King Abdulaziz University

Faculty of Earth Sciences

Department of Geophysics
EGP 442 – Radiation and thermal exploration
Second Semester - 2024

Review of Radiometric Methods

Student: Emad Meshal Al-Zahrani

ID: 2138128
Under the supervision of
Dr. Helmy Salah Abuelnaga
 Contents

Abstract 3
Introduction 3
Methodology 4

Devices 9

Geophysical Radiometric Field surveys 11

Radiometric Survey Design 14

Counting Statistics 14

Line Spacing 15

Detector Selection 16
conclusion 23

2
 Abstract

Radiation plays a crucial role in geophysics, enabling the measurement of

physical properties in natural and industrial settings and facilitating the study
of changes in these properties over time. Anomalies in these fields,
indicative of distortions, offer insights into mineralization and its
characteristics. Minerals can be detected by identifying targets with physical
properties differing from their host rocks and surroundings. Natural
radioactive decay of potassium, uranium, and thorium isotopes in rocks and
soil produces gamma rays, which are high-energy electromagnetic radiation
beams. Gamma rays penetrate materials, traveling through rocks up to 35
cm and through the air for several hundred meters. Each gamma ray carries
unique energy signatures, enabling the identification of potassium, uranium,
and thorium radiation. Gamma ray spectrometry, primarily used for
geological mapping, detects changes in lithology or soil type by measuring
radioelement concentrations. It is a valuable tool for direct mineral deposit
detection, particularly for potassium-associated hydrothermal ore deposits.
Additionally, gamma ray spectroscopy aids in uranium and thorium
exploration, heat flow studies, and environmental mapping, including
surface drainage feature identification.

Introduction

Radiation in geophysics is used to measure physical properties, whether in natural or industrial

fields, and also in studying changes in measurements of physical (field) properties. Noticing
distortions in these fields, which are called anomalies, can lead to revealing mineralization and
its nature. And discovering minerals from targets that have physical properties different from
3
those found in the host rocks and surrounding them. All rocks and soil contain radioactive
isotopes, and almost all gamma rays detected near the Earth's surface are the result of the
natural radioactive decay of potassium, uranium, and thorium. Gamma rays are beams of
electromagnetic radiation characterized by their high frequency and energy. They are highly
porous, and can travel about 35 cm through rocks and several hundred meters through the air.
Each gamma ray has a distinct energy, and measuring this energy allows the diagnosis of
specific potassium, uranium, and thorium radiation. The gamma ray spectrometry method has
many applications but is primarily used as a geological mapping tool. Changes in lithology or
soil type are often accompanied by changes in radio element concentrations. The way is Able
to directly detect mineral deposits. Change potassium, which is often Associated with
hydrothermal ore deposits, they can be detected using gamma rays Spectroscopic method.
This method is also used for uranium and thorium Exploration, heat flow studies and
environmental mapping purposes such as identifying surface drainage features.

Methodology

What is the Radiation and radioactivity?

Radiation: is energy in motion either as

particles or electromagnetic waves.

Radioactivity: Unstable atoms trying to become stable by emitting radiation in the form of
particles or energy.

4
Radiation types:
 Non ionizing radiation
 Ionizing Radiation

1. Non ionizing radiation

Non ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to remove electrons from a
neutral atom. Like Microwaves, Radio waves, Visible light, Heat, Infra light, Lasers.

Light and heat are types of radiation that we can feel or see.
2. Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing Radiation has enough energy to
remove electrons from atoms and breaks
chemical bonds.

And there are four basic types of ionizing radiation exist:

 Alpha particles.
 Beta particles.
 Gamma rays.
 Neutrons.

5
 Alpha rays
are known as particles resulting from alpha decay, and they are also called energetic helium
ion. This decay results in an atom with an atomic number lower than the basic atom, and a
mass number four times lower than the basic atom. This decay also produces great very big
energy. for their very limited penetration and therefore their very limited range attaining few
centimeters in air –are used in detection of radon “Rn’ gas, which is a gaseous element in the
uranium and thorium decay series. It is also used –sometimes- in assay purposes.
Beta rays
are known as particles resulting from the decay of the beta type, which is actually a negative
electron, and the atom that releases a beta particle converts one of the neutrons into a
proton, and thus the atomic number increases by one, and the speed of the beta particle
reaches 90% of the speed of light, and its ability to The penetra on is 100 mes greater than
that of alpha par cles, which can penetrate human flesh by 1 cm.
Gamma rays
are electromagnetic radiation that has high energy, but they do not have mass or electrical
charge. Unlike alpha rays and beta rays, the atom that emits gamma rays does not cause a
change in the components of the nucleus, but it loses part of its energy, and it usually
accompanies Emitting either alpha rays or beta rays, and it is rare for atoms to emit gamma
rays alone.
Most environmental radia on (82%) is from natural
sources. By far the largest source is radon. While
radon has always been present in the environment.
Manmade radiation-mostly from medical uses and
consumer products - add about 18% to our total
exposure.

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Naturally Occurring Radiation
 Natural back ground source are the largest contributor to radiation dose we receive
(average person in the United States receives about 360 mrem/year)
 Natural background sources include
- Cosmic radiation, or radiation from the sun and outer space.
- Terrestrial radiation, or radiation such materials in the earth's crust as rocks and soil.
(Radon gas is a large contributor of terrestrial radiation).
- Materials in our bodies like potassium-40.

Mass and Radioactivity Structure of the atom:

- The atom is constituted from positively-charged nucleus and negatively-charged
electrons (e-) moving in the electric field of nucleus.
- The atomic nucleus consists of positively charged protons (p+) and neutrons (n)
without electric change (neutral or noncharged).
- The protons (p+) and the neutrons (n) are called “nucleons” and represent two states
with different charges.
The difference in the number of neutrons (n) in the atomic nuclei of equal number of protons
(p+) , does not change the chemical properties of the atoms and are called "isotopes" of the
element.
If the isotope denoted "x", the atomic mass "M", and the atomic number "Z", then it is written
in the form (Mxz) e.g.,
238
U92, 232Th90 and 40K19, ……etc.

7
 U (ppm) Th (ppm) Th/U
K%
Rock types
average average Range average range average range

Crustal
2.1 3 12 4
average
Mafic 0.5-
0.5 1 0.2-3 3 3 3-5
igneous 10
Intermediate
1-2.5 2.3 0.5-7 9 2-20 4 2-6
igneous
Acid igneous 4 4.5 1-12 18 5-20 4 2-10
Arenaceous
1.4 1 0.5-2 3 2-6 3
sediments
Argillaceous
2.7 4 1-13 16 2-47 4 1-12
sediments
Limestones 0.3 2 1-10 2 - 1 -
Black shales 2.7 8 3-250 16 - 2 Wide
8-
Laterites Low 10 3-40 50 5 Wide
132
Metamorphic Depends on parent rock

Table showing the radioelement concentration in crustal rocks (Clark et

al, 1966).

8
Devices
1. Geiger Counter:
The new modern versions of Geiger counter devices
have larger capabilities in measuring radiation with
the its three main phases due to improving radiation
signals filtering of the modern technology, one
appears in the figure 3 Gamma- Scout model.
The specifications of modern Geiger counters could
be briefed by the following:
Versatile, easy to use, and compact precision instrument for measuring α-, β-, and γ-radiation.
- Filter selection switch
- Pulse counting
- Count rate measurement
- Variable acoustic and optical warning threshold signal
With filter selection switch at the front of the Geiger-Müller counter tube for filtering out
types of radiation (γ/β, γ/α/β or γ only), large display, and integrated USB interface. Includes
USB cable, Windows software, and operating instructions. The following functions and
operating modes are available for measurement: Standard mode for displaying the current
radiation level. Display of the equivalent dose as a numerical value and as bar chart and
display of the time until a selected cumulative dose limit is reached (default 5 μSv/h). Also
equipped with variable acoustic and optical warning threshold signal and display of average
radiation from previous day. Pulse counting either permanent or with variable gate time. Gate
time adjustable in seconds, minutes, or hours. Additional optional acoustic count indication.
Count rate measurement. The pulses registered are measured successively and converted into
a count rate (number of pulses per second). Integrated display of date and time for correct
recording of measured radiation. The number of pulses registered is stored in the internal
memory. This facilitates recording e.g. of weekly values for up to 10 years. Computer docking
station.

2. Gamma-ray spectrometer:
A modern shape of portable radiation spectrometers is the GS-512i of 512-channel gamma-ray
spectrometer which designed for field exploration of mineral deposits, gamma spectrometry,
measuring of concentrations of naturally occurring isotopes aboratory equipment for
determining γ-radiation spectrum with a scintillation counter.
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K [%, nG / h], U [ppm, nG / h], Th [ppm, nG / h] and total activities in uranium equivalent
concentration [ppm Ueq]. The GS-512i gamma spectrometer, figure 7, also allows users to set
up to four ROI’s (Region Of Interest) to measure pulse counts in user-defined channels/energy
ranges. The modern portable gamma-ray spectrometer allows inspection of stored spectra and
data immediately after the end of the measurement in the field without the need for
additional equipment. The measured and saved spectrum can be displayed with both linear
and logarithmic y- axis for greater user comfort.

3. Radon emanometer:
Radon is the only gaseous radioactive element. Being anoble gas it does not form compounds
with other elements and moves freely through pores, joints and faults in the subsurface either
as a gas or dissolved in groundwater. It is one of the products of the 238U decay series, with a
half-life of 3.8 days, and the presence of 222Rn at the surface is o en an indica on of buried
uranium concentrations.
The radon emanometer samples air drawn from a shallow drillhole. The sample is filtered,
dried and passed to an ionization chamber where alpha particle activity is
immediately monitored to provide a count rate. Figure 8, shows one of the Radon detectors
(Durridge RAD7) ,which used in industrial and academic studies it detects radon
concentrations in air, with optional accessories
to enable the device to measure radon
concentrations in soil and water, also to measure
radon flux from surfaces. The emanometer is
relatively slow to use in the field. It does,
however, represent a means of detecting deeper
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deposits of uranium than the other methods described above, since spectrometers will only
register gamma rays origina ng in the top meter or so of the subsurface (Telford 1982).
Because of its high mobility, radon can have travelled a considerable distance from the source
of uranium before being detected. The emanometer has also been used to map faults, which
provide channels for the transport of radon generated at depth (Abdoh & Pilkington 1989).
This technique is advantageous when there is no great difference in rock properties across the
fault that could be detected by other geophysical methods.
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive alpha particle emitting colorless, odorless and
tasteless gas produced by radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. It plays a dual role in
man’s life, being a fatal health hazard to mine workers and common people living in their
homes on one hand and a very useful geological tool on the other hand. As a geological tool
radon monitoring technique can be used in uranium and hydrocarbon exploration, earthquake
prediction, study of active geological faults and geothermal energy sources. With this
technique fault zones have been recognized with fairly good precision worldwide. The
technique can also be effectively used in hydrologic research, when studying the interactions
between groundwater, streams, and rivers. It has found limited use in geothermal prospecting.

Geophysical Radiometric Field surveys:

As mentioned previously, Geiger counter investigations are restricted to ground surveys.
Count rates are recorded and their significance is evaluated concerning background effects
caused by the potassium content in local rocks, nuclear fallout, and cosmic radiation. A
significant anomaly typically exceeds three times the background count rate. Scintillation
counters can also be utilized in ground surveys and are usually positioned on rock exposures.
The ground surface should be relatively flat to ensure that radioactive emissions originate
from the half-space below the instrument. If this condition is not met, a lead collimator can be
employed to prevent radioactive emissions from arriving from elevated areas adjacent to the
instrument. Most radiometric surveying is conducted from the air, utilizing larger scintillation
sensors than ground instruments, resulting in increased measurement sensitivity. Instruments
are linked to strip recorders and position fixing systems. Radiometric measurements are
usually conducted alongside magnetic and electromagnetic readings, thereby providing
additional datasets at minimal extra cost. When surveying for relatively small deposits, the
slow speed of helicopters is often advantageous and offers greater discrimination and
response amplitude. Flight al tude is typically less than 100 meters, and due to the weak
penetrating power of radioactive emissions, the acquired information pertains only to the top
meter or so of the ground. The interpretation of radiometric data is primarily qualitative,

11
although characteristic curves are available for certain basic shapes, providing the parameter:
(surface area) x (source intensity).
Figure 9 illustrates a ground magne c and gamma-ray profile spanning a uranium
mineralization zone in Labrador, Canada. This profile was derived from contour maps of a
specific area identified during a regional airborne survey. The profile reveals strong
coincidental magnetic and radiometric anomalies, prompting further investigation via two
boreholes. These anomalies originate from magnetite and pitchblende deposits, situated
directly beneath the anomaly maxima, within an argillaceous and quarzitic host. Pitchblende
refers to a variety of massive, botryoidal, or colloform Uraninite.

Airborne geophysical radioactive surveys are conducted to study the natural

radiometric emissions, primarily gamma rays, emanating from soils and rocks.
These emissions mainly originate from three sources of rock and soil radioactivity:
1. The decay products of the 238U series.
2. The decay products of the 232Th series.
3. 40K.

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While numerous radioactive isotopes exist in nature, only a few emit gamma rays.
From a geological perspective, three of these elements are particularly significant:
Bismuth-214 (Bi-214), Thallium-208 (Tl-208), and Potassium-40 (K-40). Gamma
rays emitted from Bi-214, resul ng from the decay of Uranium-238 (238U), have
an energy of 1.67 MeV. These gamma rays are u lized to measure concentra ons
of 238U when it reaches equilibrium with its decay products. The gamma rays
emitted from Tl-208, produced by the decay of Thorium-232 (232Th), have an
energy of 2.62 MeV. These gamma rays are employed to measure concentrations
of 232Th when it reaches equilibrium with its decay products. This method is
preferred due to the stability of Tl-208 in various erosion and weathering
conditions and the relatively short half-life of its nuclides. Potassium-40 emits
gamma rays with an energy of 1.46 MeV, primarily used for its detec on. It's
worth noting that these energies are constant and unchanging, resulting in
observable peaks in the energy spectrum emitted by rocks. Figures 10 and 11
illustrate the naturally occurring gamma-ray energy measured over rocks.

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Radiometric Survey Design:
While many survey design considerations for radiometric surveys resemble those
of magnetic surveys, there are notable differences. The most apparent disparity
lies in acceptable flight eleva on. While a flight eleva on of 300 meters may
suffice for a magnetic survey, it would likely be excessively high for most
radiometric surveys. A flight eleva on of 100 meters or less is typically more
suitable.
Counting Statistics:
When aiming to obtain the most accurate estimates of uranium, thorium, and
potassium abundances in the ground, it's crucial to consider factors influencing
counting statistics. The standard error of measurement per unit distance on the
ground is approximately inversely proportional. To reduce the standard error, we
must increase the count rate, which involves increasing the volume of the crystal
detector to its maximum capacity. However, practical limits exist on crystal size,
necessitating the addition of more crystals to increase volume. Yet, adding more
crystals introduces weight and complications such as detector matching and
internal scattering of gamma rays. Larger and more expensive aircraft are required
to accommodate these additional components, constrained by the aircraft's load
capacity. If the standard error is deemed too large and we aim to halve it, the
count rate must be quadrupled. There are four primary methods to achieve this:
- Increase the volume of the crystal, although this has practical limitations.
- Extend the sampling time, potentially requiring a reduction in aircraft speed to
maintain equivalent ground resolution, thus facing aircraft performance
constraints.
- Reduce terrain clearance, limited by safety considerations and topography.
The equa on provided, t = h / 4V, calculates the sampling me in seconds, where:
- t is the sampling time in seconds,
- h is the mean elevation between terrain and the detector in meters,
- V is the aircraft velocity in meters/second.
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Typically, h is chosen to be no more than twice the linear dimensions of the
smallest target considered to be of economic size. For instance, if h = 100 meters
and V = 50 m/sec., then t = 0.5 second. While adhering to this op mal rule may be
impractical in some cases due to potentially small sampling times, it serves as a
useful general guideline.

Line Spacing:
Determining the "optimum" line spacing involves balancing factors such as the size
of the area to be surveyed, the desired level of detail, and the project budget.
However, there are guidelines for determining the "ideal" line spacing based on
the concept of the "circle of investigation." This circle represents the area from
which a certain percentage of the total terrestrial radiation received by a
stationary detector at a given height originates. Curves illustrating this concept are
depicted in Figure 12. For instance, at a terrain clearance of 130 meters, 60% of
the incoming gamma radiation originates from within a circle with a radius of 150
meters. As the terrain clearance decreases to 60 meters, the radius of this circle
shrinks to 60 meters. This suggests the width of the instantaneous field of view of
the gamma-ray spectrometer.
As the "circle of investigation" moves with the aircraft, it forms a strip or "carpet"
of investigation centered on the flight line on the ground. The width of this strip
equals the diameter of the circle. To maintain good line-to-line coherency,
adjacent strips represen ng 60% of the total terrestrial radiation should not be
separated by more than half their widths. For fixed-wing surveys flown at a mean
terrain clearance of 130 meters, it's recommended to use a line spacing
approximately three mes the flying height, or about 400 meters. This spacing
helps avoid loss of detail and aliasing of the data. Helicopter surveys flown at a
height of 50 meters typically yield sa sfactory results with a line spacing
approximately four mes that al tude, or about 200 meters. While budget
constraints may necessitate wider line spacing, it's important to note that this may
lead to a lack of line-to-line coherency, resulting in non-contourable data.
15
Let's break down the information and illustrate the detector selection process:

Detector Selection:

The choice of detector, specifically the crystal size, depends on several factors
including the type of survey, aircraft speed, and altitude. For example, a high-
sensitivity survey conducted at a high altitude and relatively high speed may
necessitate large crystal volumes, up to 2000 in^3. Conversely, for medium-
sensi vity reconnaissance surveys, a volume of 1000 in^3 or less may suffice. In
airborne geochemical and geological mapping, a high-sensitivity system is typically
employed. However, for prospecting purposes targeting weak, broad halos or
regions of higher than normal radioactivity, a medium-sensitivity reconnaissance
survey may be adequate. These reconnaissance surveys are often conducted using
less costly aircraft, resulting in significantly lower costs per square kilometer
surveyed. This allows for a much larger area to be surveyed within a given budget.
To illustrate detector selec on, let's consider an example from Grant (1982).
Suppose it's crucial to detect and locate targets approximately 100 meters in
diameter, containing an average of 0.05% U3O8 for uranium or gold prospec ng.
We can calculate the expected count rate, Nu, in the Bi214 channel for a NaI(Tl)
crystal detector with a volume V in^3 at a height h meters above the ground, using
the formula:
Nu(corr) ≈ (V x C(U) x A x 10^-2) / (1.9 x h x e^(5.6 x 10^-3x h))
Here:
- C(U) is the U3O8 concentra on in percent.
- A is the area of the outcrop in square meters.
- h is the elevation above the ground in meters.
By plugging in the suggested values for C(U) and A, and assuming a helicopter
survey flown at a mean terrain clearance of 40 meters using a crystal volume of
1000 in^3 (approximately the maximum size for a medium-sized helicopter like a
16
Bell Jetranger), we can evaluate the suitability of the chosen detector for the
survey objectives. The choice of detector, particularly crystal size, is dependent on
the type of survey, aircraft speed, and altitude. For instance, a high-sensitivity
survey conducted at a high altitude and relatively high speed may necessitate large
crystal volumes (up to 2000 in^3), while a medium-sensitivity reconnaissance
survey may suffice with a volume of 1000 in^3 or less. High-sensitivity systems are
typically used for airborne geochemical and geological mapping, while medium-
sensitivity systems may be suitable for prospecting weak, broad halos or regions of
higher than normal radioactivity. To illustrate detector selection, let's consider an
example from Grant (1982). Suppose it's important to detect and locate targets
approximately 100 meters in diameter, containing an average of 0.05% U3O8 for
uranium or gold prospecting. By using typical calibration values, we can calculate
the expected count rate, Nu, in the Bi214 channel for a NaI(Tl) crystal detector
with a volume V in^3 at a height h meters above the ground, using the formula:

Nu(corr) ≈ (V x C(U) x A x 10^-2) / (1.9 x h x e^(5.6 x 10^-3x h))

Where:
- C(U) is the U3O8 concentra on in percent.
- A is the area of the outcrop in square meters.
- h is the elevation above the ground in meters.
For example, for a helicopter survey flown at a mean terrain clearance of 40
meters and using a crystal volume of 1000 in^3, the corrected count rate Nu(corr)
is approximately 41 counts per second (cps). The total count rate obtained by
integrating the spectrum over the total count window, assuming no contributions
from thorium or potassium, would be about 260 cps. The sta s cal uncertainty in
the background variation, Su, can be calculated approximately using the formula
Su ≈ (bu(atm.) + bu(geol.))^1/2 = (36 + 520)^1/2 ≈ 23 cps. The signal-to-noise ratio
in this case is approximately 1.8, indica ng that the target should be easily

17
detectable, assuming a line spacing of 200 meters is used. Ultimately, topography
and available budget usually dictate the final selection between helicopter and
fixed-wing surveys. While high-
sensitivity spectrometer systems
may require large and expensive
aircra like the Bell 412, a light
fixed-wing aircraft carrying a
relatively small crystal may be a
more cost-effective option. An
optimal strategy may involve using
the fixed-wing aircraft to outline
areas of high radioactivity using the
total count as a primary indicator,
followed by a high-sensitivity helicopter-borne survey to map radioelement
abundances in selected areas for detailed study.

Thallium-activated sodium iodide crystals are the most commonly used detectors
for gamma radiation in geologic mapping. When a gamma ray interacts with the
crystal and strikes an electron, the electron gains energy, which is emitted as a
small flash of light when the electron returns to its original state. The number of
flashes is proportional to the gamma ray energy, making the total light intensity a
measure of the incoming gamma ray's energy. An array of photomultiplier tubes
converts this light into an electrical signal. Sodium iodide crystals are preferred
over other detector types for several reasons:
- They offer good resolu on of energies in the 0.3 to 3 MeV range.
- They have high transparency, allowing even weak flashes of light to be detected.
- Large crystals of sodium iodide can be relatively easily grown, making them an
economical choice.

18
The efficiency of the detector increases with the volume of the crystal, as larger
crystals reduce the likelihood of gamma rays passing through undetected. While
solid-state semiconducting detectors, like lithium-drifted germanium crystals, offer
superior resolving power (50 to 80 mes that of NaI), they are challenging to grow
and require maintenance at liquid nitrogen temperatures, presenting handling and
weight issues. There are two types of gamma ray measuring systems: integral and
differential spectrometers. While the detectors are the same in both systems, the
electronic analyzers differ. These systems are illustrated in Figure 14.

Integral spectrometers measure the total amount of incoming gamma radiation

above a certain energy threshold. They typically do not distinguish between
gamma rays from thorium, uranium, or potassium sources, except by employing
multiple thresholds and measuring differences in total count rates. These
instruments are primarily handheld devices, often referred to as Geiger counters,
used for rapid prospecting work. Differential spectrometers, on the other hand,
measure gamma radiation within spectral windows of fixed energy width. These
19
windows are typically centered on the energy peaks of Bi214, Tl208, and K40 at
2.62, 1.76, and 1.46 MeV, respec vely. Differen al spectrometers require larger
detector crystals as they operate within narrower energy limits, dealing with lower
light flash counting rates. Maintaining stability in the spectral windows is crucial to
prevent significant losses in counting rates and biased data. The multichannel
spectrum analyzer is the ultimate form of differential spectrometer, monitoring
the entire gamma ray spectrum in discrete steps and immune to drift issues.
However, this system requires a large crystal volume. The minimum volume
needed for adequate resolution depends on sensor altitude and aircraft speed,
with approximately 1000 cubic inches being sufficient for low-flying helicopters
and up to 2000 cubic inches for fixed-wing applications. For both integral and
differential spectrometers, calibration and data corrections are essential.
Converting observed counting rates into numbers of incoming gamma rays per
unit of me from Bi214, Tl208, and K40 requires instrument calibra on and
correction for cosmic ray background effects, atmospheric noise, and Compton
scattering.
a -Calibration
The systems count rate is related to the gamma ray intensity through various
instrumental parameters, the most important being the sensitivity of the detector.
Because this sensitivity varies with the temperature of both the crystal and the
photomultiplier tubes, the temperature of the detector should be carefully
controlled during operation. As well as measures taken to control the
temperature, daily calibration checks, using standard isotope sources, are always a
good idea.
b- Dead time Correction
During the time that it takes the instrument to measure and analyze the
scintillation from a single gamma photon, it cannot cope with other incoming
gamma rays. Effectively, the instrument is "dead" during this period which lasts for
only a few microseconds. If the count rate is sufficiently high, some counts may be
missed during the data recovery period. The true count rate can be approximated
from the measured count rate if the dead time, T, is known by the following simple
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correc on: NTrue = Nmeasured / (1 - T Nmeasured)
In most cases the dead time correction is insignificant for airborne survey data, but
can be important for data collected during borehole logging.
c- Background Correction
The "background" refers to the general background count rate that prevails in
each channel, or spectral window, that is due to non-geologic sources, primarily
atmospheric radon and cosmic rays. Cosmic radiation tends to remain fairly
constant over short periods of time - the time required to complete a single
flightline, and sometimes a single flight. During a survey it can be monitored at the
beginning and end of each line, or flight, by climbing to an al tude of 300 meters
or more where the geologic contribution to the count rate is effectively zero, or by
flying over a lake where the water shields the sensor from geologic radiation.
A superior method of monitoring the background radiation uses crystals that are
shielded from radiation coming from below the aircraft. These "upward looking
crystals" detect only the gamma rays which originate from cosmic or spatially
variable atmospheric background. This provides a method of continuously
monitoring the background during the survey and thus, in principle, could permit
corrections to be made for it in real time.
d- Compton Stripping
The Compton sca ering correc on accounts for the gamma rays emi ed by Tl208
that happen to fall within the Bi214 and K40 windows and for the gamma rays
emi ed by Bi214 which happen to fall within the K40 window, as a result of energy
loss by Compton scattering. If no corrections were applied, both the uranium and
potassium count rates would be over-estimated. These corrections are made by
applying the following simple formulas:
For Thorium:
NTh(corr) = NTh(obs) - bTh
For Uranium:

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NU(corr) = NU(obs) - bU - α NTh(corr)
For Potassium:
NK (corr) = NK(obs) - bK – β NTh(corr) – γ NU(corr)

where:
(corr) stands for "background corrected count", and (obs) for "observed count"
and NTh, NU, and NK are the count rates in the Tl208, Bi214 and K40 channels,
respectively; bTh , bU and bK are the "Compton stripping ratios" defined as follows
α= # of counts in the Bi214 channel per count in the Tl208 channel. β = # of counts
in the K40 channel per count in the Tl208 channel.
γ = # of counts in the K40 channel per count in the Bi214 channel.
The values of β, α, and γ are determined by measuring the systems response using
artificially prepared calibration pads that are impregnated with the appropriate
isotopes. For a given detector configuration, they will tend to remain constant
over a fairly long period of time, but they should be checked periodically. Typically,
the values for these three ra os lie between 0.5 and 1.
e- Altitude Compensation Obviously, as the detector is moved further from the
source fewer gamma rays originating in the source will be sensed. Thus, it is
necessary to correct for the altitude of the
sensor above the ground, and for variations in
this distance. To a sufficient approximation,
within the range from about 50 to 300 meters,
the relationship between count rate and
changes in aircraft altitude is a simple
exponen al one as is illustrated in figure 15.

22
 conclusion

radiometric surveys are indispensable tools in geological exploration, particularly

for identifying and assessing mineral deposits containing uranium, thorium, and
potassium. These surveys rely on gamma radiation detectors, often utilizing sodium
iodide crystals due to their optimal properties. Integral spectrometers measure total
gamma radiation above a specific energy threshold, while differential spectrometers
focus on narrower energy windows, allowing for more detailed analysis.
Multichannel spectrum analyzers offer the highest resolution but require larger
crystal volumes. Accurate calibration and correction techniques are vital for precise
data interpretation. Corrections for factors such as dead time, background radiation,
Compton scattering, and altitude variations ensure that measured count rates reflect
actual radioelement abundances on the ground accurately. Overall, radiometric
surveys provide valuable insights into the distribution and concentration of
radioactive isotopes in the Earth's crust, aiding in mineral exploration, resource
assessment, and geological mapping.

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