ARTICLE IN PRESS

Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897

www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Case study

A study of the impact of personal innovativeness on online travel

shopping behavior—A case study of Korean travelers
Hae Young Leea,1, Hailin Qua,, Yoo Shin Kimb,2
a
School of Hotel and Restaurant Administration, Oklahoma State University, 210 HESW, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
b
Samsung Everland Inc., 50, Mabuk-dong, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, 446-912, Republic of Korea
Received 4 April 2006; accepted 5 April 2006

Abstract

Given online travel shopping is a relatively new concept and innovative behavior, research addressing the effect of traveler’s inherent
innovative personality on his/her online shopping behavior has relevance. This study examines how online traveler’s decision-making
paradigm may vary according to the traveler’s personal innovativeness level, by utilizing Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975, Belief, attitude,
intention and behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley) reasoned action theory as a theoretical background. The results indicate that
highly innovative travelers are mainly influenced by their positive attitudes when they embrace online shopping; while less innovative
travelers rely on both attitude and the referral’s opinions to reduce uncertainty inherent in online transactions. One special finding was
that for highly innovative travelers, the propensity to shop for travel-related products would decrease with increasing the referent’s social
influence.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Travelers’ personal innovativeness; Theory of reasoned action (TRA); Online travel shopping behavior

1. Introduction comparing the product content and the price through

As online travel shopping continues to gain acceptance
by travelers, many travel businesses are aware of the
business benefits of the Internet as a commercial vehicle
(Beldona, Morrison, & O’Leary, 2005; Forsythe & Shi,
2003; Murphy & Tan, 2003). The efficient use of the
Internet helps travel businesses to reduce costs, improve
service quality, and realize profits by targeting new markets
that otherwise cannot be attained (Kim & Lee, 2004;
Limayem, Khalifa, & Frini, 2000).
Despite the business benefits of online travel shopping,
retaining online travelers is never easy. This is because
bargaining power has begun to shift from sellers to buyers
(Ahuja, Gupta, & Raman, 2003). Online travelers can
review many different online travel websites by easily
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 405 744 6711; fax: +1 405 744 6299.
E-mail addresses: haeyoung.lee@okstate.edu (H.Y. Lee),
h.qu@okstate.edu (H. Qu), yooshin.kim@samsung.com (Y.S. Kim).
1
Tel.: +1 405 332 0754.
2
Tel.: +82 31 288 0843.
direct searches on the Internet (Machlis, 1997). Moreover,
not all travelers show the same level of interest in shopping
travel products and services online. Some travelers are
more inclined to blend new technologies into their daily
buying activities, while others tend to hesitate to shop
online (Beldona, Kline, & Morrison, 2004). Thus, a better
understanding of online traveler’s buying behavior is
needed to implement more successful online marketing
strategies.
During the last decade, much research has been
conducted to explain online consumers’ buying behavior.
Most researchers have been interested in testing how
existing theories of consumer behavior can be utilized to
cover all aspects of the online consumer’s decision-making
process (Ahuja et al., 2003). The attitude-based theory has
served as the dominant theoretical framework (Bobbitt &
Dabholkar, 2001; Fagerstrøm, 2005; Olson & Zanna,
1993). Some studies (e.g., Eastin, 2002; Khalifa &
Limayem, 2003; O’Cass & Fenech, 2003) have probed
several motivational perceptions related to online con-
sumers’ attitude formation, others (e.g., Athiyaman, 2002;

0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2006.04.013
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H.Y. Lee et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897
Shim, Eastlick, Lotz, & Warrington, 2001) have focused on
how strong a relation exists among proposed variables
within a given online context.
However, in spite of its importance and the implication,
less attention has been given to the potential moderating
effect of relevant individual differences on the accepted
relationships of the online purchasing decision model
(Bobbitt & Dabholkar, 2001; Fagerstrøm, 2005). Only a
few studies elucidate the conditions that influence online
consumers’ decision-making paradigm (e.g., Chiu, Lin, &
Tang, 2005; Karahanna, Straub, & Chervany, 1999;
Limayem et al., 2000).
Recent research (e.g., Beldona et al., 2004; Im, Bayus, &
Mason, 2003; Limayem et al., 2000) in this regard sheds
light on stable individual differences such as an innovative
predisposition to explain different influences on online
shopping behavior. Such research streams are timely and
relevant, given that online shopping is a relatively new
concept which is more likely to be embraced by innovators.
A person’s innate innovative personality may influence
how he/she perceives and uses online shopping.
To investigate the additional impact of personal
innovativeness on online buying behavior process, Fishbein
and Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action (TRA) is
adopted as a theoretical foundation for this study since it is
a widely used attitude model for explaining consumers’
buying behavior (Fagerstrøm, 2005; Olson & Zanna, 1993).
It is also that TRA takes social forces well into account in
predicting human behavior, though the role of social
influence continues to be an issue of debate (Karahanna et
al., 1999; Taylor & Todd, 1995; Venkatesh & Morris,
2000).
This study attempts to determine how travelers’ online
shopping behavior varies depending on their personal
innovativeness. Clearly, this study posits that travelers’
innovative predisposition would influence relationships
among their attitude, subjective norm, and shopping
behavior. This study also re-examines whether two key
antecedents (i.e., attitude and subjective norm) are
significant variables in predicting travelers’ online shopping
behavior. Specifically, based on Fishbein and Ajzen’s
(1975) TRA, two major determinants (attitude and
subjective norm) of online shopping behavior are first
identified and one individual difference moderator (perso-
nal innovativeness) is then included in this study. The
results of this study made theoretical contributions to the
Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975)’s reasoned action theory and
provide meaningful implications to online travel marketers
who would like to assess travelers’ demand for their online
service and increase future purchasing behavior.
2. Literature review
2.1. The role of personal innovativeness in technology usage
Personal innovativeness is an individual’s inherent
innovative personality with respect to new technologies,
887
which is defined as the traveler’s receptivity to online travel
shopping in this study (Agarwal & Prasad, 1998). Recent
IT research (e.g., Im et al., 2003; Jones, Sundaram, & Chin,
2002; O’Cass & Fenech, 2003; Rogers, 1995) has focused
on the individual’s innate innovativeness to explain the
individual’s different adoption and use of innovative
technologies. Some individuals are more inclined to
embrace new technologies, while others follow the lead of
highly innovative individuals (Limayem et al., 2000), since
different people would have different levels of willingness
to try out innovative technologies (Bhatnagar, Misra, &
Rao, 2000; Eastin, 2002; Rogers, 1995; Thatcher &
Perrewé, 2002).
Research on the role of personal innovativeness in new
technologies has been conducted in a variety of settings
such as sales force automation (SFA) (e.g., Jones et al.,
2002), office automation (e.g., Agarwal & Prasad, 1998;
Leonard-Barton & Deschamps, 1988), web retailing (e.g.,
O’Cass & Fenech, 2003), and online shopping (e.g.,
Bhatnagar et al., 2000; Im et al., 2003; Limayem et al.,
2000). Jones et al. (2002) examined and found that the
degree of an individual’s technology usage behavior is
determined by the level of his/her personal innovativeness.
Agarwal and Prasad (1998) demonstrated that the relation-
ship between users’ perceptions of the Internet and
intentions to use may vary based on their innovative
dispositions. Leonard-Barton and Deschamps (1988) also
argued that highly innovative users with managerial
support are likely to use a certain technology, while low
innovative users with no managerial support are not as
likely to accept and use the proposed system. Similarly,
O’Cass and Fenech (2003) suggested that highly innovative
web users are more likely to develop more positive attitude
toward new technologies.
Rogers’ (1995) innovation diffusion theory lends addi-
tional support by suggesting that users’ personality
differences can potentially influence how users form their
intentions to perform behaviors. By exploring the technol-
ogy adoption stages, Rogers (1995) revealed that (1) users
with higher levels of personal innovativeness are more
prone to have more favorable attitude toward new
technologies; and (2) highly innovative users are more
willing to embrace new technologies into their daily routine
by coping with the uncertainty of innovative technologies.
Within the context of online shopping, an individual’s
innovative personality has been explored as a concept of
risk-taking tendencies, since an innovative behavior such as
online shopping involves unavoidable risk and uncertainty
(Bhatnagar et al., 2000; Kwak, Fox, & Zinkhan, 2002).
Specifically, online shoppers cannot ensure the degree of
service quality when they make a purchase online. They
tend to perceive online shopping to be more risky
compared to offline purchasing (Kwak et al., 2002). Online
shopping is thus, more prone to be welcomed and adopted
by highly innovative shoppers, who have high levels of self-
confidence about their online purchase behaviors (Li-
mayem et al., 2000; Thatcher & Perrewé, 2002).
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888 H.Y. Lee et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897
Recent travel research has also indicated that travelers’
risk-taking tendencies are significantly related to their
innate personal innovativeness (e.g., Beldona et al.,
2004; Christou, Avdimiotis, Kassianidis, & Sigala, 2004;
Klein, Köhne, & Öörni, 2004; Nysveen, 2003; Sigala,
2004). In general, online travelers undergo a certain
degree of uncertainty when they shop for travel-related
products online, since they cannot evaluate travel pro-
ducts and services prior to purchase (Weber & Roehl,
1999). However, not all travelers have the same risk-
taking capacity and risk tolerance level when they
shop for travel products and services online. Travelers
with higher personal innovativeness are more will-
ing to take risks and purchase travel products and services
online earlier than less innovative travelers (Beldona et al.,
2004).
Christou et al. (2004), within the context of electronic
tickets (Etix) for air travel, demonstrated that Etix
adopters are highly innovative air travelers who are more
disposed to accept the uncertainty of paperless e-ticket
service through the development of self-confidence in their
ability to evaluate a process and the results before they
buy. By linking leisure tourists’ information seeking
behavior and their risk perceptions associated with online
travel shopping, Nysveen (2003) also found that to cope
with higher levels of uncertainty surrounding the online
travel shopping, innovative leisure travelers are less likely
to engage in risk-reducing information search activities
when compared to non-innovative leisure travelers. More-
over, Sigala (2004) mentioned that travelers vary in their
adoption stage of online travel booking according to their
perceived risk in online travel shopping. Similarly, Klein et
al. (2004) demonstrated that higher complex travel
products such as vacations, honeymoons, and cruises tend
to involve more uncertainty in transactions; suggesting that
the propensity to buy such high complex travel products
increases with increasing individuals’ receptivity levels to
online travel shopping.
2.2. Theory of reasoned action (TRA)
Over the last three decades, various models were
introduced to explain a person’s voluntary and volitional
behavior. Of these models, Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975)
TRA has been one of the most widely used as a theoretical
background (Brown, 1999b; Fagerstrøm, 2005; Olson &
Zanna, 1993). TRA’s foundation is based on the attitu-
de–behavior literature, assuming that human behavior
could be explained by attitudes (Bobbitt & Dabholkar,
2001; Oh & Hsu, 2001). The underlying concept of TRA is
essentially that people evaluate the implications of their
reasoned action before they decide to perform a particular
behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Specifically, this model
posits that a person’s behavior (B) is determined by the
person’s intention to perform the behavior (BI), which in
turn is predicted by the person’s attitude (A) and subjective
norm toward the behavior (SN) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980;
Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975):
B ¼ w1 BI,
BI ¼ w2 A þ w3 SN,
where w1, w2, and w3 is the subjective weights for a
particular person.
According to TRA, attitude refers to the person’s
evaluation about performing the target behavior. Attitude
is a function of the product of beliefs about consequences
of performing a specific behavior and the consequences
evaluation (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989; Mathieson,
1991). On the contrary, subjective norm represents the
person’s perception of social influence to perform the given
behavior. Subjective norm is also a function of expecta-
tions of a particular referent and motivation to comply
with these expectations (Taylor & Todd, 1995).
TRA made a major contribution to the previous attitude
research by proposing behavioral intentions as the most
important determinant of a person’s behavior. The main
interest of human behavior has been shifted from attitude
to behavioral intention (Bobbitt & Dabholkar, 2001;
Brown, 1999a). There are three main assumptions that
affect the applicability of the TRA (Ajzen & Fishbein,
1977; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). First, the behavior should
be under a person’s volitional control. Any behavior that is
not under any consciousness of effort cannot be explained
by its corresponding behavioral intention (Fagerstrøm,
2005; Oh & Hsu, 2001). Second, attitudes and intentions
should be equally specific to each situation and identical on
four such elements as action, target, context, and time,
since some measures that apply in one context may vary
across different contexts (Brown, 1999b; Mathieson, 1991).
Third, given that intentions can also change over time, a
minimum time period should be allowed to increase the
likelihood that a person’s behavioral intention may lead to
the person’s desired behavior (Brown, 1999a, 1999b;
Fagerstrøm, 2005).
These basic premises can be met successfully into the
online travel shopping context in that (1) travelers engage
into online transactions with their rational and volitional
choice; (2) online travel shopping is enough of a narrow
and specific context to predict specific behavior. Moreover,
some situational factors, referring to adequate opportu-
nities and resources related to online shopping, are not a
big issue in Korea’s e-commerce market, given Korea’s e-
commerce penetration through the country’s widespread
broadband access (Korea National Computerization
Agency, 2002).
TRA has also received substantial empirical support by
several hospitality and tourism studies. It has been applied
to a wide range of behaviors such as online travel
purchasing (Njite & Parsa, 2004), cultural heritage sites
visitation (Brown, 1999a, 1999b), casino gambling (Oh &
Hsu, 2001), meeting participation (Lee & Back, 2005),
healthier food choice (Corney, Eves, Kipps, & Noble,
1998), and local cuisine/ethnic food experience (Ryu &
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H.Y. Lee et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897
Jang, 2005; Zhang & Roseman, 2005). Results of these
studies indicated that a person’s rational behavior is a
function of his/her attitude toward the target behavior and
perception of social press. In general, a person’s rational
behavior is more affected by his/her attitude toward a
particular behavior than a person’s perception of social
influence to perform the given behavior.
3. Research model and hypotheses
The research model presented in Fig. 1 illustrates how
the existence and strength of a relation among attitude,
subjective norm, and shopping behavior could be different
depending on travelers’ innovative predisposition. In
addition to Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA model, the
personal innovativeness as the individual difference mod-
erator was added in the model to test if the personal
innovativeness has significant impact on online shopping
behavior.
In examining how travelers’ online buying behavior
depends largely on their innovative predisposition, inten-
tion to search as well as intention to purchase was included
in this study as an important outcome variable of online
shopping behavior, since a person’s search intention also
acts as a strong precursor of future buying behavior
(Bellman, Lohse, & Johnson, 1999; Piga & Filippi, 2002;
Shim et al., 2001). In general, online customers gather as
much information as possible by browsing several websites
before buying products and services for the purpose of
reducing costs. Online customer’s search and purchase
intentions should be understood as hierarchical processes
(Shim et al., 2001).
The attitude–behavior link has been a fundamental focus
of human behavior research (Bobbitt & Dabholkar, 2001;
Olson & Zanna, 1993). It is generally suggested that a
person’s attitude toward a particular behavior predicts his/
her behavioral intention and actual behavior, though
different people would have different attitude formation
(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Karahanna et al., 1999).
Specifically, if a customer does not have a favorable
attitude toward a particular behavior, the customer would
be more likely to perform the behavior; while if a customer
has an unfavorable attitude, the customer was less likely to
Attitude
H3-1
H3-2
Personal
innovativenes
H4-1
H4-2
Subjective
norm
Fig. 1. Conceptual framework of the study.
889
engage in a given behavior (O’Cass & Fenech, 2003). Thus,
these arguments suggest the following hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1-1. Attitude toward online travel shopping
will be positively associated with online travelers’ intention
to search.
Hypothesis 1-2. Attitude toward online travel shopping
will be positively associated with online travelers’ intention
to purchase.
A person’s behavior can also be predicted by his/her
perceived opinions of referents as well as his/her attitude
toward the behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). This implies
the possibility that an individual could act based on his/her
referents’ opinions, though he/she does not have a positive
attitude toward a certain behavior (Brown, 1999b). In
general, subjective norm has been revealed to be more
important in the early stages of a particular system usage
(Karahanna et al., 1999), for those without prior experi-
ence (Taylor & Todd, 1995), and for women (Venkatesh &
Morris, 2000). Thus, the following hypotheses were tested.
Hypothesis 2-1. Subjective norm toward online travel
shopping will be positively associated with online travelers’
intention to search.
Hypothesis 2-2. Subjective norm toward online travel
shopping will be positively associated with online travelers’
intention to purchase.
Given that online shopping is a relatively new concept,
innovative consumers are more apt to be early buyers
(Goldsmith, 2001). Compared to less innovative consu-
mers, more innovative consumers tend to seek out new
experiences such as online shopping (Chiu et al., 2005;
Limayem et al., 2000). They play a prominent role as
opinion leaders by encouraging less innovative travelers to
engage in online shopping. In addition, personal innova-
tiveness toward online shopping has newly been found to
influence consumers’ decision-making paradigm. The high-
er the level of a consumer’s personal innovativeness, the
greater the positive relationship is between a consumer’s
attitude toward online shopping and his/her behavioral
intention (Beldona et al., 2004; Klein et al., 2004, Sigala,
H1-1
Intention to
H1-2 search
H2-1
Intention to
purchase
H2-2
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890 H.Y. Lee et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897
2004). In view of these arguments, the following hypotheses
were proposed.
Hypothesis 3-1. Personal innovativeness will moderate the
relationship between online travelers’ attitude and their
intention to search.
Hypothesis 3-2. Personal innovativeness will moderate the
relationship between online travelers’ attitude and their
intention to purchase.
Hypothesis 4-1. Personal innovativeness will moderate the
relationship between online travelers’ subjective norm and
their intention to purchase.
Hypothesis 4-2. Personal innovativeness will moderate the
relationship between online travelers’ subjective norm and
their intention to search.
4. Methodology
4.1. Survey instrument
A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect the
data. The questionnaire was divided into three sections.
The first section of the questionnaire asked about the
respondents’ general online shopping behavior such as
duration of usage, hours of usage per day and number of
purchases. The second section included 14 questions
measuring the respondents’ attitude, subjective norm,
personal innovativeness, and intention. All items were
measured with five-point Likert scales ranging from
strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The scales for
attitude and subjective norm were generated based on
Taylor and Todd (1995). Attitude was measured with four
items asking subjects to indicate how they feel about online
travel shopping. Subjective norm was measured with two
items. The respondents were asked to indicate the
importance of referents approving of their use of the
Internet for shopping. Personal innovativeness was mea-
sured with four items adapted from Agarwal and Prasad
(1998). Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to
which they agreed with statements relating to their
willingness to try new online shopping technology. Two
dependent variables, intention to search and intention to
purchase were adapted from Venkatesh and Davis (2000).
The respondents were asked to indicate their intention that
they would search travel-related information and purchase
a particular travel-related product through the Internet.
The final section assessed respondents’ socio-demographic
information such as age, gender, education, and income.
In order to validate the instrument, two Korean
professors reviewed the relevance of the instruments for
online travelers. Some modifications of the questionnaire
were made, based on the comments collected through this
pre-test. Following the pre-test, a pilot test consisting of 50
randomly selected online members was conducted. Conse-
quently, based on feedback from the pilot test, minor
modifications were also made and a final questionnaire was
developed.
The Cronbach’s alpha values of three measurements
(attitude, subjective norm, personal innovativeness) were
.83, .75, and .87, respectively, indicating that all variables
were considered to be internally consistent (Hair, Ander-
son, Tatham, & Black, 1995). The alpha coefficients of two
measurements (intention to search and intention to
purchase) for the present sample were .65 and .82,
respectively, which demonstrates adequate reliability
(Burns & Bush, 2001).
Since self-report measures from a single source were used
to gather data, this study includes the possibility of a same-
source variance problem such as common method bias. A
single-factor test was used as a way to control for common
method bias, since the total number of variables proposed
in this study is minimal (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). Results
showed that a single factor was not extracted from the
initial set of variables, which indicate that common method
bias is not a significant problem in this study.
4.2. Sampling and survey procedures
A convenience sampling method was used for data
collection. Data were obtained from travel subscriber e-
mail addresses of a large wholesale travel agency in South
Korea. The participants were limited to known subscribers
who had purchased travel products online at least once in
the last one year. Modetour Network (www.modetour.-
co.kr) was secured as the research site, since it is one of the
leading travel agencies in South Korea, with well-adminis-
tered one-stop online travel shopping site as well as a
nationwide online travel members (The Korea Travel
Times, 2001). Given this study’s focus is on online
travelers, a web-based online survey was adopted as the
survey method. A web-based online survey method has
some advantages over the traditional paper-based survey:
(1) lower costs, (2) faster responses, and (3) geographically
unrestricted sample (Ridings, Gefen, & Arinze, 2002). An
e-mail explaining the purpose of the survey and containing
the link to the web-based survey was distributed to all 974
selected online members. The respondents were asked to
complete the self-administered web questionnaire based on
their shopping experience when using a particular travel-
related website during the last 12 months. The main survey
was conducted from July 1, 2003 to August 15, 2003.
A total of 235 surveys were completed which resulted in
a 24.1% response rate. Of these, 27 were discarded because
they were not fully completed and 208 questionnaires were
used for further data analysis. In order to ensure external
validity, demographics of the sample were matched with
those of known population data of Internet users (Ridings
et al., 2002). The demographic results of this study were
consistent with those of a 2002 Korea Internet White
Paper, which indicated that the online population is
relatively younger, more educated, with a higher income
(Korea National Computerization Agency, 2002).
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4.3. Data analysis Table 1

Descriptive statistics of respondents’ characteristics (n ¼ 208)
Hierarchical moderated regression analysis (Aiken & Demographics Frequency Percent
West, 1991) was used to test the hypotheses. Hierarchical
moderated regression attempts to improve standard Gender
regression estimates by adding a second-stage regression Male 128 61.5
Female 80 38.5
to an ordinary model. It adds terms to the regression model
in stages. At each stage, an additional term or terms are Age
added to the model and the change in R2 is calculated. A 19–28 97 46.6
29–38 72 34.6
hypothesis test was undertaken to test whether the change
39–48 32 15.4
in R2 is significantly different from zero. The significance of Over 49 7 3.4
the interaction can be assessed after controlling for all main
Education
effects (Anderson, 1986).
High school 16 7.7
Separate analyses were conducted for intention to search 2-year College 48 23.1
and intention to purchase, which were the two outcome 4-year College/University 134 64.4
variables in this study. Given that the demographic Graduate 10 4.8
variables of age, gender, education, and income have been Annual income
found to have a significant effect on online travelers’ Less than $20,000 8 3.8
shopping behavior (Bellman et al., 1999; Bonn, Furr, & $20,000–$29,999 80 38.5
Susskind, 1998; Forsythe & Shi, 2003; Weber & Roehl, $30,000–$39,999 64 30.8
Over $40,000 56 26.9
1999), these demographic variables were included as
control variables in the regression analysis to avoid Duration of usage
potential causal influence on online travel shopping Less than 12 months 4 1.9
13–24 months 4 1.9
behavior. That is, as the control variables, online travelers’
25–36 months 24 11.5
demographics (i.e., age, gender, education, and income) Over 36 months 176 84.6
were entered first in step 1. In step 2, attitude, subjective
Hours of usage/day
norm, and personal innovativeness were included in the
Less than 1 h 48 23.1
model. In the last step, the interaction terms, attitu- 1–2 h 80 38.5
de  personal innovativeness and subjective 2–3 h 40 19.2
norm  personal innovativeness were entered into the Over 3 h 40 19.2
model to test the interaction effects. In order to represent Times of purchase
the interaction terms, the variables were first centered and 1 time 8 3.8
then multiplied together to eliminate multicollinearity 2 times 16 7.7
(Aiken & West, 1991). An F-test, associated with the 3 times 40 19.2
Over 3 times 144 69.2
change in R2 after the block is entered, was performed to
assess the contribution of each step (Anderson, 1986).
Based on the procedures suggested by Aiken and West
(1991), interaction effects were inspected by plotting two
subgroup regression lines—one at one standard deviation reported spending 1 h or more per day online and 88.4%
above the mean, the other at one standard deviation below had 3 or more years of online purchasing experience.
the mean.
5.2. Intention to search
5. Results
The means, standard deviations, and correlations for all
5.1. Profile of respondents study variables are presented in Table 2. Attitude and
subjective norm were positively correlated with intention to
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the respon- search (r ¼ :49, po:01; r ¼ :21, po:01) and with intention
dents. The majority of respondents were male (61.5%), age to purchase (r ¼ :37, po:01; r ¼ :43, po:01), respectively.
19–38 (81.2%), and had received at least a 2-year degree Results of the hierarchical moderated regression analysis
(92.3%). (see Table 3) show that the addition of the interaction
Only 3.8% of the respondents had annual incomes of less terms improves the amount of variance in intention to
than $20,000, 69.3% had incomes of $20,000 to $39,999, search significantly (DR2 ¼ :06, F ¼ 11:91, po:001).
and 26.9% reported incomes of $40,000 or more. Among the control variables, age (b1 ¼ :13, po:05) and
In terms of respondents’ online behavior, nearly 85% education (b3 ¼ :31, po:001) remained significant in the
had 3 or more years of online experience, while only 1.9% final model. With respect to the independent variables,
of the respondents had been online users for less than 1 attitude (b5 ¼ :55, po:001) and personal innovativeness
year. About three-quarters (76.9%) of the respondents (b7 ¼ :29, po:001) were found to be significant in the final
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892 H.Y. Lee et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897

Table 2
Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations matrix

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Control variables
1. Age 31.05 8.36 —
2. Gender 1.39 .49 .49 —
3. Education 2.66 .69 .13 .15 —
4. Annual income 2.81 .88 .13 .01 .22 —
Independent variables
5. Attitude 2.81 1.60 .17 .15 .07 .14 —
6. Subjective norm 2.71 .97 .13 .22 .07 .04 .32 —
7. Personal innovativeness 3.19 1.12 .17 .05 .01 .03 .40 .02 —
Dependent variables
8. Intention to search 3.90 .82 .06 .01 .23 .22 .49 .21 .53 —
9. Intention to purchase 3.77 .67 .03 .04 .43 .08 .37 .43 .44 .48

Note: Gender: 1 ¼ male, 2 ¼ female. Education: 1 ¼ High school, 2 ¼ 2-year College, 3 ¼ 4-year College/University, 4 ¼ Graduate.
Annual income: 1 ¼ Less than $20,000, 2 ¼ $20,000–$29,999, 3 ¼ $30,000–$39,999, 4 ¼ Over $40,000.
 po.05.
 po.01.

Table 3 search (b8 ¼ :24, po:001; b9 ¼ :22, po:001) (see also

Hierarchical moderated regression analysis on intention to search Table 3). Thus, H3-1, which hypothesized that attitude and
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
personal innovativeness, would interact to predict online
travelers’ intention to search and H4-1, suggesting sub-
Control variables jective norm and personal innovativeness would interact to
B1 Age .12 .09 .13 predict online travelers’ intention to search, were both not
B2 Gender .03 .04 .06
rejected.
B3 Education .20 .24 .31
B4 Annual income .19 .13 .01
Independent variables
5.3. Intention to purchase
B5 Attitude .32 .55
B6 Subjective norm .11 .09
B7 Personal innovativeness .38 .29 Table 4 shows the results of the hierarchical moderated
regression analysis on intention to purchase, the second
Interaction
B8 Attitude  Personal .24 dependent variable. Even though the increased amount of
innovativeness variance was slight, the addition of interaction terms
B9 Subjective norm  Personal .22 explained a significant incremental portion of variance in
innovativeness intention to purchase (DR2 ¼ :02, F ¼ 4:53, po:05).
R2 .09 .46 .52
Among the control variables, only education (b3 ¼ :49,
Adjusted R2 .08 .45 .50
F-value 5.18 24.92 24.14 po:001) was significant in the final equations, with the
DR2 .37 .06 more educated travelers being more likely to purchase
F-value for DR2 46.59 11.91 online. After entering the interaction terms, attitude
(b5 ¼ :30, po:001), subjective norm (b6 ¼ :36, po:001)
Note: Standardized regression coefficients are reported in columns marked
and personal innovativeness (b7 ¼ :34, po:001) were all
Model 1, Model 2, Model 3.
 po.05. significantly related to intention to purchase. Thus, H1-2
 po.01. and H2-2, which involves the effects of attitude and
 po.001.
subjective norm on intention to purchase, were not rejected
in the intention to purchase model.
model, while subjective norm (b6 ¼ :09, n.s.) became The interaction of attitude and personal innovativeness
insignificant. Thus, H1-1, positing that attitude toward was significantly related to intention to purchase
online travel shopping would be positively associated with (b8 ¼ :18, po:01). Thus, H3-2 which hypothesized
the online traveler’s intention to search, was not rejected that attitude and personal innovativeness would inter-
(see Table 3). However, H2-1, which stipulated a positive act to predict the online traveler’s intention to purchase
relation between subjective norm and the online traveler’s was not rejected. However, the interaction of subjective
intention to search, was rejected. norm and personal innovativeness was not significantly
In addition, two interaction terms of personal innova- related to intention to purchase (b9 ¼ :05, n.s.). Thus,
tiveness were also significantly related to intention to H4-2 proposing that subjective norm and personal
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H.Y. Lee et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897 893

Table 4 5
Hierarchical moderated regression analysis on intention to purchase
4.5
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Intention to search
4
Control variables
B1 Age .10 .07 .06
B2 Gender .03 .08 .03 3.5
B3 Education .44 .44 .49
B4 Annual income .01 .03 .07 3 High innovativeness
Independent variables Low innovativeness
2.5
B5 Attitude .17 .30
B6 Subjective norm .37 .36
2
B7 Personal innovativeness .36 .34
Low High
Interaction Attitude
B8 Attitude  Personal .18
innovativeness Fig. 2. Relationship between attitude and intention to search at two levels
B9 Subjective norm  .05 of personal innovativeness.
Personal innovativeness
R2 .19 .56 .58
Adjusted R2 .18 .55 .56 5
F-value 12.17 36.87 30.70
DR2 .37 .02
4.5
F-value for DR2 56.50 4.53 Intention to search
Note: Standardized regression coefficients are reported in columns marked 4
Model 1, Model 2, Model 3.
 po.05. 3.5
po.01.
po.001.
3 High innovativeness
Low innovativeness
2.5
innovativeness would significantly interact to predict the
2
online traveler’s intention to purchase was rejected.
Low High
Subjective Norm
5.4. Interaction effects
Fig. 3. Relationship between subjective norm and intention to search at
To better understand the pattern of interaction effects, two levels of personal innovativeness.
the significant interactions were depicted graphically
following the procedures described by Aiken and West
(1991). The relationship between attitude and intention to 4.5
search at two levels (means71 standard deviation) of the
personal innovativeness is shown in Fig. 2. It revealed that 4
Intention to purchase

the relationship between attitude and intention to search

was stronger among online travelers with low levels of 3.5
personal innovativeness than among respondents with high
levels of personal innovativeness. Specifically, online 3
travelers with low levels of personal innovativeness were
High innovativeness
more likely to search the travel-related products through
2.5 Low innovativeness
the Internet when they had high levels of attitude than
those with high levels of personal innovativeness.
In Fig. 3, the relationship between subjective norm and 2
Low High
intention to search is depicted. The relationship between
subjective norm and intention to search was negative at Attitude
high levels of personal innovativeness, while it was positive Fig. 4. Relationship between attitude and intention to purchase at two
at low levels of personal innovativeness. Although the levels of personal innovativeness.
difference was very small, online travelers who have low
personal innovativeness were more likely to search the Finally, the interaction for intention to purchase was
travel-related products when they had high levels of plotted in Fig. 4. The relationship between attitude and
subjective norm than those who had high personal intention to purchase was stronger among online travelers
innovativeness. with low levels of personal innovativeness than among
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894 H.Y. Lee et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897
respondents with high levels of personal innovativeness.
Specifically, there was little difference in intention to
purchase for high and low personal innovativeness
travelers, when they had high levels of attitude toward
online travel shopping. At low levels of attitude, however,
there was much difference in intention to purchase for high
and low personal innovativeness travelers.
6. Discussion
The main focus of this study was to examine how
travelers’ innate innovativeness affects the traveler’s online
shopping behavior. Specifically, it has been tested whether
the impact of attitude and subjective norm on the traveler’s
shopping intention is related to personal innovativeness, by
using Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) reasoned action theory
as a theoretical background.
To begin with, this study revealed that among the
control variables, age and education were important
demographic variables in the intention to search model,
and education was the only significant predictor in the
intention to purchase model. Thus, based on the findings of
the relationship between online purchasers’ demographics
and their intention to search and intention to purchase,
online travel marketers could identify attractive and
potential niche market segments. They could target
relatively younger and more educated online travelers,
though demographics alone are not enough for market
segmentation (Bellman et al., 1999; Bonn et al., 1998).
Regarding average effects, attitude was the only sig-
nificant predictor in explaining online travelers’ intention
to search, while both attitude and subjective norm were
statistically significant antecedents of online travelers’
intention to purchase. This suggests that of the variables
measured, online travelers rely mainly on a level of attitude
toward online travel shopping in forming their searching
intention; while they also consider referents’ opinions (i.e.,
family and friends) to be an important source when they
would like to purchase travel-related products online.
Otherwise stated, at low levels of uncertainty, online
travelers are mainly influenced by their levels of attitude,
while they rely on both attitude and the referrals to cope
with higher levels of uncertainty, given that purchasing
intention has higher levels of uncertainty than searching
intention (Shim et al., 2001).
This finding, however, should be tempered by the fact
that the impact of attitude and subjective norm on online
travelers’ shopping intention can be affected by the degree
of online travelers’ inherent personal innovativeness
(Beldona et al., 2004; Klein et al., 2004; Sigala, 2004).
The results showed that personal innovativeness would
interact with attitude to influence intention to search and
intention to purchase. Overall, the greater the level of
online traveler’s innovativeness, the greater was the like-
lihood that attitude would lead to higher intention to
search and intention to purchase the travel-related
products online. In addition, the results showed that in
comparison to those with high innovativeness, online
travelers with low innovativeness were more likely to
search travel-related information online when they have
high levels of attitude toward online travel shopping
(Goldsmith, 2001). Compared with invested resources,
the effects of marketing strategy enforcing targeted online
travelers’ attitude are greater for less innovative travelers
rather than for high innovative travelers. Although this was
somewhat different from the finding of earlier works
(Agarwal & Prasad, 1998; Shim et al., 2001), this finding
suggests that less innovative online travelers may be a good
target market for online travel marketers, if they have a
favorable attitude toward online travel shopping.
The results also suggested that the impact of subjective
norm on intention to search is influenced by online
travelers’ innovativeness, while subjective norm and
personal innovativeness did not interact to predict the
online travelers’ intention to purchase. The relationship
between subjective norm and intention to search was
negative at high levels of personal innovativeness, while it
was positive at low levels of personal innovativeness. This
finding shows that online travelers with high levels of
innovativeness place less reliance on social information in
the process of searching the travel-related products online.
7. Contributions and implications
The main contribution of this study is the examination of
the moderating effect of personal innovativeness on the
online purchase decision-making process. This study
presents explicit evidence suggesting that the impacts of
attitude and subjective norm on online travelers’ shopping
intention depend largely on online travelers’ innovative
predisposition. The results provide meaningful insight into
why not all travelers show the same level of interest in
shopping travel products online, even when they have the
same level of positive attitude and the referral’s opinion.
Based on the results, more specialized service strategies
could be implemented in terms of travelers’ innovative
level.
The findings of this study also provide some important
practical implications for online travel marketers. First, in
order to encourage online travelers to blend online travel
shopping into their daily buying activities, online travel
marketers should principally focus both on increasing
targeted online travelers’ attitude and fostering the
referents’ opinions. Although the referents’ positive opi-
nions can be utilized to fortify online travelers’ purchasing
intention; for more effective marketing results, online
travel marketers should apply a marketing strategy
targeting online travelers’ attitude toward online travel
shopping. Thus, it is suggested that online travel marketers
provide critically desired utilities related to online travel
shopping (e.g., convenience, contents, cost saving, and
privacy). If online marketing communications could enable
travelers to focus on such benefits of online shopping, the
propensity to shop for travel products and services online
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H.Y. Lee et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 886–897 895

would increase (Athiyaman, 2002; Beldona et al., 2005). conditions in other countries. Thus, future research can
Another way to foster online travelers’ affective attitude further examine how the availability of requisite resources
toward online shopping is to promote differences in online and opportunities (e.g., such as Internet access or e-
travelers’ daily buying choices. Through participation in commerce penetration rate) influences the online purchas-
site design and operation, online travelers should be able to ing behavior process. In so doing, future research can
fully recognize the key aspects of a given online shopping compare online travelers’ shopping behavior paradigm
service (Goldsmith, 2001). Especially, online travel market- between different online market situations.
ers have to shift their focus from attraction through ease of
function to retention through relevant and valuable
Appendix. Scales and items
information as travelers experience online shopping.
Second, online travel businesses’ social influence market-
ing strategies should be tailored based on online travelers’ Attitude (adapted from Taylor and Todd 1995)
level of innovativeness. That is, for online travelers with AT 1. Online shopping is a good idea.
low innovativeness, more personalized social information AT 2. Online shopping is a wise idea.
such as the referents’ buying choices should be weighted as AT 3. I like the idea of online shopping.
a suitable marketing way, since they are more open to AT 4. Online shopping would be pleasant.
social influence than high innovative travelers (Khalifa &
Limayem, 2003). Conversely, for online travelers with high Subjective norm (adapted from Taylor and Todd 1995)
innovativeness, an indirect mass-media style approach SN 1. People who influence my behavior would think
should be explored so that it can be perceived to be less that I should shop online.
influential on shopping behavior, given that they are less SN 2. People who are important to me would think
motivated to comply with the referents in making their that I should shop online
buying decisions. In addition, compared to less innovative Personal innovativeness (adapted from Agarwal and Prasad
online travelers, innovative online travelers tend to be less- 1998)
price sensitive (Goldsmith, 2001). Thus, rather than a PI 1. If I heard about a new technology, I would
money-saving approach, non-monetary benefits could be look for ways to experiment with it.
highlighted as a more effective marketing approach to high PI 2. Among my peers, I am usually the first to try
innovative online travelers. Lastly, high innovative trave- out new information technologies.
lers can be a clear target market for new product and high PI 3. In general, I am hesitant to try out new
complex travel products such as cruises or vacation travel information technologies.a
packages (Beldona et al., 2005; Christou et al., 2004), since PI 4. I like to experiment with new information
they are more willing to take risks and purchase travel technologies.
products online earlier than less innovative travelers.
Intention to search (adapted from Venkatesh and Davis
8. Limitations and future research 2000)
IS 1. I plan to search for travel-related product
It is important to note a few limitations in this study information online in the future.
when interpreting the results. First, this study focused IS 2. I expect my use of the Internet will be to search
solely on innovative predisposition, given that online travel for travel-related product information in the
shopping is more likely to be welcomed by high innovative future.
travelers (Limayem et al., 2000). However, different types Intention to purchase (adapted from Venkatesh and Davis
of individual personality such as opinion leadership or 2000)
shopping orientation could be included in the future IP 1. I plan to purchase travel-related product online
research. Researchers could investigate how those factors in the future.
modify the accepted paradigm for online purchase IP 2. I expect my use of the Internet will be to
behavior. Second, self-reports from the same subjects were purchase travel-related product in the future.
used to gather data. This may introduce the possibility of a
Reverse scaled item.
common method bias, though it is tested by single-factor
solution. Thus, future research could collect dependent
variables and independent variables at different times.
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