The Text

The Vishnudharmottara Purana or the Vishnudharmottara (as it is usually

referred to) is a supplement or an appendix to the Vishnu-purana. It is
generally believed to be a later insertion into Vishnu Purana. Some say , it is
affiliated to the Pancharatra Agama, associated with the Vyuha doctrine.

The part three of the Vishnudharmottara gives an account, among other

things, of the then – known branches, theories, methods, practices and ideals
of Indian painting.

The text deals not only with its religious aspects but also, and to a far greater
extent, with its secular applications. It initiates the aspirant into a world of joy
and delights that only the colors, forms and representation of things — seen
and unseen — can bring forth.

The Vishnudharmottara asserts that it is but a compilation ; and , is an attempt

to preserve the knowledge that was hidden in older sources. Sadly, all those
older texts are lost to us. Vishnudharmottara is thus the earliest exhaustive
treatise available to us on the theory and practice of temple construction,
painting and image making in ancient India.

Chitrasutra is that part of the Vishnudharmottara which deals with the art of
painting. Its compiler described it as "the legacy of the collective wisdom of
the finest minds. Explaining why he took up the compilation, he said he was
prompted by his concern for the future generations; for their enlightenment,
delight and quality of life. He said it was his firm belief that paintings are the
greatest treasures of mankind as they have the aura and power to beneficially
influence the minds and lives of the viewers.
1.4. In that context Chitrasutra makes some amazing statements:

*. Great paintings are a balm on the troubled brow of mankind.

*.Of all arts, the best is chitra. It is conducive to dharma and has the virtue to
liberate (emancipate) an individual from his limited confines

*. Wherever it is established- in home or elsewhere- a painting is harbinger of

auspiciousness.

*. Art is the greatest treasure of mankind, far more valuable than gold or
jewels.

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*.A painting cleanses and curbs anxiety, augments future good, causes
unequalled and pure delight; banishes the evils of bad dreams and pleases the
household -deity. The place decorated by a picture never looks dull or empty.

1.5. Vishnudharmottara is dated around sixth century AD, following

The age of the Guptas, often described as the Golden Age of Indian Arts. It is
perhaps the world’s oldest known treatise on art. However, not much is known
of its author, as is the case with most Indian texts. Vishnudharmottara follows
the traditional pattern of exploring the various dimensions of a subject through
conversations that take place between a learned Master and an ardent seeker

Eager to learn and understand. Chitrasutra too employs the pretext of a

conversation between the sage Markandeya and king Vajra who seeks
knowledge about image making (shilpa).

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 2. Concepts

King Vajra questions "How could one make a representation, in painting or image, of a
Supreme being who is devoid of form, smell and emotion; and destitute of sound and
touch?". Markandeya explains " The entire universe should be understood as the
modification (vikriti) of the formless (prakriti). The worship and meditation of the
supreme is possible for an ordinary being only when the formless is endowed with a
form; and that form is full of significance. The best worship of the supreme is, of
course,contemplation of the formless with eyes closed in meditation."

With that, the life in its entirety becomes a source of inspiration for artistic expressions.
In another passage, Chitrasutra cites the nature that envelops the artist as the source of
his inspiration. And,as regards the skill required to express those emotions in a visible
form, the text suggests that painter should take the aid of Natya, because an
understanding of natya is essential for a good painter.

The Chitrasutra commences with a request by king Vajra to sage Markandeya seeking
knowledge about image-making.

The sage then instructs that without the knowledge of music one cannot understand
natya. And, without the knowledge of natya one can scarcely understand the technique
of painting. "He who does not know properly the rules of chitra (painting)" declares the
sage "can scarcely discern the essentials of the images (shilpa)".

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 3. Chitra and Natya

That does not mean, the positions of the dancers have to be copied on murals or scrolls.
What it meant was that the rhythm, fluidity and grace of the natya have to be
transported to painting. The Chitrasutra says "it (natya) guides the hand of the artist,
who knows how to paint figures, as if breathing, as if the wind as blowing,as if the fire
as blazing, and as if the streamers as fluttering. The moving force, the vital breath, the
life-movement (chetana) are to be explicit in order to make the painting come alive with
rhythm and force of expression. The imagination, observation and the expressive force
of rhythm are the essential features of painting".

The Chitrasutra recognized the value and the significance of the spatial perspective.

*."He who paints waves, flames, smoke and streamers fluttering in the air, according to
the movement of the wind, should be considered a great painter"

*"He who knows how to show the difference between a sleeping and a dead man; or
who can portray the visual gradations of a highland and a low land is a great artist"

The Shilpa (sculpture) and Chitra (painting) are closely related to Natya (dance) in
other ways too. The rules of the iconography (prathima lakshana appear to have been
derived from the Natya- sastra. The Indian sculptures are often the frozen versions or
representations of the gestures and poses of dance (caaris and karanas) described in
Natya-sastra. The Shilpa and chitra (just as the Natya) are based on a system of
medians (sutras), measures (maanas), postures of symmetry (bhangas) and asymmetry
(abhanga, dvibhanga and tribhanga); and on the sthanas(positions of standing, sitting,
and reclining). The concept of perfect symmetry is present in Shilpa and chitra as in
Nrittya; and that is indicated by the term Sama.

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The Natya and Shilpa shastras developed a remarkable approach to the structure of the
human body; and delineated the relation

Point ( Nabhi, the navel), the verticals and horizontals. It then coordinated them, first
with the positions and movements of the principal joints of neck, pelvis, knees and
ankles; and, then with the emotive states, the expressions. Based on these principles,
Natya-shastra enumerated many standing and sitting positions. These, demonstrated
the principles of stasis, balance, repose and perfect symmetry; And, they are of
fundamental importance in Indian arts, say, dance, drama, painting or sculpture.

3.4. Another aspect of the issue is that painting as a two-dimensional form, can
communicate and articulate space, distance, time and the more complex ideas in way
that is easier than in sculpture. That is because , the inconvenient realities of the three
dimensional existence restrict the fluidity and eloquence of the sculpture.

The argument here is , making a sculpture is infinitely harder than making a painting.

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 4. Painting in ancient society

According to Chitrasutra, all works of art including paintings played an important role
in the life of its society. The text mentions about the presence of paintings as permanent
or temporary decorations on walls of private houses, palaces and of public places. Apart
from wall paintings, the floors of the rich homes and palaces were decorated with
attractive patterns and designs inlaid with precious stones.

Paintings had relevance in the private lives too. The polite education of a Nagarika the
educated urbane man of town included knowledge and skill of several arts in addition
to erudition in literature, rhetoric, grammar, philosophy and allied subjects. Painting
was rated high among these vinoda-sthanas – seats of pleasure or hobbies. The
gentleman of leisure and culture painted for pleasure or in earnestness; but, of course,
not for earning a living.

Vatsayana describes the tasteful set up and arrangement in the room of a typical urban
gentleman of pleasure who evinces interest in literature, dance, music and painting. The
articles in his room I would include a vina hanging from a peg on the wall (naaga-danta
vasakta vina), a painting board (chitra palakam), a box-full of colors and brushes
(vatika tulika samgraha), a cup for holding liquid colors casually kept on the window
sill (alekhya-varnaka-paatram) and books of verses(kurantaka maala).

The courtesans too were proficient in fine arts such as music, dance, painting poetry as
also in body-care techniques. Even a calculating courtesan would madly love a talented
painter though impoverished.
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Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagara narrates number of delightful stories of such young and
impetuous courtesans.

Kautilya deems it a responsibility of the state to support art- masters that spread
knowledge among youngsters.

Education in fine arts like music, dance and painting was considered essential for
unmarried maidens of affluent families. The ancient stories are replete with instances of
young lovers exchangingPaintings as loving gifts.

Painting – chitra kala- was recognized as an essential part of the curriculum in the
upbringing of children of “good families”.

While on the subject I may mention that Chitrasutra observes: the pictures which
decorate the homes (including the residential quarters of the king) should display
sringara, hasya and shantha rasa. They should exude joy, peace and happiness; and
brighten up the homes and lives of its residents. Pictures depicting horror, sorrow and
cruelty should never be displayed at homes where children dwell. For instance the text
mentions the pictures which show a bull with its horns immersed in the sea; men with
ugly features or those fighting or inflicted with sorrow due to death or injury; as also
the pictures of war, burning grounds as being

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Inauspicious and not suitable for display at homes. But, the text says, the pictures of all
types of depictions and rasas could be displayed at court-halls, public galleries and
temples.

Icons were generally classified into four categories: painted on the wall, canvass, paper,
wall or pot (chitraja); molded in clay or any other material like sandal paste or rice
flour (lepeja, mrinmayi, or paishti); cast in metal (pakaja, lohaja, dhatuja); and carved
in stone, wood or precious stones (sastrotkirana, sailaja, daaravi or rathnaja). Early
icons were made in clay or carved wood; and such images were painted over.

Hallow figures (sushira) of gods, demons, yakshas, horses, elephants, etc, were placed
on the verandas of houses, on stages and in public squares etc. as pieces of decoration.
Such hallow images were usually made of clay, cloth, wood or leather.

Paintings were classified as those drawn on the ground- like rangoli, floor decorations
etc (bhumika); those on the wall- like murals and frescos (bhitthi); and portrait (bhava
chitra). The first two were fixed (achala) and the third was portable

The patas (poster like paintings) were commonly displayed in public squares. It is
mentioned, such paintings were employed as a means and method of communicating
with the towns people. The messages displayed picturesquely on the patas could be
understood by all- lettered and unlettered alike.The art, thus, entertained educated and
enlivened common people.

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 5. Appreciation of art

As regards the deities depicted in art, it is explained; in the Indian tradition a deity is a
Bimba the reflection or Prathima the image of god, but not the god itself. Bimba is
reflection, like the reflection of the distant moon in a tranquil pool. That reflection is
not the moon but is a suggestion (prathima) of the moon. In other words, a deity is an
idea, a conception or his/her mental image of god, translated to a form in lines, color,
stone, metal, wood or whatever; but, it is not the god itself.

Chitrasutra says, those qualities that we admire in a divine being are within us. And,
when we respond to those images brought to us in art, we awaken those finer aspects
that are latent in us. When we are filled by that grace, there is no space left for base
desires and pain; we have become that deity.

When we view sunrise or a great work of art, Chitrasutra says, we experience beauty
(ananda) as we let dissolve our identities and attachments; and become one with the
object of beauty. It is a moment that bestows on us the grace that underlies the whole
creation. Art, it said, is a liberating experience.

Incidentally, one of the criticisms leveled against the paintings of Raja Ravi Varma is
that he resorted to photographic reproductions

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And with that his pictures were stiff and static, bereft of the dynamism and fluidity of
the traditional Indian art. More importantly, by reducing the deities to the level of
ordinary humans and by rejecting the concepts of abstractions, Ravi Varma denied the
viewer the sense of suggestion, imagination and association with the ideal.

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 6. Elements of painting

6.1. While discussing the elements of a painting, the Chitrasutra says “The masters
praise the rekha’s-lines (delineation and articulation of form); the connoisseurs praise
the display of light and shade; women like the display of ornaments; and, the richness
of colors appeals to common folks. The artists, therefore, should take great care to
ensure that the painting is appreciated by every one”.

Talking about lines, Chitrasutra favors graceful, steady, smooth and freeflowing lines;
but not the crooked and uneven lines. Its masters valued the effects best captured by
least number of lines. Simplicity of expression symbolized the maturity of the artist.

The text appears to hold the view, while delianation, shading, ornamentation and
coloring are the decorative aspects (visual) of a painting, the rekha, the lines that
articulate the forms are its real substance.

Incidentally, the main characteristics of the Ajanta paintings are the use of free flowing
lines for delineating beautiful figures and their delicate inner feelings; together with use
of shading different parts of the body to produce three dimensional effects in the
images. The other was use of proper colors at times contrasting and at times matching
to create magical effects. These were precisely the principles that Chitrasutra
emphasized.

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6.2. The text says in another context, when a learned and skilled artist paints with
golden color, with articulate and yet very soft lines with distinct and well arranged
garments; and graced with beauty, proportion, rhythm and inspiration, then the
painting would truly be beautiful.

6.3. The text at various places airs its clear opinions on what it considers auspicious
(good) and “bad” pictures. For instance:

*.Sweetness, variety, spaciousness of the background (bhulamba) that is proportionate

to the position (sthana) of the figure, resemblance to what is seen in nature and minute
and delicate execution are the good aspects of a chitra.

*.A painting drawn with care pleasing to the eye, thought out with great intelligence
and ingenuity and remarkable by its execution, beauty and charm and refined taste and
such other qualities yield great joy and delight.

*.Chitrasutra mentions: proper position, proportion and spacing; gracefulness and

articulation; resemblances; increasing or decreasing (foreshortening) as the eight good
qualities of a painting.

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*.A picture in which all aspects are drawn in acceptable forms in their proper positions,
in proper time is excellent.

*.A painting without proper positon, devoid of appropriate rasa, blank look, hazy with
darkness and devoid of life movements or energy (chetana) is inauspicious.

*.Weakness or thickness of delineation, want of articulation, improper juxtaposition of

colors are said to be defects of painting. *. In a picture one should carefully avoid
placing one figure in front of another.

*.A painter who does not know how to show the difference between a sleeping and a
dead man or who cannot portray the visual gradations of a highland and a low land is
no artist at all.

*. A picture shaded only in some parts and other parts remaining un-shaded is bad
(adhama)

*. Representation of human figures with too thick lips, too big eyes and testicles and
unrestrained movement are defects.

6.4. Chitrasutra cautions that an inconvenient painting stance or a bad seat, thirst,
restlessness, sloppiness and bad temper would spoil the picture.

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6.5. Chitrasutra also mentions six limbs (anga) of painting as: rupa- bheda (variety of
form); pramana (proportion); Bhava (infusion of emotions); lavanya-yojanam (creation
of luster and having rainbow colors that appear to move and change as the angle at
which they are seen change); sadreya (portrayal of likeness); and varnika- bhanga
(color mixing and brushwork to produce the desired effect)

(i). Rupa-bheda consists in the knowledge of special characteristics of things – natural or

manmade. Say, the differences in appearances among many types of men, women or
natural objects or other subject matter of the painting.

(II). Pramana: correct spatial perception of the objects painted and maintaining a sense
of harmony, balance and a sense of proportion within the figure and also in its relation
to other figures; and to the painting as a whole. The sense of proportion also extended
to the way major figures are depicted by placing at the centre and surrounding them
with lesser figures in smaller size symbolizing their status Vis a Vis the main figure. The
Indian artists were guided more by the proportions than by absolute measurements.
The proportions were often symbolic and suggestive.

(iii). Bhava: consists in drawing out the inner world of the subject; to help it express its
inner feelings. It takes a combination of many factors to articulate the Bhava of a
painting; say, through eyes,

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Facial expression, stance, gestures by hands and limbs, surrounding nature, animals,
birds and other human figures. Even the rocks, water places and plants (dead or dying
or blooming or laden) are employed to bring out the Bhava. In narrative paintings, the
depiction of dramatic effects and reactions of the characters from frame to frame
demands special skill.

Since color is a major medium in painting, the emotions and moods are expressed
through manipulating colors, their density, tones, lines, light, shades etc. The ingenuity,
imagination and skill of the artist discover their limitations here..

(iv). Lavanya-yojanam: Creation of grace, beauty, charm, tenderness and illuminating

the painting and the hearts of the viewer. It aims to uplift and brighten the mood of the
figures, the viewers and the surroundings.

(v). Sadrushya: Achieving credible resemblance to objects of the world around and to
the persons. The resemblances are not mere general but extend to details too. And,

(vi). Varnika-bhanga: Artistic manner of improvising color combinations, tones and

shades. It also involves delicate and skillful use of brushes and other aids. It represents
the maturity of the artist’s techniques and fruitfulness of his experience.

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 7. Types of presentations

7.1. The paintings were executed on various surfaces: wall paintings (bitthi), pictures on
board (phalaka), on canvas (pata), on scrolls (dussa-pata) and on palm leaf- mascripts
(patra). The last mentioned, i.e. the scrolls were often in the shape of lengthy rolls
facilitating continuous representations. The Chitrasutra instructed that the surface
chosen should suit the purpose of the proposed painting; and, in any case, it should be
smooth and well coated (anointed). That would help achieve a better presentation of the
painting.

7.2. As regards the shapes of the boards and scrolls, Chitrasutra mentions four types:
sathya- realistic pictures in oblong frames; vainika-lyrical or imaginative pictures in
square frames; naagara- pictures of citizens in round frames; and misra – mixed types.

7.3. It is explained in the text, a painting which bears resemblance (Sadrishya) to the to
things on earth with their proper proportions in terms of their height, their volume
(gatra), appearance etc. is the “true to life” (satya) category of painting. The
resemblance should not be mere general; but, it should extend to details, such as all
parts of the tree, creeper, mountains or the animals. While a painting that is rich in
details, in display of postures and maintaining strict proportions; and when placed in a
well finished square format is called vainika. It obviously is the delight of the
connoisseurs. The nagara depicts common folks with

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Well developed limbs with scanty garlands and ornaments. And, misra is the compound
of the other three.

The text again cautions that an artist should not aim to copy. Не may depict the
resemblance but, more importantly, he should aim to bring out the essence or the soul
of the object.

7.4. The concern of the artist should not be to just faithfully reproduce the forms
around him. The Chitrasutra was referring to what is now termed as the “photographic
reproduction”. It suggested, the artist should try to look beyond the tangible world, the
beauty of form that meets the eye. He should lift that veil and look within. The
Chitrasutra suggested to him to look beyond “The phenomenal world of separated
beings and objects that blind the reality beyond”.

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 Shri Rajam as an artist
Who brought to life the
traditional
Art style of india.

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Introduction

Sangita Kalacharya Vidvan Shri S Rajam is a many splendored jewel of

Indian art and music. He is the musicians’ musician, held in very high
esteem by the connoisseurs of Carnatic music; he is the creator of sublime
art in the pristine and ancient tradition of Chitrasutra; he is an excellent
photographer who produced outstanding photographs of temple
architecture and sculptures; and in his youth a hero of early South Indian
films who composed songs and sung them too. The most amazing aspect of
his involvement in several branches of arts is that he

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excelled in each of them, created a unique niche of his own and yet remained
unaffected by his success. And, above all he is a remarkable human being
with a flame-like imagination and a teacher with an understanding heart. He
is often, aptly, described as a simple man of singular achievements in a
plurality of fields. It is hard to cite anyone, in the contemporary world, as
comparable to Shri S Rajam. He is a rare gem; and like any precious gem he
is away from public gaze.

Even as he was mellowing sweetly into his nineties, he retained the sense of
wonder and awe at the marvels of life. He continued to work with zeal,
regularly, at his art; and says with a child-like delight he is discovering and
learning a few new things each day. As regarded music, his other passion in
life, he was active as a teacher and as a guide; and participated in academia
and in the discussions at various Sabhas till his very last days.

[Shri Rajam passed away at the age of 91 on 29 Jan 2010]

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 Shri Rajam’s art and the Chitrasutra

Outlook

(i). He asserts that in his paintings and line drawings, he attempts to

imprison the important moments of the subject’s life to help the
contemplative spirit of the observer.His pictures might depict the
resemblance but, more importantly, as he said, they aim to bring out the
essence or the soul of the subject.

(ii). When Shri Rajam said that, he was not merely making a statement but
also was echoing the prescriptions of the Chitrasutra which stressed that the
concern of the artist should not be to just faithfully reproduce the forms
around him. The artist should try to look beyond the tangible world; and
beyond the beauty of form that meets the eye. He should lift that veil and
look within. The Chitrasutra suggested, the artist should look beyond “The
phenomenal world of separated beings and objects that blind s the vision of
the reality”.

(iii). The Chitrasutra emphasizes that art expression is not about how the
world appears to one and all, but how the artist would experience and
visualize it. Art is an expression of his unique creative genius, imagination,
enterprise and

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Individuality as an artist. Its purpose is to present that which is within us;
and to evoke an emotional response (the rasa) in the viewer’s heart.

(iv). Shri Rajam’s art creations are excellent illustrations of these principles
of the Chitrasutra in the modern times. In his mission, Shri Rajam followed
the approach of the classical Indian Art rather that of the west where art
directly reproduces the nature and its physical form as it appears to one and
all.

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 The technique

(i). Shri Rajam says, he first paints the outlines, then colours and goes on to
finish with lines.

(ii). The medium used by Shri Rajam is watercolour on cured plywood,

veneer, handmade paper and silk (not the mulberry silk but the tussar silk,
the non- violent silk, at the suggestion of The Paramacharya of Kanchi). It is
said that in his earlier days Shri Rajam made the paper himself. As regards
silk, he says one has to be very careful while painting on silk, because
mistakes and wrong lines cannot be corrected or erased easily.

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(iii). Each painting of his will have about 25 layers of colour; and will be
washed ten to twelve times before it is completed. His

Technique involves washing the paper by dipping the brush in plain water
and dabbing it all over the painting. This he does every time after applying a
couple of layers of colour. “Do you know why I do it,” he asks. “It is to
remove the excess colours from the painting. Only the subtle brush strokes
and effects remain and all that is garish is washed away. Do you know I lose
more than 30 per cent of the paints this way? It is a loss. But my painting
will survive without problems and its life will be as long as the medium on
which I do it”.

(iv). Shri Rajam calls this process “water-wash”, which according to him is
an oriental technique, unique to Indian and Chinese painting. The Chinese
method, he says, is also the same but the number of washes is not as many as
in the Indian method. He explains, “A wonderful quality of this oriental
wash technique is that the painting can be washed in water and no colours
will come off except the final touches of tempura colours".

(v). He says, such repeated washing -treatment helps the colour stay on the
surface and last longer, because through the process, all the colours are
absorbed by the handmade paper on which the pictures are painted.
Luckily, the handmade, rag paper etc. that he uses can withstand his water-
wash treatment. Not only that, strangely the paintings do not

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Smudge and they emerge all the more beautiful after being subjected to
water- wash.

(vi). He uses transparent watercolour while building the layers, and applies
opaque colours in the final stages of highlighting

And finishing. As colours are applied from light to dark, it enables the
undertones of previous colours to be visible. This gives, according to him, a
misty and toned effect suitable to portray the imaginative subjects.

(vii). The process is laborious and takes nearly ten washes and about a week
to ten days to finish a painting. But, he says, it worth doing it because the
method ensures that colours last longer and stay bright. And, even in case
the painting gets wet, the colours remain unaffected.

(viii). Shri Rajam recommends that the watercolours be preserved behind

glass and ensured that no fungus develops between the painting and the
glass.

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 Gallery

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 Bibliography

Citrasutra of the Visnudharmottara Purana by Parul Dave

Mukherji

Stella Kramrisch: The Vishnudharmottara Part III: A Treatise

On Indian Painting And Image-Making.

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