M5 Signals

Signals and Transmission
Introduction + Composite Signals + Digital Signal Transmission and Limitations
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel
Instructor
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui
Dr. Nabeel Siddiqui

M5 » Signals and Transmission
1
TEL-321 | Communication Systems | Spring 2023
▪ Signal Basics
▪ Signals – Refresher
▪ Signals vs Data
▪ Use of simple sine wave
▪ Composite Signal – Periodic and Non-Periodic
▪ Bandwidth
▪ Digital Signal
▪ Digital Signal as Composite Analog Signal
▪ Transmission
▪ Digital Signal Transmission
▪ Baseband vs Broadband Transmission
▪
Bitrate
▪
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Transmission Impairments
▪
Data Rate limitations
▪ Important Terms
2
Recall:
▪ Analog and Digital Signals
▪ Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
▪ Signal Elements (Amplitude, Frequency and Phase)
▪ Time and Frequency Domains
Some highlights:
▪ Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.
▪
Change in a short span of time means high frequency.
▪
Change over a long span of time means low frequency.
▪
Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes
▪
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
▪ Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.

3
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Ref: B. A. Forouzan, Prentice Hall
Communication System
data Signal data

Tx Rx
(Medium)
The data must be transformed into EM signals for transmission.
Data Transceiver Signal
Analog Analog
Telephone
Digital Analog
Modem
Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Digital Digital
LAN card
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr The term ‘analog’ refers to data/signal takes on continuous (infinite) values, while ‘digital’ refers to
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui data/signal take on discrete (limited) values.
4
1. A single sine wave carries electric energy from one place to another.
For example, the power company sends a single sine wave with a frequency of 60 Hz to
distribute electric energy to houses and businesses.
2. A single sine wave sends an alarm to a security center when a

burglar opens a door or window in the house.
In the first case, the sine wave is carrying energy; in the second,
the sine wave is a signal of danger.
5
One single sine wave cannot convey a
conversation over the phone!
According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
Therefore, we need to send a composite signal

to communicate data. A composite signal is
made of many simple sine waves.

Composite (Periodic) Signal
The frequency domain is more compact and useful
when we are dealing with more than one sine wave.
6
the decomposition gives a series of signals
Periodic
with discrete frequencies
Non-Periodic

7
Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Picture Ref: B. A. Forouzan, Prentice Hall
Periodic
Non-Periodic the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves

with continuous frequencies
Recall:
▪ Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
▪ Analog and Digital Signals

▪ Signal Elements (Amplitude, Frequency and Phase)

8
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Picture Ref: B. A. Forouzan, Prentice Hall
The range of frequencies contained in a composite
signal is its bandwidth. It is the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.
all integer frequencies frequencies are continuous

9
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900
Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of
10 V.
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest
frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the same amplitude.

10
Information can be represented by a digital signal, e.g., a 1
can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case,
we can send more than 1 bit for each level.
A digital signal can have more than two levels, i.e., we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Number of bits per level = log2 (number of levels)
In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits.
11
TEL-321 | Communication Systems | Spring 2023 Ref: B. A. Forouzan, Prentice Hall
Based on Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite analog signal.
A digital signal is a
composite analog
sin(ωt)
signal with an
infinite bandwidth.
sin(ωt) + sin(3ωt)/3
Lower-order
Harmonics sin(ωt) + sin(3ωt)/3 +
sin(5ωt)/5
Infinite Bandwidth Concept:

Higher-order A digital signal consists connected
vertical and horizontal line segments
Harmonics
in time domain. A vertical line in the
time domain means a frequency of
infinity (sudden change in time); a
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr horizontal line in the time domain
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui means a frequency of zero (no
change in time). Going from a
For 50% duty cycle, odd
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr frequency of zero to a frequency of
harmonics are added.
infinity (and vice versa) implies all
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui frequencies in between are part of the
Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel domain.
12
Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Ref: : B. A. Forouzan, Prentice Hall
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr https://www.murata.com/en-us/products/emc/emifil/knowhow/basic/chapter02-p3 (Picture)
How can we send a digital signal from point A to point B?
1. Baseband Transmission
▪ It involves sending a digital signal over a channel without changing

the digital signal to an analog signal.
▪ It uses line coding.
▪ It has a dedicated medium with a bandwidth constituting only one
channel.
▪ the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate; if we need to
send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.
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How can we send a digital signal from point A to point B?
2. Broadband Transmission (Using modulation)

▪ It involves changing the digital signal to an analog signal for
transmission
▪ It uses a bandpass channel (not start from zero) This channel is more
available.
▪ The information is modulated

to a single-frequency analog
signal (called a carrier).

14
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Ref: B. A. Forouzan, Prentice Hall, Encyclopedia Britannica
Baseband technology transmits a single data stream at a
time while broadband technology transmits multiple data
streams simultaneously at the same time.

Baseband transmission Broadband transmission
Transmit digital signals
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Transmit analog signals
To boost signal strength, use repeaters
To boost signal strength, use amplifiers
Can transmit only a single data stream at a time
Can transmit multiple signal waves at a time
Support TDM based multiplexing
Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Support FDM based multiplexing
Mainly used in Ethernet LAN networks
Mainly used in cable and telephone networks
15
Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Ref: https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/networking-tutorials/differences-between-baseband-and-broadband-explained.html
https://networkencyclopedia.com/baseband-transmission/
▪ the number of bits sent in 1 second
▪ expressed in bits per second (bps)
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per
second. A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If
we assume that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
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Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Ref: B. A. Forouzan, Prentice Hall
A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog
voice signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency
(Nyquist theorem). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. The
required bit rate is
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video signals. There
are 1920 x 1080 pixels per screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times per
second. Twenty-four bits represents one color pixel.
The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps through compression.

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What is sent is not what is received.
Transmission Media is not perfect! the signal at the beginning of the medium
The imperfection causes signal impairment. (Tx side) is not the same as the signal at
the end of the medium (Rx side)
Types of ▪ Attenuation means a loss of energy.

Impairment When a signal travels through a medium, it loses some of its
energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium (e.g., a wire
carrying electric signals gets warm).
Attenuation ▪ To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
Distortion
Noise
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Types of Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium

Impairment
and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is
(1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
Attenuation calculated as
Distortion
Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.
Noise
19
Types of A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is

Impairment
increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10xP1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
Attenuation as
Distortion
Noise
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Types of One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
Impairment
changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers
can be added (or subtracted) when we are measuring
Attenuation several points (cascading) instead of just two. In Figure
below a signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In this case,
the decibel value can be calculated as
Distortion
Noise
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Types of The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer

Impairment
(dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a cable with −0.3dB/km has
a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal at 5 km?
Attenuation Solution:
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as
Distortion
Noise
22
Types of ▪ Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
Impairment Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies. Each
signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and,
therefore, its own delay in arriving at the destination. Therefore, signal
components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the
Attenuation sender.
Distortion
Noise
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Types of Noise is unwanted signals. Several types of noise may corrupt the signal.
Impairment
▪ Thermal noise: random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an
extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
▪ Induced noise: comes from sources such as motors and appliances.
Attenuation These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium
acts as the receiving antenna.
▪ Crosstalk: the effect of one wire on the other.
Distortion
Noise
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How fast we can send data over a channel in bits per second?
Dependent Factors
▪ Availability of bandwidth in the transmission medium.

↑ More is good!
▪ The number of levels used in the signal.

↑ Less is reliable!
▪ Quality of the channel (noise level).

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How fast we can send data over a channel in bits per second?
Bitrate Formula
▪ Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2 L
▪ Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Capacity = bandwidth x log2(1+SNR)

In practice, we need to use both methods to find the limits and signal
levels. The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit;
the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.
26
Important Terms
27
SNR is the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).
We need to consider
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 the average signal
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = power and the
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 average noise power
because these may
change with time.
The value of SNR in a
noiseless channel is infinite.
A high SNR means

the signal is less
corrupted by
noise; a low SNR
means the signal
is
more corrupted by
noise.
28
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is
1μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
Solution:
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

29
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-
to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that
the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C is calculated as
This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the
bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data through this
channel.
30
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that
SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The theoretical
channel capacity can be calculated as
For High SNR, the theoretical channel

capacity can be simplified to:
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We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is 63.
What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For better performance
we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist
formula to find the number of signal levels.
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The power of a certain signal divided by
the sum of the interference power and the power of background noise.
from all the other interfering signals
𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑆𝐼𝑁𝑅 =
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + Intereference 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Analogous to the SNR used often in wired communications systems.
Usage: SINR is used to give theoretical upper bounds on channel

capacity in wireless communication networks.
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr If the power of noise term is zero,
then the SINR reduces to the
signal-to-interference ratio (SIR).
Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Conversely, zero interference
reduces the SINR to the signal-to-
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr noise ratio (SNR).
Ref: https://wiki.teltonika-networks.com/view/Mobile_Signal_Strength_Recommendations
33
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.
1. Bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite

signal or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.
Example: bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
2. Bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a

channel or link.
Example: the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet is 100 Mbps.

Relationship: an increase in bandwidth in hertz means
an increase in bandwidth in bits per second.
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a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only

send T bps through this link with T < B.
Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one
point to another. However, if there is congestion on the road, this figure
may be reduced to 100 cars per minute. The bandwidth is 1000 cars per
minute; the throughput is 100 cars per minute.

35
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000
frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits.
What is the throughput of this network?
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

36
defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.
the time required for a bit to travel from the

source to the destination. the time taken by each
intermediate or end
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 device to process the
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 incoming data.
Latency = transmission time + propagation time + queuing time + processing delay
In communications we send a message, the time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the
not just one bit. It is the time from the first message before it can be processed. It is not a fixed factor, and
bit until the last bit of a message has left changes with the load imposed on the network i.e., increases
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui the transmitting
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr node. with traffic. An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the
Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui arrived messages and processes them one by one.
𝑀𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
37
What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000km? Assume
the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in the cable.
The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50ms if
there is a direct cable between the source and the destination.
38
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte
message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps?
Assume that the distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and propagation speed is 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is
high, the dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission
time. The transmission time can be ignored.

39
defines the number of bits that can fill the link.
▪ It gives the sense of data volume that can be transmitted by the sender
at a given time before waiting for the acknowledgment.

40

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Signals and Transmission

Introduction + Composite Signals + Digital Signal Transmission and Limitations

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

Dr. Nabeel Siddiqui

▪ Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.

data Signal data

The data must be transformed into EM signals for transmission.

Data Transceiver Signal

2. A single sine wave sends an alarm to a security center when a

Therefore, we need to send a composite signal

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

Non-Periodic the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves

▪ Analog and Digital Signals

▪ Signal Elements (Amplitude, Frequency and Phase)

all integer frequencies frequencies are continuous

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

Infinite Bandwidth Concept:

▪ It involves sending a digital signal over a channel without changing

2. Broadband Transmission (Using modulation)

▪ The information is modulated

signal (called a carrier).

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

▪ expressed in bits per second (bps)

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps through compression.

Types of ▪ Attenuation means a loss of energy.

Types of Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium

Types of A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is

Types of The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer

▪ Availability of bandwidth in the transmission medium.

▪ The number of levels used in the signal.

▪ Quality of the channel (noise level).

▪ Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2 L

▪ Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

Capacity = bandwidth x log2(1+SNR)

A high SNR means

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

For High SNR, the theoretical channel

First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

Analogous to the SNR used often in wired communications systems.

Usage: SINR is used to give theoretical upper bounds on channel

1. Bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite

2. Bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only

minute; the throughput is 100 cars per minute.

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

the time required for a bit to travel from the

Latency = transmission time + propagation time + queuing time + processing delay

time. The transmission time can be ignored.

Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr Nabeel Siddiqui Dr

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