Decarbonising the aviation
industry
The future of sustainable aviation fuels is driven by a commitment to
ambitious decarbonisation targets and continuous innovation
Yvon Bernard, Carine Leclercq and Nicolas Simon
Axens
T
o address the array of climate targets set
by national and international authorities
worldwide, industries in every sector must
seek efficient and dependable solutions in the
transition from fossil fuels. These heightened
demands, driven by environmental concerns
and sustainability regulations, have created
the complex challenge of finding cost-effective
solutions to reduce reliance on fossil fuel
resources.
Achieving these ambitious targets – as outlined
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change and various national pathways toward
achieving net-zero emissions – will require
behavioural changes, efficiency gains, and the
leverage of renewable or low-carbon energy
sources available around the world, including
solar energy, wind energy, biomass, and more.
Rising sustainability standards in the
aviation industry
Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is one of the
solutions to decarbonise the aviation industry.
Just as SAF must be combined with other
decarbonisation solutions, experts do not expect
that one single SAF production technology will be
able to meet the increasing demand for this fuel.
For this reason, government agencies, refining
companies, and aviation industry stakeholders
are collectively investigating the full range of
technology pathways to substitute fossil-based
jet fuel with SAF based on renewable sources.
These sources include agricultural and forestry
residues, alcohols, wastes, and energy crops, as
well as CO₂ and renewable hydrogen.
Today, aviation accounts for 3% of global
greenhouse gas emissions, including 890
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megatons of CO₂ emitted in 2022. For
this reason, the International Civil Aviation
Organization has set ambitious goals to
reduce net CO₂ emissions by half by 2050, in
comparison to 2005 levels. Furthermore, the
global air transport industry, through the Air
Transport Action Group, has embraced a long-
term climate goal of net-zero emissions by
2050. This confirms the commitment of global
airlines, airports, air traffic management, and
manufacturers of aircraft and jet engines to
reduce their CO₂ emissions in line with the Paris
Agreement’s goal of limiting global warming to
1.5°C by 2100 (UNFCC, 2015).
Main regulatory frameworks for SAF
SAF will be essential to achieving the aviation
industry’s ambitious decarbonisation targets.
Regulations will play a large part in increasing
the share of SAF used in aviation and defining
the products that will qualify as SAF. Currently,
there is no global consensus on these
regulations. However, two main approaches
currently exist in the industry.
In the US, many fuel purchasers are
considering carbon-intensity-based metrics
to evaluate fuel sustainability, commonly
utilising tools such as the Greenhouse Gases,
Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in
Transportation (GREET) model developed by
Argonne National Laboratory. Such models
do not group feedstocks or processes by
category, but rather they scientifically calculate
a given feedstock’s overall greenhouse gas
emission profile considering its production,
transportation, processing, and use. The
outcome is a scientifically based and quantified
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What is SAF?
SAF is an alternative to traditional fossil
jet fuel and a promising solution to reduce
carbon emissions in the aviation sector. It
can be produced from two major sources:
• Renewable or waste-derived bio-
based resources that meet sustainability
criteria depending on their origins, such
as renewable oils and fats, lignocellulosic
biomass, wastes, sugars, and low carbon
intensity inedible starches.
• Captured CO₂ combined with renewable
hydrogen (produced via water electrolysis
using electricity from renewable sources)
or low-carbon hydrogen (generated using
either nuclear power or fossil natural gas
with CO₂ sequestration). Depending on
regulations, some traditional hydrogen may
or may not be used. This synthetic aviation
fuel is known as e-SAF (also known as
Power-to-X, synthetic fuels or e-fuels).
SAF is considered a drop-in fuel, meaning
it can be blended with traditional jet
kerosene. It can currently be blended up
to 50% by volume maximum for the main
pathways (FT-SPK, ATJ-SOK, and HEFA-SPK
certified by ASTM) without requiring any
equipment changes, special infrastructure or
modification of the supply chain, which helps
limit the overall supply chain investments.
Carbon Intensity (CI) score. The CI score then
determines the sustainability of a given fuel
compared to fossil fuel baselines. Additionally,
it provides a foundation for regulatory and
credit structures to incentivise CI reductions
throughout the entire SAF value chain.
A different approach is taken in Europe, where
the European Union has committed to reducing
its overall emissions by 55% by 2030. To reach
this goal, the European Commission introduced
its ‘Fit for 55’ package of legislative proposals.
Among them, 11 initiatives have a direct impact
on transport, and ‘ReFuelEU’ is the initiative
dedicated to aviation. Under this initiative, the
SAF requirement will rise from 2% of aviation
fuels in 2025 to 6% by 2030 and then 70% in
2050. A sub-obligation of this SAF mandate
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requires e-SAF to increase from 1.2% of
aviation fuels in 2030 to 35% in 2050. European
regulations promote advanced biofuels sourced
from feedstocks that are not in direct or indirect
competition with food resources. These include
recycled carbon fuels (potentially using waste
from non-renewable sources) and low-carbon
fuels (possibly including hydrogen produced
from nuclear power). These options all share
the goal of achieving at least a 70% reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions.
In addition to these two major regulatory
frameworks, several other countries (such
as China, India, and Thailand) are currently
preparing their SAF regulations. These will be
released shortly so the industry can prepare for
the first milestones.
Expanding the global supply of SAF
To align with all regulations, the aviation industry
must significantly ramp up its adoption of SAF
in the coming years. The industry will have to
expand the range and increase the production
of available feedstock for this to be possible.
Today, most of the world’s SAF comes from
vegetable oils such as rapeseed and palm oil.
Some regulations, such as the revised European
Renewable Energy Directive, ban the use of soy
and palm oils for biofuels because the feedstock
is in competition with the food industry (EUR-
Lex, 2023). As a result, lipidic second-generation
feedstocks, including animal fats, used cooking
oil, and palm oil mill effluent, are taking over.
These feedstocks will only allow the industry
to meet the first milestone with few percent of
SAF incorporation. To move beyond this plateau
caused by the limited volume of lipidic second-
generation feedstock, the second phase will
require constructing industrial plants to produce
SAF from other feedstocks.
Three major feedstocks for the future of SAF
In collaboration with its partners, Axens has
already developed expertise to utilise the next
generation of feedstocks for the production of
SAF and e-SAF. These include biomass, which
are typically residues from agriculture, forestry,
and other waste products that do not compete
with food crops. CO₂ captured from sources
such as flue gas, cement or steel factories and
power plants or biogenic CO2 (produced from
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 Water
Electrolysis
E H2
O2
O2
Biomass
CO2
H2S CO
1 2
Pretreatment Gasification
Figure 1 Gasification and the FT pathway for SAF and e-SAF production
biomass) combined with green H2 (produced
with low-carbon electricity) are the feedstocks
for e-SAF (dedicated to aviation fuels) or
e-biofuels (generic name). In both cases, the
feedstocks are combined with hydrogen to
produce e-fuels or SAF.
Expertise in biofuel production:
The biomass pathway
The ASTM D7566 standard for aviation fuels
allows for several technological pathways for
the production of synthetic kerosene. Axens
offers commercial solutions for some of these,
such as HEFA-SPK, ATJ-SPK, and FT-SPK,
which can be extended to both SAF and e-SAF
(whenever green H2 is added) production.
Under the FT-SPK pathway, the BioTfueL
(biomass-to-fuel) technology can combine
lignocellulosic biomass and renewable hydrogen
to create high-quality SAF. Biomass feedstocks
are diverse, and it is possible to use energy
crops (such as miscanthus), agricultural waste
(such as bagasse, rice straw, and wheat straw)
and forestry residues. Ideally suited to farmers
and industrial players with access to large
volumes of these natural residual products, the
FT-SPK pathway involves heating the biomass
(torrefaction) and converting it into a gas
(gasification). Renewable hydrogen becomes
important to improve carbon efficiency during
syngas conditioning. It is combined with syngas
to meet proper conditions to create hydrocarbon
products through Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis.
Combining biomass and renewable hydrogen
in a refinery can create valuable synergies. The
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H2
SAF / e-SAF / e-biofuels
H2 H2
H2O CO
3 4
Conditioning FT & Upgrading
same infrastructure and units are shared, and
the biogenic carbon source is concentrated
and cost-free.
Ambition to operate Europe’s largest SAF
production unit
Together with its partners (Avril, IFP Energies
nouvelles, TotalEnergies, ThyssenKrupp-Uhde,
CEA, and other local and financial partners),
Axens has proven the value of the BioTfueL
technology on two large-scale demonstration
plants processing a broad spectrum of
lignocellulosic biomasses for the production of
SAF and byproducts such as renewable naphtha.
Axens is now involved with its partners Elyse
Energy, Avril, IFP Investissements, and Bionext
in the BioTJet project. This project, which aims
to build and operate the largest hydrogen and
lignocellulosic biomass-based SAF production
unit in Europe, aligns with the European
energy transition strategy and the aviation
sector’s ambitious decarbonisation objectives.
Recognising its potential, the French Agency for
Ecological Transition (ADEME) gave the project
support as part of the France 2030 Investments
for the Future Program under the call for
proposals for the ‘Development of a French
Sustainable Aviation Fuel production sector’.
Axens is supporting the development of the
BioTJet project beyond the conventional role of a
licensor and equipment, catalyst, and adsorbent
supplier by becoming a shareholder and partner
of the BioTJet project company. This equity
investment represents a significant milestone
for the commercial development of BioTfueL.
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 DMX
AdvAmine
Carbon CO2
capture conditioning
CO2
Electrolysis
Water
O2
Figure 2 CO₂ capture pathways
Expertise in e-fuel production: CO₂ pathway
The pathway for e-SAF production involves the
combination of CO₂ with renewable hydrogen.
Axens has an extensive e-SAF offer, which
includes the reverse water gas shift (RWGS)
technology, carbon capture solutions DMX and
AdvAmine, catalysts and adsorbent materials,
along with its Fischer-Tropsch solution Gasel.
As renewable hydrogen remains costly and
CO₂ resources are limited until direct capture
technologies become more mature, Axens
has developed an integrated e-fuel complex
with near-full carbon recovery and optimised
hydrogen consumption. Maximising resource
utilisation is a key condition for the widespread
deployment of e-SAF.
CO₂ capture pathways
CO₂ capture consists of extracting the CO₂
produced by various industries. Two main
carbon capture pathways are available:
• The post-combustion pathway focuses on the
treatment of CO₂-containing flue gases at close
to atmospheric pressure. One effective solution
for this is chemical absorption, which involves
separating the CO₂ from other gases through
absorption in a chemical solvent to produce a
clean flue gas. This solution is licensed under
the commercial name DMX by Axens. Solvent-
based processes are generally considered to be
more mature than other technologies, such as
physical absorption.
• The pre-combustion pathway involves
capturing CO₂ before fuel combustion, typically
on syngas. This solution is licensed under the
commercial name AdvAmine by Axens. In this
case, the fuel is processed with steam or oxygen
to create syngas.
Other solutions, such as direct air capture
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Gasel
Reverse water Fischer-Tropsch
gas shift and upgrading
H2
H2 purification
H2
Tail gas
treatment
(DAC) or oxy-fuel combustion, are currently less
mature and have lower technology readiness
levels compared to the more established post-
combustion and pre-combustion pathways.
However, because DAC will likely be able to
effectively capture the CO₂ directly from the
atmosphere, it has the potential to drastically
reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the long term.
Take Kair: Capturing carbon to produce SAF
In 2023, Axens signed a memorandum of
understanding with EDF, Holcim, and IFPEN for
the ‘Take Kair’ project to develop an industrial
e-SAF facility in the west of France.
This project illustrates the key role played by
consortiums in this emerging field. Holcim will
capture biogenic CO₂ at its cement plant in the
Mayenne department, and EDF will contribute
expertise in hydrogen production. At the same
time, Axens and IFPEN will jointly develop
and integrate the low-carbon fuel synthesis
processes, including Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.
Air France-KLM will be the main off-taker of the
product to be used in its planes.
If the necessary financing is obtained, the aim
is to start the construction of the unit in 2026,
with a first phase of production in 2028. One
of the first industrial e-fuel production projects
in France, Take Kair will save more than one
hundred kilotons of CO₂ emissions per year
compared to the fossil equivalent.
Comprehensive solutions from a reliable
partner
With more than 40 years of experience in the
fields of biofuels and biotechnologies, refining,
and petrochemicals, Axens has been at the
forefront of developing the core technologies
that underpin all major e-fuel production
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pathways. The company’s expertise enables
close collaboration with customers, tailoring
solutions to meet the specific requirements
of each situation. This flexibility is particularly
valuable for e-SAF and SAF projects, as they
often necessitate integration with existing
infrastructure, facilities, and equipment.
SAF and e-SAF: Increasingly competitive
fuel sources
In the realm of e-SAF processes, electrolytic
hydrogen and CO₂ are pivotal feedstocks which
influence both the cost and sustainability of
e-SAF. The cost of hydrogen is tied to the
price of renewable electricity, which is on a
downward trajectory with expanding production
capacities. At the same time, the price of CO₂
is linked to the development of carbon capture
technologies and ongoing industrial projects.
Considering no incentives on investment
nor on offtakes, with low carbon electrolytic
H₂ priced at €5,000 per ton, a litre of e-SAF
costs between four and seven times as much
as conventional fossil-based jet fuel and about
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one-and-a-half times as much as bio- or waste-
based SAF, but with a lower carbon footprint
which is ultimately the goal of reducing the
aviation sector impact. As H₂ and CO₂ prices
decrease, coupled with advancements in process
technologies and the establishment of larger-scale
plants, the production cost of e-SAF is expected
to decrease significantly. While SAF remains
more expensive than traditional fossil fuels,
the future of sustainable aviation fuels appears
promising, driven by a commitment to ambitious
decarbonisation targets and continuous innovation
for a more sustainable aviation industry.
AdvAmine, BioTfuel, DMX, and Gasel are trademarks of
Axens.
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