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Roald Dahl: A psychosexual developmental trajectory study illustrated within

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DOI: 10.1080/14330237.2015.1101262

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 Journal of Psychology in Africa

ISSN: 1433-0237 (Print) 1815-5626 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rpia20

Roald Dahl: A psychosexual developmental

trajectory study illustrated within
psychobiography

Paul Fouché & Tania Holz

To cite this article: Paul Fouché & Tania Holz (2015) Roald Dahl: A psychosexual developmental
trajectory study illustrated within psychobiography, Journal of Psychology in Africa, 25:5,
403-413

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 Journal of Psychology in Africa, 2015
Vol. 25, No. 5, 403–413, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2015.1101262
© 2015 Africa Scholarship Development Enterprize

Roald Dahl: A psychosexual developmental trajectory study illustrated within psychobiography

Paul Fouché* and Tania Holz

Department of Psychology, Faculty of the Humanities, University of the Free Sate, Bloemfontein, South Africa
*Corresponding author email: fouchejp@ufs.ac.za

This study applies analytical psychobiography, particularly Freud’s psychoanalytic apporoach, to the study of the
psychosexual development of Roald Dahl (1916–1990), a renowned children’s author, gentleman spy, connoisseur, and
philanthropist of his time. Data sources for the analysis included primary and secondary sources, and only publically
available and published materials on his life. Alexander’s (1988, 1990) psychobiographical guidelines for saliency were
used to identify and extract significant biographical themes and units for analysis. The evidence suggests Dahl to present
with aggressive, indulgent and neurotic personality traits. He also used sublimation as coping mechanism to express
his anxiety and emotional pain through sport and writing. In conclusion, Dahl’s psychosexual development generally
conformed to the developmental trajectory and stages identified by Freud.
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Keywords: Roald Dahl, psychosexual development, trajectory study, psychobiography, life history case study

Historical overview of the life of Dahl
Dahl’s family were from Norwegian descent. His paternal
grandparents lived in a small town near Oslo, and formed
part of a lower-middle-class family (Sturrock, 2011). Dahl
was born to Harald and Sofie Dahl (his parents) in 1916 in
Cardiff, Wales (Dahl, 1984). He grew up without his father
who died when he was a toddler (Sturrock, 2011) and spent
a difficult school career as a boarder, but decided not to
undertake further studies on leaving school (Treglown,
1994). Instead, because he was looking for adventure, he
joined the multinational corporation Shell, which took
him to Africa. While working for them, the Second World
War broke out and he became a fighter pilot and informant
for the Royal Air Force (RAF). During the war he met
Matthew Smith, an important and famous 20th-century
British painter, and Charles Marsh, an entrepreneur and
newspaper magnate (Sturrock, 2011). These men acted
as surrogate fathers to him. Dahl became a businessman
and author during and after the war and subsequently met
Patricia Neal (called ‘Pat’ in the text) in 1952 (Neal, 1988),
an Oscar-winning actress. The two had a long marriage
filled with many children and a great deal of tragedy. He
and Pat divorced after many years of marriage. In 1983,
Dahl married Felicity Crosland (Sturrock, 2011) in his old
age (Dahl, 1984; Treglown, 1994). On 23 November 1990,
Dahl died after being diagnosed with a rare blood disorder
(Roald Dahl – The Official Website, 2013).
Dahl was a successful writer of adult stories, which
were known for their grotesque themes, and unexpected
twists in the plot (Sturrock, 2011). He was more renowned
for his children’s stories, amongst others, James and the
Giant Peach (Dahl, 1961) and Charlie and the Chocolate
Factory (Dahl, 1967), and has been hailed as one of the
most well-known writers of literature for children (Conant,
2008; Sturrock, 2011; Treglown, 1994). His stories, as
well as his discreet acts of generosity (Sturrock, 2011),
with a focus on the wellbeing of children, have captured
the interest of both past and present generations (Dahl,
1984; Treglown, 1994). Dahl admired kindness in others
(Dahl, 1997) and was acknowledged for his humanitarian
gestures, including spending time with, and donating
money to, the sick and disabled. As a result, The Roald
Dahl Foundation was established by his widow after his
death, and offers grants in three key areas associated with
his life: literacy, neurology and haematology (Dahl, 1997).
Synopsis of Freud’s psychosexual development theory
The unconscious conflicts highlighted in Freud’s theory
occur in five maturationally grounded psychosexual stages,
with a developmental trajectory through which pleasure
moves from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals,
as different zones dominate at different times. At each stage
the behaviour that is the primary source of gratification
(or frustration) changes from feeding to elimination, and
eventually to sexual activity (Papalia, Olds & Feldman,
2006; Watts et al., 2009). According to Freud (1920, 2005,
2009), infants receive sexual pleasure through various
“erogenous zones” as these become incited. They are
connected to physical experiences surrounding survival
which create a build-up of tension. Subsequently, relief
and pleasure following the build-up of tension come about
through the infant’s daily routine. In addition, challenges
of socialisation surround each zone because at each stage
of development the infant must accomplish an adaptive
activity that will contribute to maturation. This adaptive
activity ultimately creates a foundation for the developing
personality. According to Freud’s theory, the first three
stages of development (i.e., oral, anal and phallic) are
crucial for personality development. Freud suggested that
if children get too little or too much pleasure at any of
these three stages of development they are placed at risk
of fixation. This means that an obstruction in development
will occur that can later manifest itself in the adult
personality (Papalia et al., 2006; Watts et al., 2009). The
psychosexual development theory is further elaborated on
in this article’s section on research findings and discussion,
so as to limit duplication of theoretical discussion.

The Journal of Psychology in Africa is co-published by NISC (Pty) Ltd and Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group
 404 Fouché & Holz
Research aim
The aim was to formulate a psychobiographical
understanding of the life of Dahl. More specifically, the
aim was to explore and describe Dahl’s psychosexual
developmental trajectory, which was uncovered and
illustrated via Freud’s (1920, 1955, 1965, 2005, 2009)
psychosexual theory of development, which is useful in a
stage-state analysis (Runyan, 1982).
Method
The research design
The research design represents a single-case
psychobiographical study over an entire lifespan (Fouché,
1999). Such case studies can be seen as being both
exploratory-descriptive and descriptive-dialogic in nature
(Edwards, 1990; Yin, 2009). This qualitative-morphogenic
(Elms, 1994) approach assists in extracting individualised
patterning processes in personality and focuses on the
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individuality of the person (Elms, 1994; Runyan, 1988a)
within the idiographic approach (Elms, 1994; Hurlburt &
Knapp, 2006; Runyan, 1983; Wallace, 1989).
Research subject and sampling procedure
Psychobiography mostly focuses on deceased public
figures who had a lasting impact on society (Ponterotto,
2014a). When choosing a psychobiographical subject,
the psychobiographer must view the subject as having
both human worth and possibly being disliked (Elms,
1994). Dahl’s exceptional life added to the controversy
that surrounded him. He was at times both despised
and admired, and viewed as both cruel and generous
(Neal, 1988; Treglown, 1994). Dahl was selected by the
researchers based on interest in him as an extraordinary
and at times controversial personality. The researchers
undertook a literature review of Dahl by means of
NEXUS, PsycLIT, EBSCOhost and Social Sciences
and Citation Index through the library services of the
Uuniversity of the Free State (UFS). The review indicated
that no psychobiography had been carried out on Dahl, and
that the biographies that have been written on him did not
follow a psychological approach. The researchers used a
non-probability purposive sampling procedure, in which
the subject under study could be viewed as a rare or unique
case (Smith, 2008).
Data collection procedures
Data in psychobiographical studies include documents
that generate a biographical outline of the subject within
a psychological and socio-historical context (McLeod,
1994; Runyan, 1982, 1988b). Biographical data on the life
of Dahl included biographies, diaries and letters, as well as
stories. Examples of primary sources (Babbie & Mouton,
2001; Strydom & Delport, 2005) written by Dahl that were
used, included his autobiographies for a child audience,
namely Boy and going solo (Dahl, 1992), as well as
excerpts of letters written by him and recorded in Patricia
Neal’s autobiography As I am. An autobiography (1988),
which served as major secondary source. Various books
written by Dahl were also included for data collection (i.e.,
Dahl, 1943, 1946, 1953, 1961, 1967, 1974, 1979, 1982a,
1982b, 1982c, 1983a, 1983b, 1983c, 1984, 1986).
Data extraction and analysis procedures
Case study analysis should follow a systematic process
of examination, extraction and categorisation of data
evidence (Yin, 1994, 2009). Alexander’s (1988, 1990)
model was used in this psychobiography because it
provides guidelines for the systematic extraction of core
identifying units or themes of data. These guidelines assist
psychobiographers to organise, prioritise and analyse
biographical data via two analytical strategies. The first
method involves asking the data questions by which it can
be sorted (Alexander, 1988; Miles & Huberman, 1994).
This method emphasises the extraction of “core identifying
units”, “themes” or “schemas” through asking questions
related to the study’s objective (Alexander, 1988). The
researchers asked the data two general questions:
• Question 1: “Which areas of the data, as conceptualised
in this study, should be used to assist in uncovering
the psychosexual development of Dahl?” In answering
this question, Dahl’s personality development was
conceptualised by utilising Freud’s stages as a
trajectory of psychosexual development.
• Question 2: “How will the researchers create a
dialogue between the extracted biographical data on
Dahl and the propositions of the psychosexual theory
utilised in this psychobiography?” As a guideline
to answering question 2, the implementation of
analytical generalisation (Yin, 2009) was applied. The
researchers evaluated the applicability and relevance of
the propositions of the psychosexual theory of Freud
against the salient units of biographical information
extracted on Dahl.
The second method used in data extraction is “letting
the data reveal itself” (Alexander, 1988, p. 268). In the
process of extracting and collecting data, the central
concern is the extraction of the most meaningful units
of personality structure and development of the subject.
This is achieved by using the nine principle identifiers
of salience, which include: primacy, frequency,
uniqueness, negation, emphasis, error or distortion,
isolation, incompletion, and omission of information
(Alexander, 1988). Furthermore, a descriptive framework,
schematically presented in the format of a matrix, could be
complied to categorise and assit with the interpretation of
the salient findings (Fouché, 1999).
A conceptual framework and matrix
The researchers were cognizant of the importance of
studying Dahl’s life and development within the context of
his social, historical and cultural environment. Sensitivity
to the significance of the socio-cultural-historical context
of the subject has been emphasised by Ponterotto (2014)
as a strategy in the best practice of psychobiography.
Dahl’s psychosexual developmental trajectory was
therefore uncovered within the context of significant
historical and chronological periods across his lifespan.
The researchers developed a conceptual framework to
organise and integrate the biographical data in relation to
the psychosexual theory. A conceptual matrix (see Table1)
was drawn up to categorise the stages of Freud’s (1920,
2009) psychosexual theory of development as a trajectory
across the major historical periods of Dahl’s lifespan,
 Journal of Psychology in Africa 405

Table 1: Matrix of psychodynamic personality development across the historical lifespan of Roald Dahl

Psychosexual Personality Development

Periods in historical Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Further adult development as
development Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage influenced by, and inferred from,
(0–1) (1–3) (3–6) (6–12) (12–19) previous five psychosexual stages
Infancy: An infant of
Norwegian descent
(1916–1917)
Toddlerhood: A time of
family stability
(1917–1919)
Early Childhood:
A grieving boy
(1919–1922)

Middle childhood:
‘Boy’ (1922–1928)

Adolescence: The
relegated loner
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( 1928–1935)
Young adulthood: Fantasy,
flight and Patricia Neal
(1935–1956)
Middle adulthood: A
growing family, tragedy
and crises (1956–1981)
Late adulthood: Divorce,
marriage and advocate for
children (1981–1990)

and to place the evidence within the relevant categories
(Fouché, 1999). These periods and categories helped
to create a consistent and systematic way to collect data
which were used to categorise information on Dahl. In
Table 1 the vertical column represents the psychosexual
theory or stages of developmental of Freud whilst the
horizontal rows represent the major historical periods over
Dahl’s lifespan. Once the salient data of Dahl’s life were
uncovered they were recorded and conceptualised within
this descriptive systematic framework.
The historical periods set out in the matrix provided
the researchers with the opportunity to approach the data
in a chronological, systematic and consistent manner so
that relevant data could be evaluated within each period.
This timeline or chronology increased the reliability of the
process of data collection and analysis.
Ensuring trustworthiness
Validity and reliability within psychobiographical
research design are generally criticised (Fouché, 1999).
To enhance the trustworthiness (Krefting, 1991) of
this psychobiography the researchers ensured that the
following strategies were upheld:
1. Data triangulation and investigator triangulation (i.e.,
triangulation in data interpretation) were utilised
(Sokolovsky, 1996; Yin, 2009).
2. Biographical data on Dahl were extensively studied
over a lengthy period of time and in an in-depth
manner, and continuous consideration was given
to his socio-cultural circumstances within each
historical period. Ponterotto (2014b) sensitised
psychobiographers that psychobiography “is generally
a form of cross-cultural, trans-historical research” (p.
84).
3. The presentation and identification of well-defined
and explicit theoretical concepts and operational
measures, including Alexander’s guidelines for
saliency identification and a conceptual matrix, were
implemented. In Ponterotto’s (2014b) recent article
“Best practices in psychobiography”, this is referred
to as theoretical anchoring and specification. He
states, “The key to a strong theoretical anchoring in
psychobiography is in-depth and comprehensive
theoretical coverage of the historic subject” (p. 84).
4. Analytical generalisation (Yin, 2009), rather than
statistical generalisation was sought.
5. Reflexivity (Willig, 2001) and the bracketing of
one’s subjective stance (Ponterotto, 2014b) were
used to avoid distortion in the interpretations. In his
article “Pursuing excellence in qualitative inquiry”,
Gergen (2014) argued that “it is a mark of excellence
… if the researcher includes critical reflection on the
constructed character of his or her inquiry, and can
locate means of inviting the reader into reflective
dialogue on the practice of inquiry” (p. 55).
6. Mindfulness or awareness regarding the findings
as mere additions to other explanations that do not
replace them. Some explanations may always remain
speculative rather than conclusive. Ponterotto (2014b)
emphasised the importance of recognising alternative
and competing explanations related to the research
questions and the subject’s life understanding.
 406 Fouché & Holz
Ethical considerations
Within qualitative research, it is important to take into
account various unique ethical challenges which may result
from the researcher’s often deep, subjective and sustained
collaboration with research subjects in their personal
circumstances (Ponterotto, 2010). Ethical issues include
invasion of privacy and the potential embarrassment or
harm to the subject or to relatives and associates (Runyan,
1984). The identities of psychobiographical subjects are not
anonymous because one of the aims of a psychobiography
is to gain an in-depth understanding of the psychology of
the subject, who is often a significant person (Elms, 1994).
Elms suggested that psychobiography should treat the
intimate knowledge of the subject respectfully. As such,
psychobiographies conducted on a deceased person will
be acceptable if close relatives are not embarrassed by
revelations. Elms (1994) also recommended that dishonest
use of biographical data and speculation beyond the
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realm of available data should be avoided. In addition,
the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 1976) has
provided guidelines regarding ethics and psychobiography
(Elms, 1994; Runyan, 1982). A recent article by Ponterotto
(2013) addresses ethical issues related to the conduct and
reporting of psychobiographical research. Ponterotto uses
the psychobiographical study of Bobby Fischer (world
chess champion) to illustrate particular ethical challenges
faced by the psychobiographer.
Dahl is deceased and the potential unsavoury impact of
the research findings on his family was minimised because
the data collected on him were solely sourced from
published works that were freely accessible to the general
public. The researchers were thus sensitive to the ethics
involved in “never-before-revealed sensitive information”
(Ponterotto, 2014b). In addition, permission to undertake
this study was granted by the researchers’ institutional
research review board, called the Committee for Title
Registrations of the Faculty of the Humanities at the UFS,
Bloemfontein, South Africa.
Findings and discussion
The findings are organised in line with the conceptual
matrix (see Table 1), which includes the five stages
proposed by Freud (i.e., oral stage (birth to one year);
anal stage (one to three years); phallic stage (three to six
years); latency stage (six to 12 years); and the genital stage
(12 to 19 years). These stages correspond chronologically
with Dahl’s five identified historical periods of childhood
(including adolescence), namely: infancy: an infant of
Norwegian descent (1916–1917); toddlerhood: a time of
family stability (1917–1919); early childhood: a grieving
boy (1919–1922); middle childhood: “Boy” (1922–
1928); adolescence: the relegated loner (1928–1935). In
addition, the historical periods in Dahl’s adulthood were
also utilised as data source. These periods contained
significant biographical data related to Dahl’s adult
personality that were used to infer and analyse significant
previous psychosexual developmental processes. Within
each psychosexual stage, biographical illustrations from
Dahl’s childhood and his later adult life were thus used to
illustrate the outcome of his psychosexual development.
In the discussion of the findings to follow, each stage
is theoretically outlined before it is illustrated with the
biographical life history of Dahl.
The oral stage (birth to one year)
The formation of trust is encouraged during this stage,
when an infant is nurtured and supported (Meissner, 1985)
by an identification figure. Through this process, the infant
is taught to love and is prepared for development towards
becoming a capable adult. Freud (2005) proposed that
identification is in essence a significant type of attachment
to someone, quite likely the first attachment figure. The
behaviour of the infant’s parents plays a significant role
in determining whether the child will develop personality
problems later in life (Freud, 2005; Ryckman, 2008).
When the infant has experienced either excessive oral
gratification or deprivation at this stage, the resulting
libidinal fixation can lead to pathological traits (Meissner,
1985). Fixation at the oral stage means that the person will
continue to seek oral pleasure (Bertrand & Masling, 1969).
Smoking, drinking, and compulsive eating may result from
oral fixation (Bertrand & Masling, 1969, Ellis, Abrams &
Abrams, 2009), and food and other activities related to the
mouth therefore become a possible way of coping with
anxiety (Bornstein, 1993).
Illustration: Infancy: An infant of Norwegian descent
(1916–1917)
Biographical data related to Dahl’s first year of life
suggest that his parents were in a financial position to
adequately meet his infant needs. Harald, who provided
well for his family (Dahl, 1984; Treglown, 1994), and
Sofie, resolute, decisive, calm, maternal and level-headed
(Sturrock, 2011), would most likely have been able to
adequately care for Dahl. There is no overt evidence to
suggest that Dahl’s basic infant needs were characterised
by neglect. The researchers are of opinion that Dahl’s
early experiences were characterised by a stable domestic
environment. Findings indicate that Sofie, a devoted and
maternal parent, instilled a sense of security in Dahl over
time (Sturrock, 2011). The researchers are, however, of the
opinion that Dahl may have been overgratified at this stage
through overindulgence of his oral needs by his mother and
older sibling. This idea is based on various environmental
circumstances inferred from data relevant to his nuclear
family. Overindulgence is suggested in the attitude of
Dahl’s mother and siblings towards him throughout his
life. Dahl was considered his mother’s favourite, and as
a result he was nicknamed “the Apple” (Treglown, 1994,
p. 12). Findings that support the notion of overindulgence
are illustrated in the following examples. Dahl grew up
with seven siblings, mostly girls, and would be fussed
over, doted on and adored by his sisters and his mother
(Treglown, 1994), who most likely overindulged his oral
needs. Furthermore, Dahl’s elder half-sister was 13 years
old during this stage of his development. The researchers
postulate that she was a major attachment figure to Dahl
and may have been in a position to indulge her infant
sibling’s predominant oral needs. Dahl’s relationship with
his elder half-sister appears to have been significant as
reflected in his first memories of childhood. At the age
of six, Dahl had clear memories of enjoyable times spent
 Journal of Psychology in Africa
with his elder sister as they rode to school each day (Dahl,
1984; Sturrock, 2011). An attachment to his elder half-
sister is also suggested by his level of jealousy within their
relationship during later childhood. When Dahl was nine
years old, his half-sister was engaged to be married. During
a family outing Dahl noticed that his elder half-sister did
not wish for her younger siblings to follow her and her
fiancé around. At the time, Dahl was “inclined to blame
the male lover for disrupting” (Dahl, 1984, p.128) the
family. He made a decision to punish the fiancé and placed
goat droppings in his pipe (Dahl, 1984). The researchers
argue that this possible oral aggressive action towards his
elder half-sister’s fiancé may be reflective of the loss or
displacement of an attachment figure who had met his
oral needs in the past. Furthermore, the researchers are of
opinion that, as an adult, Dahl expressed his oral fixation
through the defense mechanism of sublimation when he
wrote about James and the Giant Peach (Dahl, 1961) and
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Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (Dahl, 1967).
Further biographical findings suggestive of fixation
at the oral stage is inferred from Dahl’s memories of his
childhood. In his autobiography, Boy. Tales of Childhood
(Dahl, 1984), Dahl reported that he had clear memories of
a sweet-shop which he used to pass each day while walking
with his friends. His memories, which are extensive in his
autobiography, include sharing elaborate stories of sweets
and details of how sweets looked, felt and tasted. The
researchers suggest that these detailed memories are an
indication of fixation at the oral stage and of his need for
oral gratification. Further indications of oral fixation are
Dahl’s habits of smoking, drinking excessively at times,
and his lifelong addiction to chocolate. These behaviours
are frequently referred to in biographical information
available on Dahl (Treglown, 1994).
The anal stage (one to three years)
The primary goal during the anal stage is the motivation
for autonomy and independence through separation from
the command of parents (Meissner, 1985; Ryckman,
2008). Children’s development is initially linked to their
affectionate relationship with their mother and then in
the “triangular” relationship with their mother and father
(Freud, 2005, p.272). According to Freud, oral, anal and
phallic struggles which make up the infant’s sexuality are
interconnected with the parent’s caring connection to their
infants and later towards their brothers and sisters (Freud,
2005). Children can become conflicted and fixated at the
anal stage as a result of too demanding or overindulgent
parenting styles (Papalia et al., 2006; Prochaska&
Norcross, 2007). A forceful parenting style was viewed
by Freud as resulting in an anal personality style being
dominated by holding-on tendencies (Papalia et al.,
2006 p 28; Prochaska& Norcross, 2007). Overindulgent
parenting allows children to let go whenever they feel
pressure during the anal stage. Conflicts during the anal
stage possibly lead to defences such as reaction formation,
isolation and intellectualisation. The well-defended anal
character is considered immature but not pathological
(Prochaska & Norcross, 2007).
407
Illustration: Toddlerhood: A time of family stability
(1917–1919)
It is suggested that even though a foundation of trust in
the world developed in Dahl during the oral stage, to
some degree his developmental needs may not have been
adequately met during this stage. The researchers are of
opinion that Harald’s seemingly uninvolved parenting
style, in combination with Sofie’s permissive parenting
style, led to overindulgence and fixation during this
stage. This could have resulted in potentially harmful
effects on the resolution of challenges or conflicts related
at this stage. Although no direct mention is made of
Sofie’s parenting style in the biographical data related to
this particular stage of Dahl’s life, the researchers base
this notion on relevant implicit data related to Dahl’s
later childhood. Sturrock (2011) suggested that the Dahl
children were undisciplined, with Sofie parenting in a
permissive manner. Fixation in this stage is portrayed in
the development of certain personality traits within Dahl’s
later behaviours, such as (a) gambling, (b) explosiveness,
and (c) general messiness, which remained evident
throughout his life. The researchers argue that Dahl’s
identification with Sofie’s parenting style impacted on
Dahl’s own parenting style in later years. Despite Dahl’s
dedication as a father, his children criticised his parenting
skills. He displayed a level of permissive parenting with
minimal boundaries for his children “who were too often
allowed to run wild” (Sturrock, 2011, p. 538). Examples
which support the notion that Dahl’s anal needs were not
adequately met are supported by information relevant to
his personality trait of gambling. It is frequently noted
that Dahl became addicted to gambling and would at
times bet his earning for the week at the races (Sturrock,
2011). Furthermore, he became hooked on bridge, poker,
and other forms of gambling, which he pursued for the
rest of his life (Dahl, 1984; Neal, 1988; Treglown, 1994).
The researchers suggest that Dahl’s tendency to gamble
was a possible defence mechanism which addressed
his unresolved developmental need regarding lack of
consistent parenting in the anal phase. In an attempt to deal
with these unresolved developmental issues he found his
mood lifted by his hobby of gambling, which thrilled him
(Treglown, 1994). Another example that supports evidence
of Dahl’s anal needs not having been adequately met was
noted in his maladaptive personality trait of explosiveness,
also evident throughout adulthood. Although more
contented in his later years, Dahl was bad-tempered and
opinionated, and this was “usually without any thought
of the consequences of his outbursts” (Sturrock, 2011, p.
482). “He had precious little capacity for self-censorship”
(Sturrock, 2011, p. 515). According to Sturrock (2011),
Dahl was “too impulsive, too spontaneous” (p. 517),
which resulted in people’s misinterpretation of him.
Dahl’s explosive personality and tendency to be messy
may have developed during the anal stage. A personality
trait of general messiness is evident in findings on Dahl’s
adult life. While living alone in 1942 in Washington,
Dahl found himself in a routine way of life. At home he
would at times prepare a meal for friends while leaving a
substantial mess for his maid to clean up (Dahl, 1986). A
further example is noted in the condition of his writing hut,
 408 Fouché & Holz
a place in which he could isolate himself from the world,
is described as being unswept (Sturrock, 2011). As an
adult Dahl is described as being scruffy (Neal, 1988) and
unkempt (Treglown, 1994). Conflicts during the anal stage
possibly lead to defences such as isolation (Prochaska &
Norcross, 2007). As a result of overindulgence during
the anal stage, the researchers also suggest that Dahl
developed the personality trait of isolating himself. This
is evident in examples within biographical information
throughout his life. As an adolescent at Repton School,
Dahl and his friend Michael Arnold saw themselves as
outcasts (Sturrock, 2011). In later years, Dahl’s isolation
from others continued during the war where he shared
a common trait with his fellow pilots who tended to
be loners (Sturrock, 2011). Another example which is
consistent with Dahl’s tendency to isolate himself is that
he preferred to be alone while writing, and found that he
was able to write in his writing hut when he was away
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from the world outside and not disturbed (Sturrock, 2011).
His writing hut acted as “a surrogate cockpit” in which he
could “let his guard down” and go back to a time when he
was a fighter pilot and re-experience the emotions of that
time (Sturrock, 2011, p. 154).
Following an analysis of the oral and anal stages of
Dahl’s development, the researchers are of opinion that
the findings indicate that Dahl did, however, develop a
relative sense of trust in the world as noted by his level
of optimism. Frustration, however, at not having certain
developmental needs met, may have led to certain
personality traits and habits, such as, gambling, emotional
explosiveness, and messiness in certain personal aspects of
his environment.
The phallic stage (three to six years)
Central to development (Freud, 2005) and psychoanalytical
theory of neurosis, this stage concerns rivalry between
boys and their fathers (Breger, 2000; Ryckman, 2008).
During this developmental psychosexual stage the Oedipus
complex is resolved and involves a boy experiencing his
mother as his initial object of love. At this time a boy
views his father as a rival while at the same time wishing
that his mother would treat him with affection as part of
the parent-child relationship. According to Freud, this
happens because the boy reaches a realisation that his
mother has transferred her love to another object, while he
regards her as belonging to him (Freud, 2005). According
to Freud, castration anxiety compels the boy to repress his
desire for his mother and identify with his father, resulting
in an ambivalent relationship between father and son.
Following the resolution of the Oedipus complex, the
boy will maintain a level of affection towards his mother
and amalgamate the boyhood or masculinity of the child
(Freud, 2005). In other words, “object-cathexes” (Freud,
2005, p. 398) are relinquished and the child replaces
these with identification with his father. Major neurotic
development and developmental distortions can occur
during the phallic stage (Meissner, 1985) when dynamic
forces such as traumatic events place a strain on sexual
development. This is observed through regression, or
the revisiting of an earlier phase of development (Freud,
2005).
Parental responses to genital desires in their children
play a crucial role in development. Both overindulgence
and over-rejection can produce fixations at the phallic
stage which result in the formation of possible bipolar
type personalitytraits, such as vanity and self-hatred; pride
and humility; stylishness and plainness; flirtatiousness
and shyness; gregariousness and isolation; brashness and
bashfulness. Over-rejection and lack of physical affection
by the parent of the opposite sex, together with minimal
appreciation of the child’s attractiveness, may lead to the
child wondering if he or she should take pride in the self
(Prochaska & Norcross, 2007).
Illustration: Early childhood: A grieving boy (1919–1922)
Findings related to this stage of development indicate
the start of tragedy in Dahl’s life. At the age of three
Dahl experienced the loss of his sister, Astri (Dahl, 1984;
Conant, 2008; Neal, 1988; Schultz, 1998; Treglown, 1994)
as well as the loss of his father (Conant, 2008; Dahl,
1984; Schultz, 1998; Treglown, 1994). Sofie, a brave
and strong woman was inclined to take charge in difficult
circumstances. Following Harald’s death, the family
moved, which created a feeling of loss within the children
(Sturrock, 2011). Fortunately, Sofie had sufficient funds
for the family to live (Conant, 2008; Neal, 1988; Treglown,
1994). It is suggested by the findings that although Dahl
lost his father during this stage, his family’s financial
circumstances remained stable. This possibly mitigated
the potentially harmful impact of loss and Dahl’s relative
sense of stability was possibly maintained as a result.
Dahl’s role in the family following the death of his father
was a confusing one. At times he felt being favoured by his
mother and receiving encouragement and material rewards
at home, while at the same time receiving little physical
warmth from Sofie (Conant, 2008; Neal, 1998; Treglown,
1994). His role was demanding, and much was expected
of him (Treglown, 1994). Treglown described Dahl as a
grieving boy who was both the centre of attention and very
isolated. Although he rarely talked about his feelings, the
question arises as to how it must have felt to be the pride
and burden of his mother’s only son (Treglown, 1994).
Throughout his life, Dahl would choose to appear
strong and his role in the family became one of being
dominant and supportive (Sturrock, 2011). The researchers
are of opinion that, in this role, Dahl was placed in a
precarious position because a combination of his tendency
to isolation, and the high standards that were expected
from him impacted on the development of his self-image,
as reflected in his adult behaviour. As an adult, Dahl felt
uncertain about many aspects of his past and he tended to
portray himself as an unfaltering problem solver (Sturrock,
2011). This may have masked his sense of vulnerability,
which had started in his youth. For his mother’s sake,
he had cultivated a “stiff upper lip” to conceal his own
suffering and pain. This attitude continued throughout his
life (Sturrock, 2011). The researchers suggest that parental
responses to genital desires regarding the resolution of
Dahl’s Oedipus complex were inadequately satisfied
because although much was expected of him, Dahl did
not have a father figure to support these expectations.
Dahl’s development was therefore potentially frustrated
 Journal of Psychology in Africa
at this stage. The researchers suggest that painful setbacks
during this time had a profound impact on his subsequent
development. In addition, Dahl was left without a father
figure as a rival. This may have resulted in Sofie, Dahl’s
first love object, remaining someone that Dahl felt he
possessed. The notion that Dahl’s Oedipus complex
remained unresolved is supported in the literature on
Dahl in two instances. The first is the way in which he
viewed his relationship with Sofie, and subsequently the
way that unresolved Oedipus issues were projected into
his later relationship with Pat, his first wife. Secondly,
the researchers propose that Dahl’s unresolved Oedipus
complex was illustrated in examples related to Dahl’s
consistent need throughout his adult life to attain a
surrogate father figure.
Firstly, regarding his relationship with his mother, as a
child in boarding school Dahl’s letters to Sofie were filled
with demands and had a bossy tone to them (Sturrock,
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2011) . This is consistent with the notion that Dahl
continued viewing Sofie as belonging to him. Furthermore,
from historical data, the notion of an unresolved Oedipus
complex is evident in the way that Dahl navigated
his relationship with his first wife Pat. Years later this
pattern is evident in Dahl’s authoritarian attitude towards
her, particularly following her stroke (Sturrock, 2011).
Secondly, Dahl’s search for a surrogate father is consistent
with the notion of an unresolved Oedipus complex,
reflected in findings extending from his school years
throughout his adult life. Although he had contradictory
opinions regarding Fisher, his headmaster at school, Dahl
referred to him with affection in his letters to Sofie, and
Fisher was reportedly a father figure to Dahl (Sturrock,
2011). Years later, Charles Marsh, an entrepreneur and
newspaper magnate (Sturrock, 2011) became one of Dahl’s
many surrogate fathers (Conant, 2008) because Dahl was
seeking out a “strong male role model” (Sturrock, 2011, p.
212). Furthermore, after active duty in the War, Dahl was
in need of a father figure, one he later found in Matthew
Smith, a painter (Treglown, 1994). Alfred Knopf, a man
who assisted Dahl in becoming financially more stable
(Treglown, 1994) proved to be yet another father figure
to Dahl.
A complex interplay of overindulgence in the oral
and anal stages and an unresolved Oedipus complex
in the phallic stage may have led to the development of
Dahl’s explosive nature, his tendency to isolation, his
contradictory behaviour, his physical detachment from
those around him and his need for surrogate father figures.
The latency stage (six to 12 years)
Although Freud associated no extraordinary personality
development with the latency stage, believing that all
pregenital personality formation had been completed
by the age of six (Freud, 2005; Prochaska& Norcross,
2007), the latency stage has been recognised as a time
of development when crucial integration takes place
following the initial post-Oedipal identifications.
Blueprints of adaptive functioning are also determined
in this stage (Meissner, 1985). During this stage, sexual
energy does not end but is channelled into other functions,
such as social development (Freud, 2005). The child
409
develops a sense of industry and the ability to become
skilled with things and ideas that lead to independence.
During this time, children need to feel resourceful without
feeling inferior (Meissner, 1985; Schultz & Schultz,
2009), and children are characteristically “active-minded”
(Freud, 2005, p. 34; Schultz & Schultz, 2009), become
socialised, mature and learn about themselves and society
(Papalia et al., 2006; Ryckman, 2008). The intellectual
and moral development of children during this stage are
also sensitised and enhanced (Abel, 1989; Gay, 1988;
Schultz & Schultz, 2009). Freud (2005) associated the
defense mechanism of sublimation with the latency stage
of development and associated this in particular with the
development of artistic talent.
Illustration: Middle childhood: “Boy” (1922–1928)
Significant themes during Dahl’s latency stage of
development surround (a) his unhappiness at school, (b)
homesickness, and (c) the relief that he found through the
defense mechanism of sublimation which flowed from
his imagination, his prowess on the sports field, and the
development of his passion for reading and writing.
St Peter’s Preparatory School had demanding
academic standards and ones which encouraged Dahl
to develop a love of reading (Sturrock, 2011). Dahl had
four unexceptional years there and coped by becoming
engrossed in reading stories. He proved to be academically
weak and this disappointment was a blow to Dahl, who
became withdrawn, isolated and miserable (Sturrock,
2011). He was used to being the centre of attention at
home and being a child from whom much was expected
(Dahl, 1984; Roald Dahl – The Official Website, 2012;
Treglown, 1994). Unhappy at school, Dahl was homesick
and missed his mother and sisters. However, Dahl was a
talented sportsman (Roald Dahl – The Official Website,
2013) and found refuge from his homesickness through
sport. While Dahl’s poor academic achievement (Sturrock,
2011) continued at Repton, his competitiveness in sport
helped him survive and made him feel proud (Treglown,
1994).
From the time that Dahl started writing to his mother
until the age of 10 he would sign his letters as ‘Boy’,
because it was how he had viewed himself in a home
filled with women (Sturrock, 2011). He got into the habit
of writing to his mother regularly, a practice he would
carry on throughout his life (Dahl, 1984; Roald Dahl –
The Official Website, 2012; Treglown, 1994). At Repton,
Dahl did not show his feelings to others. He covered up
his feelings with a show of indifference, and used his
letter writing as a means of escaping his unhappiness.
His writing about his experiences had been a therapeutic
escape for him and assisted him in dealing with the
strong emotions that he had experienced during this time
(Sturrock, 2011).
Although the school’s environment was an unhappy
one for Dahl, it “instilled a sense of self-discipline and
self-protection into their young charges” (Sturrock, 2011,
p. 51). Dahl’s experiences at St Peters played a role in
strengthening him and as a result he became a “survivor”
(Sturrock, 2011, p. 73). Dahl was able to deal with anxiety
through the defense mechanism of sublimation. Through
 410 Fouché & Holz
the application of reading and writing it is suggested that
he managed to displace his unconscious conflicts, which
in turn created a foundation for his subsequent career as
a writer.
The genital stage (12 to 19 years)
The main strivings of the adolescent in this stage of
psychosexual development are independence and gaining
a sense of personal identity and acceptance. Adolescents
must learn to integrate adult roles and functions with social
expectations and the values of their culture (Meissner,
1985; Ryckman, 2008). Freud discussed puberty and
adolescence in the last of his three essays on sexuality,
as being a time when sexual identity is established and
long-suppressed Oedipal attachments are reawakened
(Freud, 2009; Gay, 1988). Adolescents find themselves
in a position where earlier conflicts are reopened and
they have a chance to resolve them in the framework of a
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mature adult identity (Meissner, 1985). Severe childhood
trauma, together with fixations at previous stages, will not
allow for sufficient libidinal energy regarding adequate
adjustment in adulthood (Ryckman, 2008). Conflict during
this stage is lessened through sublimation and adolescents
find themselves conforming to the morals and values
regarding sexual expression in their society (Schultz &
Schultz, 2009). Unsuccessful resolution at the genital stage
of development can have many complex consequences for
personality development because the developmental tasks
during this stage are a partial reopening, reworking and
reintegration of all aspects of development. Successful
resolution and reintegration of previous psychosexual
stages during the genital stage, however, lead to a normal
and mature personality, which will be able to experience
genital potency and a self-integrated and a stable sense
of identity. Love relationships, resourcefulness, creative
application and the development of morals are also reached
(Meissner, 1985; Schultz & Schultz, 2009).
Illustration: Adolescence: The relegated loner
(1928–1935)
This section is structured in terms of the analysis of Dahl’s
(a) independence, (b) personal identity development, (c)
acceptance, (d) sexual identity, (e) unresolved Oedipus
complex, (f) conformity to morals and values, and (g)
defence mechanisms, particularly sublimation established
as an outlet in his later career as a writer. Regarding his
independence, it is apparent that Dahl was motivated to
leave home and establish his personal independence. On
leaving Repton, Sofie suggested that he attend Oxford or
Cambridge, but he wanted to travel and pursue a career
that would allow him to do so (Dahl, 1984; Roald Dahl
– The Official Website, 2012; Treglown, 1994). Although
he later moved back with his mother following his time as
a fighter pilot in the war, he joined Royal Dutch Shell in
September 1934 (Sturrock, 2011).
Regarding his personal identity development, Dahl
appears to have been a bully rather than being bullied, which
is most likely in part due to his physical height and his
sporting ability (Sturrock, 2011). Later in his life, those who
knew him described some of Dahl’s behaviour as verbal,
rather than physical sadism (Neal, 1988; Treglown, 1994).
Regarding his levels of acceptance, Dahl’s time at
Repton would influence his development in terms of
suppressing his feelings and developing friendships. It
was a place in which Dahl learned to “suppress many
of his own fundamental emotional responses and to find
consolation in disconnection and standing apart” (Sturrock,
2011, p.73). During this time, Dahl would conceal his
feelings from others with “a façade of indifference” which
is possibly suggestive of repression. In this way he both
preserved his sanity and avoided appearing a potential
victim (Sturrock, 2011, p. 75).
With regards to Dahl’s introduction to sexuality,
Sturrock (2011) noted that the Dahl family adopted a
value system which tolerated infidelity, but not divorce.
Sofie created an acceptable attitude towards sex within
the home. The researchers suggest that Dahl’s sexual
identity as a young adult was reflective of his unresolved
Oedipus complex and that he used displacement as
defence mechanism, as reflected in his subsequent
relationships with older women who possibly acted as
displacement of his unresolved Oedipus complex. As a
young man he tended to have affairs with older women.
He found himself attracted to older women, influential,
resourceful and important ones, and boasted about his
sexual relations, making them sound like a story told by
schoolboys in a dormitory (Treglown, 1994). His Oedipal
complex may have been reawakened and expressed
through his relationships with older and married women.
According to a psychoanalytic viewpoint, it appears that
Dahl established adequate heterosexual relationships
during this stage, as noted in his relationships with women
in adulthood. Furthermore, the theme of homosexuality
emerging during incidents at school, and Dahl’s friendship
with a child accused of homosexuality was not mentioned
by Dahl, and there was no indication that he partook in
homosexual relations at school (Dahl, 1992; Neal, 1988;
Treglown, 1994).
Dahl’s levels of conformity to morals and values
were also reflected during his adolescence. Repton, a
school under Anglican Church control, embraced an
ethos of discipline and hard work, with a focus on moral
development and religion (Sturrock, 2011). Repton’s
boarding houses also kept a focus on socialisation, loyalty
and discipline (Sturrock, 2011). Dahl felt surprised and
confused about the contradictory behaviour of his teachers
at the school, who nevertheless beat children and allowed
beatings to take place (Dahl, 1992). Although Dahl wanted
to believe in Christianity, he also felt that he needed to be
convinced. As an adult, he decided to have no Christian
belief (Neal, 1988).
Dahl’s behaviour and dynamics during this stage are
possibly reflective of various defence mechanisms, such
as conversion to psychosomatic symptoms, repression
and sublimation. Psychosomatic symptoms may have
been present in Dahl’s functioning during his time at
Repton, where he was often ill with headaches and
constipation (Sturrock, 2011). A further indication of
physical symptoms related to holding on and letting go
tendencies is noted in the following example. As an adult
Dahl, was reportedly frequently concerned about his bowel
movements and their regularity (Sturrock, 2011).
 Journal of Psychology in Africa
Dahl appears to have developed the defence
mechanism of sublimation during this stage as is illustrated
through his love of sport, music and writing, which was
evident throughout his life. He was excellent at football
and cricket (Sturrock, 2011). As a young adult employed
at Shell, he continued playing sport (Conant, 2008; Dahl,
1984; Dahl, 1986; Sturrock, 2011). It was also at Repton
that Dahl’s liking of music grew. He would listen to music
on a gramophone and this would be a form of escape for
him (Sturrock, 2011). As an adult, Dahl found his mood
lifted by engaging in conversations about (Sturrock, 2011)
classical music, modern painting, and writing (Treglown,
1994). Repton encouraged art and literature, with his
art teacher instilling a love of painting in Dahl, and his
English teacher encouraging him to use language in an
imaginative manner (Sturrock, 2011).
Based on the findings and arguments presented in
this section, it appears that (a) Dahl gained a level of
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independence, (b) his personal identity development was
established as a loner and possible verbal bully, (c) a
heterosexual identity was established, (d) the unresolved
Oedipus complex remained unresolved, (e) he did not
easily conform to morals and values, and (f) defence
mechanisms of repression, conversion to psychosomatic
symptoms, and sublimation were evident in his behaviour,
through sport, his liking of music and art and through his
writing.
The researchers argue that the available data on
Dahl’s life are supportive of the idea that sublimation
was established as a major outlet in Dahl’s adolescent and
adult life. Dahl, faced with many challenges, survived and
even prospered despite various traumas he faced during
his life (Schultz, 1998). The researchers suggest that this
is illustrative of what Freud wrote, namely: “… healthy
people know how to overcome those complexes without
any gross damage demonstrable in practical life” (Freud,
2005, p. 377). Dahl developed the defence mechanism
of sublimation during the latency stage of his life, when
he learned to read and write. He especially used creative
writing (Sturrock, 2011) to deal with painful circumstances
in his past. As an adult he felt uncertain about many
aspects of his past, and writing or telling stories helped
him gain control over vulnerable feelings (Sturrock, 2011).
Dahl, who loved reading stories (Roald Dahl – The Official
Website, 2013), accepted his fate and coped by becoming
engrossed in reading stories (Treglown, 1994). His letters
as a child became a means of escape, and a kind of self-
reassurance. He thus created an alternative reality while
writing (Sturrock, 2011).
Conclusion
Dahl used writing as a way of regressing to childhood
and also to deal with themes surrounding sexuality. As
an adult, Dahl frequently regressed to the carefree and
delightful childhood that he felt he had until he was
four, before his elder sister and father had unexpectedly
died (Treglown, 1994). Dahl’s artistic talents as writer
can possibly be explained as a combination of his
tendency to regress to a childlike state, and to regress to
the Freudian theme of the “womb” in the cockpit of his
fighter plane and his writing hut, which resulted in the
411
defence mechanism of sublimation. Through this mature
type of defense mechanism, Dahl’s socially unacceptable
impulses and realisations were transformed into socially
acceptable actions. Dahl’s personality development can
therefore be better understood via Freud’s theory as a
complex interplay of unresolved Oedipus issues which
were expressed ultimately through sport, participation
in war as well as prolific writing, through the use of
defence mechanisms such as regression, displacement
and sublimation. The main value of this study relates to
the psychological exploration and description it provided
on Dahl as a significant writer of children’s literature. To
date, none of the existing works on Dahl have provided
a formal psychological perspective on his life, and this
study hopefully contributes to minimise the academic
void regarding the current body of psychological
knowledge on him. The researchers acknowledge the
fact that a psychosexual developmental analysis of Dahl
provides only a limited understanding of his psychological
development and that additional psychological approaches
to Dahl are required to further enhance the understanding
of his personality and exceptionality. The ideal would be to
shed an in-depth light on Dahl in a similar manner as Todd
Schultz (2011) who superbly investigated the inner life
of Truman Capote in his book Tiny Terror: Why Truman
Capote (Almost) Wrote Answered Prayers.
Acknowledgements
In South Africa the value of psychobiographical studies at
institutions of higher education has been recognised, as is
evident in the field’s growing academic institutionalisation
at universities such as the University of the Free State
(UFS), the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
(NMMU), and Rhodes University (Fouche & van Niekerk
2010a, 2010b). This psychobiography on the life of Dahl
adds to the body of psychobiographies that have been
completed within South African academic psychology at
the above universities.
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