dp ts Prepestkon He is af home. IUs in the box, ‘ha eters from my brother, ~ It must be for somebody alse Ho must bo with the others4) Anoun or pronoun: “This Is a book. His father is a lawyer. What is thar? That's bin. It might have been her. Ws mine. 5) Agerund: That Is cheating. That is fooling yourself. 2 That is asking for iroisble. ‘That is getting out of the trying-pan into the fire. G)Anounciause: (aubatdioak, Chee) ‘Thal is what f want. That is how | care here. That is what | oe ts This ie where I stayed Istis hal you are fooking (0°? Fno troubie fe thar we are short of money. The problem ts that wo have no time. 7) An adverb: He is right here. He is vory well “That's foo much. He's out, He isnt in, Ws quite early. 8) An Intinttive: To see her is 10 fove tier. 1} look, sound, taste, smelt, feel Hooks nice! He looks tired. ‘The car looks now. He looks like his father. N sounds nice. ‘You sound funny. She sounds French. ‘What you sald doesn't sound right, Ittasted just right ‘The milk tastes sour. ‘These roses smell wonderful This one smells best. ‘The soup smells good. Iucels rather like artiticial silk IWleels smooth. ‘The saucepan teels hot. Discuss: Il reads clear. reQlace For ath©) appear, seem She semis hiendty, Tho rut seems fresh, 1 seers useless to go on, The bridge appears to be safe. — He seams-very-clever: 9) Ile, stand, rest, remain, keep He lay quiet They are aif lying scattered on the floor. Please romain silent Rest assurech Hhope it will keep fine. Lets keep fogether. dohe ros 2) Dynamic Verbs orfiichoative Verbsito become, to come, 1 gel, 10 90, to ‘9F0W, fo fall;10 run, to turn, He became a kavyer, He became restioss. ‘The story came true. : : Your dreamis may come Inve. Ws getting fare Ho is gelling better. He Is going mad, He grew old. He felt i They are running wild, He tumed traitor. Discuss: The clothes washed clean, i ! “THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT [Sus foe. srvefure ER ONT Dlaerteatr cad licative Is a surtace structure function. This function Is not described as ‘such in Jespersan (Chix) but itis in olher ‘books on Grammar: Without ‘questioning the validily of this description (and assuming for the moment that its OK) we will use It here mainly for practical purposes: as the trame of felerence for a varlaty of structures in English that the sludents must be able to handle in thelr language course. Laler on these strictures shoutd be analyzed more deeply and more critically. The OC is implicit in many pattern tables In Hornby and explicit in such books as Nelson Francis, Miltins, Nesfleld, etc, fo edte drve ' CATEGORIES THAT FUNCTION AS OC ES fhe infractare 4 PorseiPle 9) Veurdfe cena] == sty the box is/was PHY! A {repos hor hose Herikes tis coltde strong J want everything ready by seven o'clock. He wished himselt dead, & Ocun 1) An adjective: b) Can you push the door open? The cal eked he saucer clean A dgsvnd The cold-weather is turning the leaves ysliow. That's what made him so angry. A coun claose, Can't you maka ta litle longer? The barber cut my hair too short. | painted the door green2) An Intinttive 8) Ful infinitive: _ + I don't want anyone to know. Will you holp me to carry this box upstairs? We can't allow them to do that. We should prefer them fo come next week. The rain caused the woeds 1o'grow fast, They lead me to believe that thera was no danger. Most people supposed him (to be) innocent. They proved him (10 be) wrong. We believe it to have been a mistake. They knew the man to have been a spy. b) Bare infinitive: Watcit that boy jumpt Did you see hitn go out? We felt he house shake. They made me do it Let me go. Shall | help you cary the box upstairs? Thave never known him behave so badly before. You woulds't have me do that, would you? Would you have the government control our lives? i, She likes fo have the house /cok clean and tidy. 4) A participle: a) Present participie: | saw the thiet running away. | heard bim giving orders ‘Can you sniell something burning? He listened to the band playing in the park. | found him working at the desk. Don't let me catch you doing that again, Weil soon get things going. Keep the ball roling, We cant rave them wasting their time in this way. He soon fad them ali laughing. Ml have you all speaking fluent English within a year. b) Past Parliciple: He couldn't make his v I heard my name called, Have you ever seen a man hanged? 1 want this work finished quickly. heard, I must get iy hair eut We shail have the house painted, She has had her handbag stolen, King Charles | had his head out off4) A Prepositional Phrase: We leff er in tears. This plol filled us all with terror The governor sei the prisonéis af liberty. ‘SYA NOU “Thoy nracie Newton President of the Royal Society. We appointed him manager. They have named the baby Richard, but they calf it Dick, They found the place # prosperous vilage and felt it a ru. 6) AGerund: "cai! that cheating. | consider that fying. Do you' call getting fal looking wel? « 7) ANoun Claus: He hasimade the company what itis loday. Callit vehat you wil, We have made him what he is. ‘These exarnples iltustrale the structure S # TVIP + OC +0, The OC Is placed belore the DO. because this Is vary long, ‘The trug followers of the classical and scholastic grammarlans aré nol those who seek fo preserve intact the whole framework of classical grammar, ‘The lavention of printing in the late 45th cenlury made possible the wide and rapld dietribullon of accurate texts. Indian grammar studies seem to have had their origin in the nacessly of preserving Intact, not only the text, but also the pronunciation of the Vedic hymns, the precise and accurate recitation of which Is held lo be essential to thelr eltcacy In Hindu ritual ‘The development in scientilic knowledge /1as made accessible many valuable minerals trom depths below the earth's surtace that could not be reached by early generations. Idioms: Make sure that the doors are lacked before you go to bed. Make certain he is in at 7. NOTES: . ‘WA senlence having S + V + DO + OC is often equivalent (o a senlense with a that-clause as'DO: | imagined her (to be) beaulitl : I imagined that she was beautiut, 4 This equivalence shows thal the object (her) and the complement (lo be beautitul) are in the game relation to one another as the subject (she) and the complement (beaulilu)) of a sentence having § + V + DG, the DO being a that-cleuse. So, the relation between the DO and the OC is that of & (be) SC or S-V. E.g, | saw the thief running away, I saw the thiet The thief was running away,2).In some cases the OC expresses result. . Can you pustt the door open? the governor set the prisoners frea, Open your mouth wide. 3) The OC refers to the O. The SC relots to the §, The OC He was appointed manager. These things must be kept cool and diy, He was heard giving orders. the passive becomes a SC: 4) Discuss: 4 He regards me as a good friend. ook upon him as a good friend, ‘They engaged Nebacca as governess. We can employ you as a clerk. i They chose Mr Brown as chairman, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN S +V 410 +00 AND S+V+D040C S+V+10+D0 Wo may state the identitying criteria of the 10 as follows: 1) With active verbs it occurs only in company with the direct object. 2) It always comes belore the DO or Il may be changed to a prepositional phrase without major change In the {otal meaning of the structure: 3) ils relerent Is different from that of the DO. 4) When the sentence Is lumed into the passive voice, either object may be made subject. S4+V4D040C We may state the Identilying criteria of the OC as follow: 1) With active verbs, occurs only In company with a DO. 2) IL follows the DO (unless the DO Is very long) 3) Is structural raterent Is the same as thal of the DO (though ll may not belong to the same substitute class) 4) When the sentence fs turned Into the passive voice, only the OO may be made subject VERBS THAT MAY BE USED AS TRANSITIVE VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION 1) Verbs of “calling and naming" : : appoint, baptize, call, choose, christen, crown, designaté, dub (snicknama), elect, name, nickname, nom. nate. 2) Verbs that take an adjoctive which expresses result as OC: Push, ting, break, kick, sel, hammer, beat, tur, bol, dive, make, sil, keep, open, pack, raise, shoul, paint sleep. : We hammered (bea it lal, He slept himseit sober. 3} Verbs that express feelings or emotional states und volition: tke, want, wish, preter, love, expect, hate, 4) Verbs like: advise, encourage, enveal, implore, Instruct, persuade, pross (surge), request, tempt, warn, allow, permit, et cause, command, compel, force, lead («cause), oblige, ordar, make. challenge, dare. help : mean, intend rouble5) Verbs that express mental states or perception: . 7 know, believe, consider, tind, imagine, think, suppose, quess, judge, regard. 6) Causative nave and get. ~~ 7) Verbs of perception and attention: See, look al, watch, notice, hear, listen to, smell eel, observe, perceive. 0) ind, teave, catch, get, keep, set, stan. —» [QUASI-PREDICATIVES: | > cogent Threcite verb racoullek Predicstion cin sentences having the structure S + IVIP + SC, the predicative of complemant forms an essential part ol the sentence. The var has lille or no meaning. tis alinking verb, There ts another type of sentence in which the predicative forms an essential part of the sentence too, but verb has its ordinary lull force, I'is nota inking verb. Very often the verb may be replaced by be wilh a previon, live: Here, Jespersen says, we may speak of quast-predicalives Examples: We patied the best of friends. 2Advesve Clane af time ‘They were born poor, lived poor and poor they died. s He passed unnoticed, ‘The snow was falling pretty thick. ‘The man stood up dazed. ‘One of the horses broke loose. “These sentendes may be analyzed as derived trom afnain clause and an adverbial clausdot ime or reason: we sobstr}ote —H) we partod|ine best of trends. “the, quas: ) We Were THe best of friends whan we parted. ¢' 3) The lire has burnt very low. a [Bhan Be PaFEL | 4) tho tots very ow because thes bum, BdverWal clause OF Peassn ‘The main verb in (1) (surface structure: parted) is the verb in the subardinale clause th (2) (deep structure). NOTE: There are a few idiomatic expressions which have the same structure discussed above, but the verb has lost much of its original meaning: The nalives go naked all he year round. She stood godmother to his chit. She wished she had slood firm, He stood about 6 feet high. John will act best man tor me, Some verbs are made up of a verb ahd an adverbial particle, a verb and a preposition, or a verb, an advorbial patticle and a preposition. We can distinguish tour possible types: 4) Intransitive phrasal verbs. 2} Tancive phrasal voibs PV EP ob —m MA Cot (oued or Hecoupul! “3) Prepositional verbs. Parrean 4) Phrasal pepositonslvetissore wath rato Parties PES, Che advobrel , the Other prefosi 7 1) INTRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS:Oxowesitwe Mosr. feess These are combinations of varb + adverbial paticle. Some of thet aro jdiomalc, others are not Batore you can ride a bicycte you.have to get-on (on the bicycle) In business most people want fo gel on (suicceod), We break up next Wednesday, She broke down when sho hoard tho news, I give int ‘The engine gave out The bomb blew up. led). wets? 2,01 course, also the famous story ofa forelgnerin he (rain who was told to look out Instead of Se ie Joak Out was 2 phrasal verb mieaning take care, he took as eral combloaio cc sea out and put his head further oul ofthe window with disastrous gonsequencos, 2) TRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS: Put back the clocks. They pul down the robellion. He'll have to calf off the meeting, Take off your coats, aero oe Bartle is usualy movable: Take your coats off, Gut with some combinations the adver’ occurs only aller the object He ordered the men about He saw the children across. Ho kept his subjects under. He drove the car past, 9) PREPOSITIONAL VERB: He looked alterhis old tather. I'm looking for my giasses, Ididn't take to hitn. ‘She went for him In a big way. Not all of these have passives: his aged father was looked after. My glasses are being looked for. “He wasn't taken to *He was gone forin a big way. sre ae stot Passive transformation does nol then help to establish what Isa preposilonal verb as opposed 0 a vor + prepositional phase. (eee there are some verbs + prepositional phrases Wat nevertheless have passives, for instance sleep in, siton She slept in the bed. ‘The bed was stept in. They sal on the chair ‘The chair has been sat on 4) PHRASAL PREPOSITIONAL VERB: phrasal prepositional verb is one with two paces, one adveiblal, the ether prepost { can't put up with that wornan, He did away wih bis wile, We are looking forward fo your party on Saturday. Why don't you fool ia on brs Johnson on your way back? He thinks Re can ger away with he murdet,ee Phrasal prepositional verbs have passives: This woman carinot be put up with, The Wile was done away with by her husband, Hore are inq:e examples.ot prepositional verbs; fe add to (the bit) allow for (dalays) apply for {a post) approve ol (an action) attend to (the matter) care for (somebody) ‘comment on (the results) care lor (somebody) comment on (the resus) contorm to (a standatd) part with (something) resort lo (violerice) condratylate (sb) on (his exam) onisent to {lie proposal) eure (sb) of (a disease) enlarge on (a topic) hint at (other poset -lnsiat én (corning) live on (a smali salary) object to (something) run for (president) take to (drink) toler to (a dictionary) Hete are more examples of phrasal prepositional verbs: break in on (sb’s conversation) cateti up of (my reading) catch up with (somebody) check up on (investigate) come down with (a cold) dome up with (jhe klea) cut down on (expenses) do away will (prejudices) face up to (the problems) get away with (=without being punished) walk aut on (=abandon) get down to (serious talk) keep away trom (sb's company) Keep up with (Ihe Joneses) look down on (sb) ook forward to (sth) ook out for (wel leaves) look up to (sb) ut up wilh (sb’s behavlon Tun away with (sbecome uncontrolable) sland up for (one’s Ideals) turn oul for (a meeting) MIDDLE VERBS Middle verbs are transitive verbs thal cannot be lurned into the Passive Voice: fo resemble, to have, to fit, to sui John resembles his father. to marry, to lack, to hold He has a green car, Cf. Everybody had a good lime, What would you like fo have (eal)? That dress fits (suils) you very well. Cf. The tailor fits you. He lacks confidence. ‘The auditorium holds 5,000 people. ‘That dress becomes you. IN STATEMENTS: the normal word-order k 1am swimming, 1 am veritng to her. Jam vatiting her a letter. Miread you a passage. WORD ORDER Is: S + V + (10) + (D0):IN QUESTIONS: the normal word-order is :v 4S + V 4 (10) + (DO) whore v stands for an auxiliary or anoma: Tous finite id Jolin seo Hi Can you came? Are you going? Exception: The verb to be: V- S How old is he? Ishe here? Are you tired? ny? NOTE (1): low old he Is! is not a question and has the word-order of statements. NOTE (2): To have is another exception if used without any auxiliaries. Had the man any money? Bul the tendency Is to use have in the same way as the other verbs: Did the man have any money? Had the man got any money? Discuss: Why don't you he honest and tell me what itis? (Noel Coward) (Wendering why the man is not obeying our order). : “Why does he be here? *% “He bes a lawyer. INVERSION OF ORDER A) In statements: v-S-V 4) Introduced by a negative expression: ‘Nover shall | talk to him againt Néver again shall Lak to him! He knew nothing about it. Nor did his wife! By no means shall | accept these conditions, Neither has he come nor has he phoned. Very seldom does he visit me these days. Not a word did he say in her tavour. Little and only are oiten treated as negatives: Littie did we think at the moment thal we were never to see him again. Only on one occasion did he speak lo me of his mother. No efforis did he spare. Little did we know that we would never see him again. Only in England can you see double-decker buses, Only by studying hard will your English improve. Only if you lake a taxiwill you gel there in time. 2) With so meaning also: ‘You must go to bed now: So} must, and so must you. He loved his mother dearly. So did his brother. 3) So + adjective / adverb So good was the film thal we saw it Wwice. ‘So hard did she work that she had a nervous breakdown. 4) In clauses of condition when If Is oinitied: : Should he come, tell him to wail, Had she seen hit, she woulet have told him.8) In statements: VS 4) With the verb to say and others after a quotation: reply, answer, exclaim, Idon't know, saic he, tuon throw, was his answer No, said ho.’ wort do i This is not typical of conversation, but it does occur in flerary English. 2) In wishes (lixed formulas): Long live the King, 3) Wilh an adverb at the beginning of the sentence (usu. place) Bang caine another shot Out pushed the man. Down wont the Queen Elizabeth, Hore comes Jol, There goos the last glass, There is my brother Atmong the guests were the Prime Minlster and his children. (Cl. Among the guests, the Prime Minister and children were partleulatly neticed). 4) With ihe afiicipatory word there: There were lwo books on the table. There came a time when he did repent. C) Inversion of Indlrect and Direct Object: DO + 10 10: For examples see page 19, 1D) Inverston of DO and verb: Sometimes or the sake or emphasis of contrast the DO is placed al the beginning of the sentence: This fesson | haven't studied. Time Viave, money | have not. £) Between OC and DO For examples see page 21CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES >}, 1) By Function or Meaning > Bj Statements (allirmative or negative): ‘A mai’s success depends chietly on himselt He did not get much help from others. ‘a) Simple: those which have only one finite verb (expressed or understood): > Rain falls. warts Twantto go. linking ¢B) Compound’; those in which the constituent clauses are grémmatically@-ordinale, no one being dependen> ‘on the others, but all being, astayere, added together in sequence: (Lyons, 178} I saw him yesterdaand) shall be seeing him again tomorrow. €¢) Compiex':those in which one of the clauses (the main principal, independent, primary or free clause) is. moditled by one or more subordinate clauses grammatically dependent upon it and generally introduced by a subordinaling conjunction: Covsumenony < Swe, WD-RoT-az ‘see him, | will invite him to my house. ¥ CeuPosnm 1S. AS- ‘¢d) Coinpound-complex’: Comcutws: Bort 7 He came yesterday ,jand] as you were not in. dhe lett this benkclor-you., Senter. OR Ee (!) These sentences are made up of a number o simplo’sentences, which when Incorporated as constiiuents © larger sentences are, by vidtue of this fact, called clausas. (Lyons, 170) CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES / Clauses are classitied into Main (principal, independent, (ree, primary, rhalrix) clauses and Subordinate 7 (dependent, bound, secondary, embedded, Included, constituent) Maln clauses are of the same rank and may be coordinated to each othér. They make up structures ol co- ordination: | don't know and I couldn't care less. ‘Subordinate clauses are altached to a main clause and they are subdivided into: +}1} Noun clauses (or primary, content, oF notninal clauses); 2} Relative clauses (or secon '3) Advorbial clauses (or lerliary oF adverb clauses}. y, adjective, or adjectival); (Qvoun clauses = cantons words UH) Forbes nans 2¥ odv ne wh or Eth ee Hert. FUNCTIONS OF THE NOUN CLAUSE _ 1 Subject: Usually introduged by It is certain that he will win, eee Steere owe Jpord: eC Conon aac tit Thatgia\s deadfgeems folerably certals\u"™ Con, fos eS TAM sais Foto. Neo-aryor’ “7 Qolince fears sont he went theres not known a here he went is not known. 4 70 ete Wny he went there Is ol krown ‘hea Eade (lew of sore) How for he wens nol Kron (ponchos) noa8 How many he bougitt is not known. 2) Direct Object 1 t Comedy: that re Totten i Sorcinede fardray direst ble Comec ange that he should come this'atternodi consider lt quile ikely that he might come today. [regard it quite fair that he should help us. jin tithe don't know what he said. (whon, where, why, which, etc)', ‘Verbs thal can take a noun clause as DO: admit feel \ answer find out ask lorget hetieve remember be sure think confirm hear decide Imagine " dectare infonn demonstrate know discover read explain remind (1) NOTE: Noun clauses may be indirect questliins: He wanted to know i! she was giad. wonder what he said. She asked me who the man was. 3) Indirect Object reveal say suppose suggest suspect tell os understand warn wonder wile Tell (vhoever is knocking at the dogilo stop doing i so eee ig Se dwrect obiect 4) Object to a preposit ye 4 Ndepends onfhow fr he tad gona} “Pe ~subordehote 5) Subjective Complement! Comectve a) ‘he worst iYthat he never answers our eters} The dicully is thal wa have no tne. ‘The suggestion was that we shiould go there ourselves. Enron close. ASteewe 5 adiuutval. phOSe > SUelechwe couPlemerT 2 Norn», Oo Prase 5 Alor Patery svblecr Sel 1 - 29b) Wi seems that he is not coming. Wturned out thal he was not guilty, : ©) He is what he always wanted fo be, He became wital he was expected to bo. ) This Is what J wanted. Thal is what she sale Ina) the noun clause is the DO to the verb from which the noun (functioning as S} Is derived. (Exceptions: Idea, thing, fac, principle, notion, news.) NOTE: Compare: What she said is a mystory. What she said is tho uaneeDt 5) Objectiye-Compieme They made hinthChay he is. Verbs: make, call, nait®-Blect, apeint, 7) In apposition to.a-noun:y cane The weal fe was going fo.kill the migrate, The sugdestfon that we should work harBer was good. (Cf. The suggestion that he put forward al the meeting was good) Nouns that lake noun clauses in apposition to thet alienation explanation request assumption fact fumour beliet feeling suggestion claim hint supposition, decision hope suspicion demand idea thought denial knowledge threat proposal news warning desire notion wish dream premise expectation principle ca 8) Alter an adjective: “Tam happyfthat you could come, Vant atare Mahe has dono i, There araour types)ot noun clauses: 1) that-claises 2) ltwhether clauses 3) wh-interrogative clauses an a} womnal eave clauses (abo 00° 25) 41) THAT-CLAUSES _———~, Semantically: they are generally used lo (eport statements? they embody the propositional content proper. They occur with “factuat” expressions ol the type: think, Idea, sure, etc. aN. Rattrammnalteally: they are introduced by the sivoreinating conjunction that, called a pure cor junction because It has no meaning and Ho other lunction than to inlroduce the clause. } That cart generally be omilled except in the following cases: 4) wh suse is placed licst:(FhayAine is money ts.tcye — —SyAitora noun Tike beket, convietish-ote: My suggestiogthai le was jnad turned out to bo wo 2) glen preparatoryfanicipatory iis placed rt his ot rTaGreltog thal ho should have comes lust nove Suber fo €ktA Posttan 4) inthe second ot wo coordinate ciaubos espe Maggie, angiial)ehe would ook at hi pete thar FS OMY FUNCTIONS ly ithe first clause Is iong: He only wished, he dared look at Subject That he is dead seams tolerably certain. "epeis lolerably certain dat he Is dead. (preterrad by the principle of end-weight) Direct Object: believe! that he is deai Hind strange that he Should come this afternoon, ‘consider it quite likely that he might come today. "regard it quite fair that he should help us. NOTE: Verbs that can take a noun clause as DO: admit feel say answer find out 500 ask forget suggest be sure hear suppose believe imagine suspect confirm Inform, tell decide know think declare read understand demonstrate remember warn discover remind wonder explain reveal " write,ete, to: — op: — Oblecr to PrePaeikon Subjectiva Complement: The worst thing Is that he never answers my letters, The ditficuly is that we have no time. , The suggestion was that we should go there ourseives. NOTE: In these cases the noun clauses is said {6 be the nollonal DO 10 the verb from which the abstract noun in {he subject is derived (suggestion). Sotne other times there is no epparent veib associated with the noun: such 's the case of: Idea, fact, think, principle, notion, news DdRAYE Coup fe wart Apposition to a now The ideattha)ne was going to kil the mapset me, ‘The suggbstion that we should work harder was GOO. oe: Set -31NOTE: The nouns occurring In this type of construction are de-vérbal astract nouns, which are naturally related {o verbs. Sometimes, as we saw above, there Is no apparont verb associaled. Anyway, the noun clause ls sald to bo the notional DO to the verb associated, ‘The following is a list of nouns that occur wilh: noun clauses in apposition to them: attienation feeting request ‘ assumption hope tumour . beliel hint suggestion decision idea supposition demand knowledge suspicion dental news 4 thing desire notion thought dream premise warning expectation principto wish explanation Proposal tact Adjective compleinent: I'm happy that you could come, Im aware that he's done it. : Iwas sure that I had seen her, NOTE: Grammatically these adjectives must be followed by this ot jatory complement. The reason for this is thal the adjective embodies the modal ‘#loment; so the noun clause constitutes the proposition, semantically, 3) WH-INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES Semantically: they are generally used to report wh-questions: they embody the propositional content proper To cea omg” meeonsan ig ow cer nesin a ‘The lexical content of the wh-word is unknown. ol > reel Fee Te ee occtee inlere gure wh exe Grammatically: They are introduced by wh-interrogalive pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which can never be ‘omitted and which hava a function within the clause they Introduce. e The wh-word translates as qué, como, cuando, dénde, ele FUNCTIONS What she did is a mystery, When he went there is not known. Which book he wanted to buy is unknown. How the books wil! sell depends on thelr authors. Direct Object: don't know what he said, Jcan't imagine what made him do it Indirect Object: — op: Iwas consulted on who should have the prize. Itdepends on how far he has gone. 32-Sot1Subjective Complement: “The prodlein is haw to contact his, (See comments on thal-clauses as SC} oc: eee Appositon to a noun: My original question, why he did ital all, was never answered, Adjective complement: twasn' certain whose house I was in, {See comments on that-clauses as adjective complemen) 4) NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES Semantically: they are not used to report any type of sentence, alirmalive of intorrogalive: they are used to teler lo events or tacts already In the mind of the listener The lexical conlent of the word that inlroduces them is known to both speaker and listener. Thetelore, they do ‘nol occur wil “reporting” expressions of any kit Grammatically: théy are introduced by nominal relative pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which dan never bo milled. and which have a function within the clause they intreduce. They cannot anticipated by It The nominal relative, word translates as what: lo que, who: la persona que, quien qulera; etc. The nominal relative word appears to have a NP plus a relalive pronoun incorporated inte iis semantic structure. Hence the name nominal relative. (See the comparison between nominal relative and relative clauses). FUNCTIONS Subject: What she didis wrong. What she said true. Wirat he is looking foris a wite. 7 bo: i Do what you can tor tomorrow. {ke what you like want to see whoever deals with complaints. to: He gave whoever came to see him a winning smile. oF: ‘You should vote for whichever candidate you think best. sc: Home is witore your family is. oc: I've made her what she is today. You can call me what(ever) you lke Apposition toa nour Give me your college address, where you lve in term time, Set 1-33Contrasting Wh-Intorrogative end Nominal Relative Clauses Consider the following two sentences: 4, What she did is a mystory. 2. What she did Is wrong. {In order to tell ona typo of clausa {rom the otter we havo to look al the predicate. Somantically, Is an implied question. A clue to that ls the word “mystery*, Is deep structure being something tke: "T dont know whal sho did’, and probably, I would like to know", Sentence (2) offers a completely different deep structure: “| know what she did and I think Il Is wrong”. Its precisely bacause “I know" that | say It“Is wrong”, ‘Quirk et al consider this lalter type'of clause much closer to noun phrase status than othor types of noun clause. It can normally be paraphrased by a noun phrase contalning a post-modilying relalive clause: ntence (1) Whoevar breaks this taw deserves aline: Anyone ywhio breaks this taw deserves a Head Post modilying:ral It alve you however much fobacco you nocd: 11 olva you any amount of tobacco (ihal) you need. This type of clause, like noun phrasos in general, can ba both concrete and abstract, whereas other types of noun clauses can only be abstract. Nominat relative clauses comprise a syntactic device to give prominence (emphasis) to a particular element In tha sentence: they are callad "pseudo cleft sontences”: You need a good rest. —> What you need Is a good rest. ‘Summing up: ‘To tell wh-inlerrogalive clauses from nominal relative clausos we have to look at the role thay full in the sentence: It there Is an Simplied question then the clause Involved will be wh-Interrogative: In the predicate there willbe a reporting exprassion of some sort and the content of wh-word will be unknown to speaker and lislenar and will take a stress; I there ig no Imptied question, no reporting expression of any kind and the lexical content of the nominal relative Is known because it can be traced back to previous sentences in the lext, and it Is not stressed, NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES FUNCTIONS Subject: What he is looking (ors a wile, Direct Object: Iwant to sae whoever deals with complaints. Indirect Object: He gave whoever came to the door a winning smile Objact to the Proposition: We should vote for which (aver) candidata we think best Subjective Complement: Home is where your friends and family aro, AL eatNOUN CLAUSES: TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS Fonations THAT.NOUN CLAUSES Fin aaa ie 2, jen has no oiher function fo intvoduce the clause: & hi fmeaning ether (pure = 7, ‘conjunciion). can be omiied in? fsuboreinating conjunction thst, Py Gaanera (see page’ othe fe ie they occur wil pressions of idea, sure, etc. /epon stsiements, tnerelore factual \FAVHETHER .. OR HOT-NOUN CLAUSES {They are inttoduced by tho 7 ubardinating conjunctions it and J nether ..oF net, when have nO thes tuncign then i ettoduce ‘ina cause. They can never bo 5 They are Genesally used tof fisponyesino-avestons: ‘heretore they eccur wih 7 porting” eapressicns ct the ype" 85k, question, doubitu, ae Wits INTESROGATIVE NOUN CLAUSES areca ~~, cve porous. 7 facecives ind edeeoas Tey ca never be ome. ney aivays have {one nine dase toy Uirecus 2 They are used to reper Wwheauashons, thereat te excal Cxnient of ie interogaive Sinnoun thoy occur win “reporting” exprssons of te yee ge carain, aston 3s imerrogatws word rarclatos iio Spanish 35 qué, come, quien, ae NOWINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES SW Thay sre toes oF fs inahielative pronouns? eelecies sod aver. rhe ean never be omfteg they always have 2 funcien wit, > Clause they invoduce. 2. They af Rat used to r209r any Neo eso i intestogative is Ion hey dont ecu wih “reporing” expressions 812m kre a 2. The nominal lative word iranelates ito Soanian ta What ie que; whe iz persona gue: se hat ihe Rominalvelstive wore seems to have a NP 2 festive proncun ineorprated. the Is dead seems cxia Tis eeu whether hell, come or not Wihat she cidisa mysten. ‘hat he ea og eoasiet Ek he might come, Ast him he's going to come, Teen imacine what rade his doit, whet you can orfomorrow he gre whoever can is sie, Fr inttesed in whether youl do itor nat |2s insuted en whe sheule ielihe prize. ‘You sheulé vole fer whichever candidate you tink best, My suggestion was that he should do ‘ton his own. ‘The mystery was whether he hes ‘cempe or not Tho problemishow ta contsct Homes where your fms + nade er wht she toca 7 L that he had stolen te ‘money holed me was sure that thas seon het ‘The quesion whedher he has stolen the money er nal ups wast ean whether hae seenher or not Oe UY I FV VY III YY My erigil question, way di alo, was never answered, {wast cerzn whose housé I wes in. pea eter ote (Give ut elege aa, where ve erm.