Annals of Tourism Research 84 (2020) 102977

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Annals of Tourism Research

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A conceptual model of adventure tour guide well-being

T
Susan Houge Mackenziea,⁎, Eliza Raymondb
a
Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Level 2, Commerce Building, Cnr Union and Clyde Streets, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
b
GOOD Travel, 132 Tirohanga Road, Lower Hutt 5010, New Zealand

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Editor: Philip L. Pearce Tour guides play a critical role in influencing visitor experiences and organisational success. The
Keywords: experiences of tour guides themselves however are less understood, particularly with regards to
Tour guide how these experiences impact on guides' well-being. Adventure tour guiding unfolds in a unique
Psychological well-being context reported to involve both high levels of emotional labour and job satisfaction. This study
Self-determination theory explored key factors that determine adventure guides' psychological well-being in this unique
Nature connection work context. In-depth qualitative interviews with air, land, and water-based guides identified
Beneficence primary, secondary, and tertiary psychological well-being determinants. Based on these findings,
Adventure tourism
a conceptual model of adventure guide well-being is proposed to inform future research and
practices for fostering guide well-being.

Introduction

Global studies of front-line tourism workers have illustrated various ill-being impacts of these roles resulting from issues such as
power imbalances, poor working conditions, transiency, and emotional labour (e.g., Baum, 2015; Constanti & Gibbs, 2005). Likewise,
studies of adventure guide experiences have largely focused on ill-being outcomes. Adventure guiding has been shown to create
emotional labour due to client expectations of heroic guide archetypes, and their expectations of experiencing heightened perceived
risk coupled with low actual risk (e.g., Arnould, Price, & Otnes, 1999; Holyfield & Jonas, 2003). Adventure guide stress and burnout
has also been associated with environmental hazards, physical demands, group management dynamics, and extended trip durations
(e.g., Houge Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Marchland, Russell, & Cross, 2009). In contrast, some studies suggest that adventure contexts
may support guide well-being. Adventure guiding has been linked to the development of positive relationships, a sense of
achievement, and job satisfaction (e.g., Sharpe, 2005; Torland, 2011). Adventure tours that afford opportunities for co-creation can
also foster guide well-being via an enhanced sense of meaning, authenticity, and connection to others (e.g., Mathisen, 2019;
Valkonen, 2009). Notwithstanding, research has primarily focused on tour guide ill-being, and associated mitigation strategies, rather
than well-being.
The present study aimed to develop tourism theory and sustainable industry practices by extending current understandings of
how adventure guiding work impacts adventure guides' psychological well-being. This research is rooted in the emerging discipline of
Positive Tourism, which seeks to understand how tourism influences well-being (Filep, Laing, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2017). From a
theoretical perspective, the study findings are used to propose a conceptual model of adventure guide well-being that can inform
future research. From an applied perspective, the findings are used to suggest practices that can foster guide well-being.

⁎
Corresponding author at: University of Otago, New Zealand.
E-mail addresses: Susan.hougemackenzie@otago.ac.nz (S. Houge Mackenzie), eliza@good-travel.org (E. Raymond).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102977
Received 27 November 2019; Received in revised form 23 April 2020; Accepted 5 June 2020
0160-7383/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Houge Mackenzie and E. Raymond Annals of Tourism Research 84 (2020) 102977

Literature review

Positive tourism approaches

Early tourism scholars such as Krippendorf (1986) maintained that tourism held the potential to be “a means of human en-
richment, a stimulus for a better reality and a better society. That is the utopian and idealistic framework on which one should build.”
(p. 530). This approach is reflected in recent calls for tourism research dedicated to understanding flourishing among visitors,
communities, and workers (Filep et al., 2017). Scholars have proposed that a Positive Tourism platform, grounded in humanism and
positive psychology, is needed to facilitate more nuanced tourism discourses. Leaders in this movement argue that research grounded
in humanism will complement and “challenge the dystopian scholarship in tourism” (Filep et al., 2017, p. 13). The goal of a
knowledge platform based in humanism and positive psychology is to understand how tourism can support human flourishing and
well-being (Filep & Laing, 2019).
Positive Tourism stems from positive psychology, a relatively new discipline that, in the broadest terms, seeks to understand what
makes life worth living (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). The positive psychology movement was born out of dissatisfaction with
the ‘disease model’ of psychology that focused almost exclusively on pathology and ill-being. This approach to psychology largely
ignored the optimal functioning of individuals and communities. Quite simply, positive psychology marked a shift in focus from
studying ill-being, to understanding well-being for individuals and communities. Over the past decade, Positive Tourism approaches
emerged for similar reasons. Tourism literature has focused primarily on how tourism creates ill-being for individuals and societies, a
view that often overlooks the potential for well-being in tourism contexts. Filep and Laing (2019, p. 350) argue that “to focus on the
negative is to ignore the transcendental qualities of tourism, and to overlook its potential for improving the human condition, both
collectively and individually.” Thus, Positive Tourism focuses on the well-being of tourists, workers and communities.
As ill-being consequences of tourism work have been well-documented (e.g., Baum, 2015; Wong & Wang, 2009), scholars have
identified the need for research on tourism workers' experiences informed by positive psychology (Filep & Laing, 2019). Although
tourism research has found that supporting guide well-being is an important means to an end (e.g., enhancing visitor experiences;
Van Dijk, Smith, & Cooper, 2011), Positive Tourism approaches provide an opportunity to reframe guide well-being as an important
end in itself. In line with this approach, the current study sought to identify a framework for understanding adventure tour guides'
well-being informed by positive psychology literature.

Tour guiding and well-being

Research on tour guiding has progressed significantly in recent decades with an increasing focus on how guides fulfil roles beyond
simply delivering information or ensuring tourists enjoy their holiday. For instance, Weiler, Black, and colleagues have produced a
range of critical texts identifying the diversity and complexity of guide roles (e.g., Weiler & Black, 2015a, 2015b). These roles include
fostering sustainable tourism (e.g., Weiler & Kim, 2011) and brokering tourism experiences across a range of domains, such as access
to local culture (Weiler & Yu, 2007). Guides can also broker cultural understanding (Scherle & Nonnenmann, 2008) and empathy by
‘choreographing’ travel activities (Beedie, 2003). It has even been suggested that tour guides may facilitate self-development and
lasting personal transformations in spiritual tourism contexts (Parsons, Houge Mackenzie, & Filep, 2019). These increasingly complex
roles reflect an evolution towards co-created tourism experiences, characterized by shared control between guides and clients and
active collaboration to create customised tours (Weiler & Black, 2015a, 2015b). This literature reveals the critical roles that guides
play in facilitating meaningful and sustainable tourist experiences.
Co-created tours entail cultivating unique experiences that are both enjoyable and meaningful for clients and guides (Weiler &
Black, 2015b). This conceptualisation of symbiotic, shared experiences aligns with Positive Tourism approaches in that it suggests
how tour guiding might provide mutual benefit and meaning for clients and guides. Work by Saunders, Weiler, and Laing (2017)
supports this conceptualisation. They found that, when guides mediated meanings for visitors, their work fostered personal trans-
formations and ‘authentic happiness’ for guides. Notwithstanding, tourism research has predominantly highlighted the negative
impacts of front-line roles. Following Hochschild's (1983) investigations of service workers' emotional labour, scholars have de-
monstrated how emotional labour can decrease employee well-being across diverse service settings (e.g., Liu, Perrewe, Hochwarter, &
Kacmar, 2004; Lv, Shi, & Hui, 2012; Zapf & Holz, 2006). Front-line tourism workers in particular appear to be negatively impacted by
demands to ‘perform’ both emotionally and aesthetically for tourists (e.g., Constanti & Gibbs, 2005; Van Dijk et al., 2011; Witz,
Warhurst, & Nickson, 2003). This issue has been documented in a range of cultural contexts. For instance, Wong and Wang (2009)
reported that Taiwanese tour guides experienced significant ill-being outcomes due to high emotional labour demands, which were
exacerbated by factors such as pay and group size. However, these authors also identified that emotional labour may have positive
consequences “when it is experienced as self-enhancing or when workers are in control of their emotions” (p. 256).
The adventure literature further reflects a range of potential emotional outcomes in guiding roles. Sharpe (2005), for example,
identified how adventure guides created ‘authentic’ and rewarding experiences through emotion regulation and deep acting (i.e.,
aligning one's true feelings with emotions required by the job; Hochschild, 1983). Guides reported how emotion regulation resulted in
feelings of achievement, whereas surface acting was eschewed as it led to suppressed emotions and produced ‘canned’ trips. Likewise,
Torland (2011) found equally high job satisfaction levels among male and female Australian adventure guides, which was attributed
to deep acting. She concluded that as guides often worked “in close proximity to their clients, in unpredictable natural environments
and sometimes over extended periods of time… adventure tour leaders will typically make ‘friends’ with their clients rather than
taking on the role as a more ‘superficial’ service provider” (p. 381). Given these findings, the following section explores the unique

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adventure guiding context and literature on adventure guide experiences in greater depth.

Adventure tour guiding

“Adventure tourism is characterized by…relatively high levels of sensory stimulation, usually achieved by including physically
challenging experiential components” (Muller & Cleaver, 2000, p. 156). Adventure guiding often involves pressure to display ap-
propriate emotions in physically and mentally demanding environments while managing diverse groups of novices, potentially over
extended encounters (e.g., Arnould et al., 1999). The need to exhibit or suppress emotions has been documented among adventure
guides as a result of (i) adventure guide archetypes and (ii) heightened expectations from clients in relation to perceived risks (e.g.,
Constanti & Gibbs, 2005; Holyfield & Jonas, 2003; Sharpe, 2005). Client expectations and the inherent hazards posed by adventure
activities have been associated with guide stress, anxiety, burnout, turnover, and decreased quality of social interactions (e.g., Houge
Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Marchland et al., 2009).
The adventure guiding literature reflects larger tensions in tourism literature highlighted by Filep et al. (2017), namely the
dominance of dystopian accounts of guiding work contrasted with emerging literature, which suggests more hopeful potentials of
tour guiding. Conceptually, Weiler and Black (2015a) identified these potentials as inherent in the movement towards co-created
tours that support both hedonic (e.g., positive emotions) and eudaimonic (e.g., meaning, life satisfaction) well-being for clients and
guides. Empirically, studies have reported how adventure guides often engage in ‘deep acting’ and other techniques that reduce
emotional labour and increase authenticity and meaningfulness (Mathisen, 2019; Sharpe, 2005; Valkonen, 2009). In arctic ad-
ventures, Mathisen (2019) illustrated how storytelling changed guides' focus from delivering a ‘product’ to meaningful interactions
with individual clients. Houge Mackenzie and Kerr (2013, 2014, 2017) identified inter and intrapersonal factors that influenced guide
experiences across contexts. In the whitewater context, they found that guiding could elicit negative emotions and stress due to
interactions with the natural environment, clients and co-workers. Conversely, these authors also reported that developing a psy-
chological ‘protective frame’ could reduce negative emotions and stress and facilitate positive emotions.
Overall, the literature has focused on identifying ways to mitigate negative impacts of tour guiding. Given the mixed evidence
regarding adventure guide experiences, and the diverse study contexts, there is a need to better understand key factors that influence
adventure guides' experiences and psychological well-being. The present study extends current knowledge by investigating de-
terminants of psychological well-being for adventure guides working across a range of activities.

Nature and guide well-being

In addition to the intra- and inter-personal aspects of adventure guiding, the environmental context of this work may also
significantly impact guides' well-being. Adventure guiding inherently involves natural environments, therefore the potential impact
of nature on guide well-being is worth examining. Leisure research suggests that one way adventure activities may enhance well-
being is by facilitating nature contact (Mutz & Müller, 2016). The role of nature in well-being has received increasing attention and
support across health, sport and leisure literature. A large-scale systematic review identified that being physically active outdoors
provides synergistic benefits beyond those attained from physical activities performed in non-natural environments (Thompson Coon
et al., 2011). For example, ‘green exercise’ studies demonstrate the additive benefits of physical activity in natural settings compared
to non-natural environments (e.g., Pretty et al., 2007). In an experiment involving the same physical activity across indoor, urban,
and natural settings, Ryan et al. (2010) found that the nature context significantly enhanced subjective well-being. A recent sys-
tematic review of nature-based physical activity identified a wide range of benefits including enhanced: general well-being, psy-
chological stability, life satisfaction, emotional intelligence, intellectual flexibility, mindfulness, empathy, self-esteem, self-actuali-
sation, social capital, educational performance, and intrinsic motivation (Eigenschenk et al., 2019). As adventure pursuits unfold in
natural environments, and involve physical activity, it was anticipated that adventure guides' well-being may be enhanced by their
nature-based work context. Although the authors are unaware of studies directly examining this relationship with guides, leisure
literature identifies a range of benefits from nature-based adventure. These benefits include emotional regulation, improved quality
of life, positive life transformations, social connections, and pleasure (e.g., Brymer & Gray, 2010; Willig, 2008). Thus, it was an-
ticipated that the nature context may support guide well-being.

Psychological well-being frameworks

Well-being has been theorised in various ways across disciplines. Public policy approaches typically view well-being in terms of
economics (e.g., enabling ‘preference satisfaction’ by increasing incomes; Benjamin, Heffetz, Kimball, & Szembrot, 2014) and ‘ob-
jective’ human development dimensions (e.g., life-expectancy, education, living standards; UN Human Development Index). In-
creasingly, subjective well-being frameworks, which focus on immediate emotions and overall life satisfaction (e.g., Kahneman,
Diener, & Schwarz, 1999), are being applied to operationalise psychological well-being (PWB). Two distinct approaches to PWB
dominate the literature: hedonia (e.g., short-term positive affective experiences) and eudaimonia (e.g., longer-term fulfilment, life
satisfaction, meaning) (e.g., Ryan & Martela, 2016; Ryff, 2013). As there is empirical support for both hedonic and eudiamonic well-
being theories, the relative importance of these approaches remains contested (e.g., Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2009; Huta & Waterman,
2014). However, many scholars, such as Huta and Ryan (2010), argue for the primacy of eudaimonic well-being approaches on the
basis that eudaimonia also fosters more stable and enduring hedonic happiness.
Adventure benefits are often portrayed as largely hedonic (e.g., heightened emotions, thrill/excitement; Cater, 2006). However,

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research increasingly highlights the eudaimonic benefits of adventure, such as personal growth, self-actualisation, achievement,
enhanced relationships, and self-determination (e.g., Brymer & Schweitzer, 2017; Kerr & Houge Mackenzie, 2012). Accordingly,
scholars have identified the need for eudaimonic well-being approaches in adventure studies to better understand the relationship
between PWB and adventure (Houge Mackenzie & Brymer, 2020).
Both eudaimonic and hedonic well-being have been directly linked to basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness (e.g., Ryan & Martela, 2016). A robust body of literature demonstrates that satisfying these basic psychological needs is
vital for psychological growth, well-being (e.g., life satisfaction; psychological health), and subjective vitality (Ryan & Deci, 2017).
These findings form the basis of self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017), a leading theory of psychological well-being.
SDT proposes that people are intrinsically motivated by desires for personal growth, self-direction, and affiliation, and that intrinsic,
self-determined motivation stems directly from the inherent enjoyment and satisfaction of an activity or behaviour, without external
rewards. Achieving psychological growth is predicated on the degree to which we can experience mastery, connect to others, and feel
in control of our behaviours and choices (self-determined). SDT conceptualises these basic psychological needs as autonomy, com-
petence, and relatedness, and suggests these needs are universal (Chen et al., 2015). Autonomy means having an authentic sense of self-
direction and volition, and being the perceived origin of one's own behaviour, rather than being externally controlled (Ryan & Deci,
2017). Competence involves feeling effective in interactions with one's environment and having opportunities to exercise one's ca-
pacities. Relatedness entails feeling connected to others and having a sense of belonging with individuals and one's community.
Research has consistently demonstrated that the degree to which these basic psychological needs are supported or frustrated
significantly impacts well-being and performance across life domains (e.g., business, education, health, leisure; e.g., Ryan & Deci,
2017), and that basic psychological need fulfilment predicts daily well-being (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000) and life
satisfaction (e.g., Ryan & Martela, 2016). Of particular relevance for the current study, autonomy, competence and relatedness have
consistently predicted psychological well-being for employees, students and teachers, and athletes and coaches (e.g., Scarf et al.,
2018; Stenling & Tafvelin, 2014; Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte, Soenens, & Lens, 2010). Findings from teaching and
coaching contexts are relevant due to shared features with adventure guiding (e.g., instructing and motivating novices to learn new
tasks; facilitating effective teamwork among groups). Despite the potential relevance of SDT constructs to understanding tourism
worker and visitor experiences, this framework has not been widely applied in tourism research. Given the established links between
basic psychological needs and well-being in both work and adventure recreation domains, the current study incorporated basic
psychological need concepts in this investigation of adventure guide well-being.

Study aims

Tourism literature lacks models of guide well-being, particularly models suited to the unique adventure tourism context. Research
with adventure guides has shown mixed findings in relation to how the demands of this role may impact guides across diverse
activities. Therefore, the study aimed to develop a conceptual model of adventure guides' psychological well-being. The purpose of
developing this model was twofold: (i) advance tourism theory by proposing a framework for future research and (ii) improve
industry practices by identifying strategies for supporting guide well-being.

Methodology

Research paradigm and reflexivity

As psychological experiences of well-being were central to this investigation, a constructivist approach to qualitative research was
selected. Qualitative methodologies are preferred when phenomena are subjective, not readily observable, and/or where pre-existing
research is lacking (Patton, 2002). The constructivist approach assumes that researchers' interpretations are influenced by personal
backgrounds, the research context, interpersonal relationships, and inquiry methods (Charmaz, 2005). Similarly, researchers' and
participants' joint constructions of reality influence all aspects of the research process, from questions posed to theory generation.
Constructivists (e.g., Charmaz, 2005) also contend that qualitative data can result in ‘mundane descriptions’ without theoretical
analysis and development. Therefore this investigation critically analysed qualitative accounts of adventure guides' PWB in order to
develop a theoretical model applicable to research and practice.
From a constructivist perspective, the authors understood that personal experiences with the study phenomenon (i.e., working in
adventure tourism) would influence data analysis and recognised their values, experiences, and priorities in the research process. The
lead author had a background in psychological theory and adventure guiding. The second author owned a socially responsible travel
company, guided tours globally, and had a background in sustainable tourism. Importantly, the second author had no knowledge of
psychological theory during the inductive analysis (details below). While these personal and professional experiences inherently
influenced study design and analysis, it was hoped that the authors' backgrounds provided advantages in terms of advancing both
theoretical and practical developments in this unique context.

Participants and sampling

A purposeful sample of 21 adventure guides (N = 21, 11 men, 10 women) across a range of activities and experience levels were
recruited via snowballing (Patton, 2002). Participants were individuals with “substantial experience” and/or “considerable insight”
(Charmaz, 2001, p. 676) into adventure guiding, who were selected on the basis of having worked at least 1 year in a full-time

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Part I: 1. Introduc!on to interview

Introduc!on procedures and topic.

Part II: 2. Open-ended ques!ons lead to 3. Par!cipant & interviewer

Induc!ve raw descriptors wri"en on yellow collabora!vely create ‘picture’ of
Sec!on post-it notes. experience with cards.

Part III: 4. Basic psychological needs and 5. Par!cipants (i) confirm, (ii) add, or
Deduc!ve nature offered as poten!al (iii) reject each poten!al concept.
Sec!on aspects of experience on index
cards.

6. Par!cipant feedback and

Part IV:
confirma!on of their visual figure.
Conclusion

7. Comparison of visual figure with 8. Follow up member checking.

Accuracy
verba!m transcript.
Checks

9. Independent induc!ve analyses 10. Comparison of analyses with

Content
by authors to iden!fy emergent deduc!ve themes and discussion to
Analysis
themes. reach consensus on final themes
and model structure.

Fig. 1. SCIM interview and data analysis pathway (adapted from Lonsdale et al., 2007).

adventure guiding role. Participants representing a range of experience levels and activities were sought, as well as seeking an
approximately equal ratio of women to men. While participants guided activities traditionally classed as ‘hard adventure’ (e.g.,
heightened levels of actual risk requiring higher skills), versus ‘soft’ or ‘slow’ adventure (e.g., heightened perceived risk coupled with
low actual risk levels) (e.g., Hill, 1995; Pomfret, 2006), the authors recognise that these categorisations are highly contested, par-
ticularly in the guided tourism domain, and may shift over time. Snowballing was initiated by contacting adventure associations (e.g.,
New Zealand Mountain Guides Association; Tourism Industry Aotearoa) and established adventure operators offering land (e.g.,
climbing), water (e.g., rafting) and/or air-based (e.g., paragliding) tours in Queenstown, New Zealand. The Queenstown region was
an appropriate study location as it is depicted as the global “adventure capital” in tourism literature (e.g., Cater, 2006, p. 319) and is
home to a range of adventure tourism activities and guides. The final sample represented a range of adventure activities (9 land, 5
water, 4 air, 3 multiple activities), levels of guiding experience (1 to 25 years, mean = 11.2 years), ages (22 to 46 years,
mean = 35.3 years), and nationalities (Australian, British, Canadian, Czech, French, Irish, New Zealand).

Data collection and analysis

Data were collected via individual semi-structured interviews lasting 42 to 73 min (mean = 56 min). The interview format was
piloted with two adventure guides (external to sample) and revised for clarity based on their feedback. Data were collected using the
Scanlan Collaborative Interview Method (SCIM; Scanlan, Russell, Wilson, & Scanlan, 2003; see Fig. 1).
The SCIM interview was conducted in four parts. Part one introduced the interview procedure and topic (adventure guiding and

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well-being). The majority of the interview was conducted in part two, which consisted of open-ended inductive questions (e.g., Why
do you work as an adventure guide? How does adventure guiding support or hinder your well-being? Can you explain how each of the factors
you identified influences your well-being?). In part two, yellow post-it notes were used to develop a visual figure of key concepts. Part
three evaluated theory-derived concepts through questions relating to nature contact and basic psychological needs (e.g.,
Relatedness: To what extent do you feel close and connected to people who are important to you while adventure guiding?; Competence: To
what extent do you feel competent and capable in your role as an adventure guide? Autonomy: To what extent do you feel free to do things
your own way while adventure guiding?). Each participant was asked follow-up questions to clarify if a concept influenced guides' well-
being and how it might influence well-being (e.g., Does this influence your well-being or not? If so, can you explain how?). Deductive
questions were supported by presenting participants with printed cards defining the concept. Participants were asked to consider if
the concept influenced their well-being, in which case it was added to their visual figure, or if it should be excluded. Participants had
many opportunities to arrange inductive and deductive concepts to reflect their relative contributions to well-being. In part four, the
interviewer and participant collaboratively reviewed the final visual product and checked for accuracy. To further establish trust-
worthiness, member checking was conducted following each interview, in which participants could modify or elaborate on state-
ments or figures.
Data analysis began with verbatim transcription of interviews followed by data coding using Nvivo software. First, the authors
independently coded all inductive data by grouping raw quotes into codes and then creating higher-order themes based on initial
coding. At this stage, they compared inductive transcript themes with participants' visual figures to refine themes and check that raw
data reflected themes (Lonsdale, Hodge, & Raedeke, 2007; Scanlan et al., 2003). The authors then compared their independent
analyses for consistency and compared inductive themes with deductive themes to identify potential connections (Scanlan et al.,
2003). Consensus on the final themes and structure of the proposed model was achieved through (a) discussion between the two
investigators; (b) referring back to raw data descriptors and visual figures; (c) referencing to operational definitions of deductive
concepts (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2017); and (d) evaluating emergent themes in relation to PWB literature.

Results and discussion

Data analysis identified a range of emergent and deductive determinants of guides' PWB. In this section, key themes are cate-
gorised into primary, secondary, and tertiary determinants to reflect their relative importance to guides' PWB. Readers should note
that these categories do not simply reflect the frequency of a theme, although this was taken into consideration, but more im-
portantly, the strength of the theme in determining guides' PWB. Thus, quality and quantity are both reflected in the results. Each
determinant is also discussed in relation to the literature. The section culminates with a conceptual model based on the findings.

Primary determinants

Participants identified competence, nature connection, and positively impacting others (i.e., beneficence) as the most important themes
in relation to their well-being as an adventure guide. All 21 participants included competence and nature connection in their figures,
20 guides included beneficence, and 18 guides situated all three of these themes as being of central importance to well-being.
The quotes below illustrate how feeling competent was essential for guides to enjoy their work and enhanced self-esteem.“This
[feeling competent] would be at the very top for me because if I don't feel competent… I'm not going to enjoy anything…that's right up there.”
[Land, F]. “[Guiding] feels good… is good for your self-esteem…it makes you feel like you've got something to offer people.” [Land, M]. In
contrast, lacking a sense of competence was not only unenjoyable, it could also create anxiety. The risks associated with adventure
activities may account for the strength of this theme among guides due to safety issues that could arise if competence was lacking,
coupled with the sense of responsibility they felt for their (often novice) clients. “If that's not happening, the competence and being
capable…I don't think you'll continue doing it [adventure guiding]… If those two aren't in place, then things are going to get difficult, or worse,
dangerous. And then nothing else will be enjoyable.” [Air, M].
The connection to nature resulting from the adventure guiding context was also a key well-being determinant. The quotes below
highlight how connecting with nature was critical to guides' well-being, and how well-being could suffer without this. “I just love being
outdoors and if I can get paid for it…then great... it's the best feeling ever being in the water…it's just like home.” [Water, F]. Not only did
nature feel like ‘home’ for many guides, it also afforded opportunities to experience unique natural phenomena. “I love being outside. I
hate being stuck inside... Hanging around in nature you see things that people at work [inside] wouldn't see…Like grizzly bears… [or] pink
snow in France…those are things I've always enjoyed.” [Land, M]. Some guides noted that the type of nature they experienced also
mattered, such as more remote natural settings providing increased well-being benefits. “We are in nature almost all the time. However,
we are stuck to… real generic, touristy stuff. So, it's not like ‘true nature’… I prefer to go the backroads and go places where no one else is.”
[Multiple activities, F]. Equally, the guiding role sometimes detracted from guides' ability to psychologically connect with nature,
even in attractive natural areas. “When you're flying solo, you get to appreciate the scenery…with a tandem [guided trip] it's a fleeting
appreciation, and then you're back on task because you can't…daydream about how pretty the mountains are for more than what it is safe to!”
[Air, M].
Across all adventure activities (air, land, water), working outdoors and connecting with nature were described by participants as
key motivations for choosing their vocation. In order for nature to support well-being, guides needed opportunities to feel psycho-
logically focused on, and connected to, nature. Thus, data suggested that nature connection was an important determinant of guide
well-being, but that the type of nature and degree of psychological connection to nature may influence the extent to which it supports
guide well-being. These findings suggest that future studies should further investigate how various types of nature connection and

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access may impact guide well-being.

The emergent theme ‘positively impacting others’ was also described as a key determinant of PWB in the adventure guiding
context. This theme centred around the rewards of positively impacting clients by helping them achieve their goals. “If my guests are
stoked at the end of the day, I'm happy, I've done well…As long as they are stoked, I'm happy” [Multiple activities, F]. Guides described
how positively impacting others was highly rewarding and generated feelings of accomplishment.“Being able to take [clients] through
something that they wouldn't have been able to do without you…that's the biggest reward.” [Land, F]. The sentiment that helping clients
achieve their goals was intrinsically rewarding and fostered guide well-being was echoed across the interviews. Participant de-
scriptions also reflected how the adventure context facilitated unique opportunities to positively impacting others by helping clients
overcome challenges and face fears, which may be less available in non-adventure contexts.
“I had two girls that were really terrified…crying, panic attacks, everything, but they were just so adamant about getting to the top… it was
a three-hour epic that would take one hour [normally]. But we finally got them to the top and…it was like the greatest thing that they had
ever done in their lives…it was quite cool… a year and a half later and they're still tagging us on Instagram…”this was the greatest thing I
ever did“!.… they were such hard work, but they got up there and they're so appreciative, and they love it.”
[Land, F]
In comparing this emergent theme with well-being literature, positively impacting others appeared to reflect the recently proposed
concept of beneficence (i.e., sense of having a positive influence on other people) (Martela & Ryan, 2019). Initial studies have
suggested that beneficence enhances PWB but to a lesser degree than autonomy, competence, or relatedness (e.g., Martela & Ryan,
2019). However, the current findings suggested that beneficence was more influential in adventure guide well-being than relatedness
and autonomy (discussed below).This is noteworthy as these findings may challenge SDT literature positing autonomy, competence
and relatedness are the most important psychological needs across contexts, with autonomy theorised to be the primary need (Ryan &
Deci, 2017).

Secondary determinants

Following competence, nature connection, and beneficence, relatedness and autonomy were identified as important determinants
of guide well-being. While 19 guides included relatedness in their figures, 16 of these guides situated relatedness as central to well-
being. Similarly, 18 guides included autonomy in their figures and 14 of these guides situated autonomy as central to well-being.
Relatedness was distinct from beneficence in that it was not centred around the rewards of helping clients, but rather on feelings of
belonging and close connections to others. While relatedness was fostered by positive interactions with both co-workers and clients, it
was most often described in terms of co-guide relationships.
“You meet incredible people, whether it be guides or clients. Guiding, you're spending a lot of time with your fellow guides, and sometimes
you even live together. And you get very close friendships because you're bonding over the experiences you've had, whether they be good,
whether they be bad. You know they always have your back, in whatever situation. You kind of go through thick and thin together.”
[Water, F]
Conversely, negative interactions with co-workers or clients hindered relatedness and reduced well-being. “You get those other
days, where people complain, or got sort of forced into it because a friend wanted to go or whatever, and that kind of takes it [the enjoyment]
away from you.” [Water, M]. Some guides also suggested that trip duration and remoteness could influence relatedness (e.g., longer,
more remote adventure trips enhanced relatedness). I didn't find it [connections to others] as much on the short trips… the further you are
from society and civilisation and the longer the trip is, the more deep the experience seems to become.” [Land, M].
Surprisingly, autonomy did not appear as pivotal to guide well-being as anticipated based on SDT literature. Guides often de-
scribed autonomy as less critical than competence, nature connection, beneficence, and relatedness, due to the prescribed nature of
adventure guiding work and the need to prioritise client safety over personal preferences. “[Guiding] is a sense of freedom, but it's also a
sense of responsibility.” [Land, M]. “There are certain [health and safety] frameworks that you have to stay within. So, I wouldn't say really
there's autonomy.” [Water, F]. Notwithstanding, guides highlighted well-being benefits afforded by flexible guiding lifestyles and
empowerment in trip management, which conceptually reflected ‘autonomy’.
“Obviously a trip is pretty structured, but between A and B… it's completely up to you…So, it's good, it's not just going through the motions,
you're into it.”
[Land, F]
“The freedom's good because you're just a self-contractor… I know there's benefits of being an employee, I've heard of these things called
sick days and annual leave…But being a contractor, you can work whatever days you want, you can take whatever days off you want, you
work seasonal, you can literally… go to any country and walk straight into a similar job.”
[Land, F]
The freedom that some guides experienced as a result of the adventure guide lifestyle was therefore perceived and discussed
differently to having autonomy ‘on the job’. Thus, the relative importance of autonomy appeared to depend on the adventure context
and the associated burden of responsibility for client safety perceived by participants. Rather than restricting autonomy, some guides
noted that having clear guidelines, particularly around safety, provided a supportive framework in which they felt comfortable
exercising autonomy. Managers who fostered open communication that allowed guides to question practices or suggest new practices
(i.e., autonomy-supportive) were also reported to support well-being. Data suggested that having clear guidelines, while also feeling
empowered and supported by management to make rapid decisions in the field, fostered well-being.

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S. Houge Mackenzie and E. Raymond Annals of Tourism Research 84 (2020) 102977

“I really enjoyed it because the guy that ran [eco-rafting] really encouraged us to do our own thing… he did have guidelines because he
wanted it to be more environmental and [safe]…but he really encouraged us to follow things that we were passionate about. I've always
been passionate about medicinal plants, so when we went down the river I'd take people looking [for plants]… I really enjoyed that side of
it.”
[Water, M]
As the risk management associated with distinct adventure activities appeared to influence the relative importance of autonomy
for guide well-being, the precise nature of this relationship should be further explored in future research.
While competence, nature connection, beneficence, relatedness, and autonomy were reported to foster well-being when sup-
ported, guides also described how well-being could be hindered when these aspects were deficient. This finding aligned with SDT
conceptualisations of autonomy, competence and relatedness in that to qualify as a basic psychological need (a) fulfilment of the need
should lead to well-being and (b) frustration of the need should lead to ill-being (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Data analysis underscored the
importance of actively supporting guides' basic psychological needs, as well as nature connection and beneficence, in order to
enhance their well-being, and prevent ill-being. The results also highlighted the need for further research examining the relative
importance of autonomy, as conceptualised in SDT, in relation to competence, nature connection, beneficence, and relatedness for
adventure guides, and potential relationships among these themes.

Tertiary determinants

Accomplishment, sense of purpose, enjoyment and deep absorption were also reported to influence adventure guide well-being, albeit
to a lesser extent than the primary and secondary determinants. While accomplishment was evident in all guides' figures, it was
described as less central to well-being than aforementioned determinants. It is also noteworthy that, although guides described each
of the tertiary themes as a distinct determinant of well-being, some of these themes reflected a relationship with beneficence. For
example, when participants described how accomplishment fostered well-being, it was often associated with beneficence. In other
words, guides experienced a sense of accomplishment by helping clients achieve their goals.
“How can I articulate it?…when you see that person that's been very timid on a bike…and they couldn't do something that they wanted to
do, and by the end of it they can – you go away with a good feeling.”
[Land, M]
Other themes that were often, but not always, associated with beneficence were sense of purpose and enjoyment. In addition to
fostering accomplishment, helping clients gave guides' a sense that their work mattered in the “bigger picture”, as described below.
“[Guiding] really is helping someone out and giving amazing experiences…I think that makes you really feel that it matters. Say you're
assigned a group of seven autistic kids and none of them talk and all hate water. You get this really deep sense [of] why I want to get this
done…And then if you can do it, it's great.”
[Water, F]
Data indicated that, when guides saw they had facilitated positive experiences for clients, this created more meaningful and
enjoyable guiding experiences. For example, “Yesterday I was out with two sisters…things definitely went through moments of...challenge?
[laughs] But, end of the day, they were singing on the way down the mountain because…they had such a good day, and…I was singing.”
[Land, M]. While not all guides gained a deeper sense of purpose from their work, those who did frequently associated it with having
a positive impact on others (beneficence). Specifically, guides felt their work was meaningful and fulfilling when they gave clients a
great experience, helped them achieve goals, and/or helped them confront fears. “Seeing people overcome their fears - not even over-
come, because some people keep that fear - but they're so impressed that they tried it…it's a massive achievement [for them]…I think that's
why I get the most out of it.” [Land, M].
Adventure guides also reported a sense of purpose in relation to environmental conservation, gained by educating clients and
inspiring them to care for natural places. One guide identified how the company culture influenced this sense of purpose. Her role in
furthering the company's environmental education mission made her work meaningful.
“In Ireland, the guides were the most un-environmentally conscious people you've ever met…Whereas here…there's a massive sense of
“we're only here if we look after it“… If you can give your guides something to teach your guests…they're going to feel more fulfilled. You've
given them more of a purpose instead of just, ‘take them out…get them down, and they'll have fun.”
[Land, F]
Thus, adventure guides gained a sense of purpose not only by helping others, but also by feeling that their work helped to protect
the unique environments (flora and fauna) they worked in.
Comparisons with existing literature suggested how these tertiary determinants might support adventure guide well-being. For
instance, sense of purpose was reflected in research identifying meaning as a key eudaimonic well-being component (e.g., Newman,
Tay, & Diener, 2014; Ryan & Martela, 2016). In contrast, the theme enjoyment (e.g., “There's been unending amounts of gut-laughing and
hilarity, and good times.” [Air, M]) was reflected in research identifying positive emotions as a primary hedonic well-being component
(e.g., Waterman, Schwartz, & Conti, 2008). The final theme, deep absorption, appeared to reflect elements of both hedonia and
eudaimonia. In one sense, deep absorption was described as a highly pleasurable, immediate affective experience (i.e., hedonia).
When I'm canyoning, I don't think of anything else…there's a heap of other bullshit going on out there. It's nice to ignore it.” [Water, M]. When
you're doing what you're supposed to be doing, it's just easy and things just sort of flow along.” [Land, M]. However, some descriptions of
deep absorption appeared to reflect flow experiences, as intimated in the latter quote, which are well-documented in adventure

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S. Houge Mackenzie and E. Raymond Annals of Tourism Research 84 (2020) 102977

Fig. 2. Key elements of adventure tourism guides' experiences.

literature as a key source of intrinsic motivation and associated with eudaimonia (e.g., Houge Mackenzie & Hodge, 2020; Wu & Liang,
2011). This final proposition remains tentative and requires further investigation given that only one participant (with prior
knowledge of flow, see quote below) provided sufficient detail to identify these experiences as flow versus states of deep absorption
(based on core flow dimensions; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005).
“That feeling of flow is something that is enormously powerful...I'm not sure many humans experience it often. And for those of us who have
the privilege of being in that state a lot, that's pretty fundamentally rewarding…I think if you look at people who do adventure pursuits
recreationally or professionally at a high level, you will find, not necessarily conscious, but I would bet my money, that that flow state is
fundamental to what keeps them feeding at the trough.”
[Water, F]

Conceptual model of adventure tour guides' psychological well-being

While there were no discernible patterns in the data relating to guides' activity domains, (e.g., themes important to river guides,
but not to air guides), analysis revealed common determinants of guides' PWB across activities. The figures below summarise these
findings by, first, identifying the three key overarching elements of adventure guides' experiences: people, the natural environment,
and the adventure activity (see Fig. 2). In Fig. 2, ‘people’ includes clients, co-guides, managers, and self (e.g., individual factors such
as guiding experience, life stage, gender). The ‘natural environment’ reflects factors such as remoteness, natural features, and
weather. The ‘adventure activity’ includes factors such as activity type, trip duration, risk/challenge levels, physical demands, and
equipment.
The conceptual model (Fig. 3), begins with these key elements of adventure guide experiences (far left) and illustrates how each
PWB determinant (all located inside the dotted box under primary, secondary, or tertiary columns) is linked to at least two of these
three elements. The relative importance of each determinant is reflected by its proximity to the final figure outcome: adventure tour
guide PWB (far right). While each determinant is presented as having a direct relationship with guides' PWB, primary determinants
(i.e., competence, nature connection, beneficence) are situated closer to the figure outcome (further right) to reflect their more
substantial influence on guides' PWB. Likewise, secondary determinants (i.e., relatedness, autonomy) are situated further right than
tertiary determinants (i.e., accomplishment, sense of purpose, enjoyment, deep absorption) to reflect their greater relative influence on

9
 Key elements of Tertiary Secondary Primary
well-being
S. Houge Mackenzie and E. Raymond

adventure tour guide well-being well-being

experiences determinants determinants determinants

Accomplishment

Adventure Activity Competence

Deep absorption

Autonomy
Adventure
Tour Guide

10
Beneficence
People Psychological
Well-being
Relatedness

Enjoyment
Nature Connection
Natural Environment

Sense of Purpose

Psychological well-being
determinants

Fig. 3. Conceptual model of psychological well-being for adventure tourism guides.

Annals of Tourism Research 84 (2020) 102977
S. Houge Mackenzie and E. Raymond Annals of Tourism Research 84 (2020) 102977

PWB.
The model proposes that the more primary, secondary and tertiary determinants of well-being are supported by the adventure
guiding context (i.e., people, environment, activity), the better the PWB outcomes will be for adventure guides. Conversely, the
model proposes that the less these determinants are supported by the adventure guiding context, the worse PWB outcomes will be for
adventure guides. The model also proposes that fluctuations in primary determinants are likely to have a greater impact on guides'
PWB than fluctuations in secondary or tertiary determinants, respectively. For example, changes in perceived competence levels
(primary determinant), will likely have a larger impact on guides' PWB than changes in deep absorption (tertiary).
While analysis precluded definitive identification of PWB mediators or moderators, this should be explored further. For instance,
data suggested how some tertiary determinants (e.g., accomplishment, sense of purpose) may be associated with primary determi-
nants (e.g., beneficence). Future research should investigate potential relationships among the determinants in this model. In ad-
dition, the model can be refined by operationalising various PWB outcomes and evaluating their relationships with the PWB de-
terminants. While there is no universally accepted well-being measure, applying established measures such as psychological well-
being (e.g., Ryff & Singer, 2008), subjective well-being, life satisfaction, and flourishing (e.g., Diener et al., 2010), will facilitate
comparisons with normative data and provide robust PWB indicators. Using validated measures to operationalise the well-being
determinants (e.g., competence, relatedness, autonomy, Van den Broeck et al., 2010; nature connection, Nisbet & Zelenski, 2013) will
also aid future investigations.

Practical implications

In addition to theoretical developments, this investigation has a range of practical implications for fostering adventure guide well-
being. Foremost, it provides both guides and operators insights into the potential well-being benefits of an adventure guiding career.
These findings highlight an important perspective that may be overlooked in literature primarily focused on mitigating negative
impacts of tour guiding (e.g., Wong & Wang, 2009). Given this literature, it was somewhat surprising to find that participants were
overwhelmingly positive in their assessment of how guiding influenced their PWB. While external factors, such as financial or
scheduling considerations, were cited as challenges, the psychological experience of guiding was described as a unique opportunity to
engage in an enjoyable and fulfilling vocation. This investigation extends co-created tour research (e.g., Weiler & Black, 2015b) and
emerging Positive Tourism literature by suggesting key areas that operators can target (e.g., fostering competence, relatedness,
beneficence, nature connectedness, autonomy) to sustain guide well-being.

Supporting basic psychological needs

Operators could broadly evaluate all policy and practices in terms of how they can (i) support guide competence and confidence;
(ii) support feelings of respect and belonging among co-guides and managers; and (iii) empower guides to interact with clients in
unscripted, authentic ways (see Deci, Olafsen, & Ryan, 2017 for more general organisational strategies). This study suggests that the
first of these strategies (supporting guide competence and confidence) will be especially critical. Effective examples for facilitating this
described by study participants included appropriate training in both physical skills and interpretation or interpersonal skills, clear
safety guidelines, and meaningful feedback mechanisms from both management and clients (further detailed below).
These strategies also reflect the importance of supporting guide autonomy by empowering guides to make choices about how they
run trips, within key safety parameters. This could involve guide input around activity locations, trip duration, guiding teams, client
selection, scheduling, or other choices related to guided adventure itineraries. At a more general level, it could involve providing
guides with choices wherever possible, acknowledging guides' views, supporting guides to create their own initiatives, and giving
guides' clear rationales for policies and practices (Deci et al., 2017).
Implementing practices that support positive relationships between clients and co-guides is also critical to guides' PWB. This could
be accomplished by positive and inclusive company cultures that foster cooperation rather than competition among guides.
Supporting relatedness also involves operators creating open communication channels through which guides can give and receive
constructive feedback that is change-oriented rather than person-oriented (Carpentier & Mageau, 2016).

Enabling nature connection

Given the value of nature for guide well-being, operators could purposefully design trips that allow guides to psychologically
connect with the natural places they work. This practice could also benefit clients in terms of designating specific trip segments for
nature connection. Operators could also give guides more flexibility in determining the types of natural settings they access with
clients (e.g., via input in trip itineraries).

Fostering beneficence
The importance of beneficence in guide well-being has implications for guide training and management. For example, while
operators may assume that working with challenging or less physically able clients will decrease guide well-being, participants
reported an increased sense of beneficence after working with challenging clients (e.g., lower physical abilities, phobias, initial
disinterest). Although this work was depicted as more challenging, guides often gained a stronger sense of beneficence when they
successfully ‘won clients over’, helped them overcome fears, or learned of their long-term impacts on clients. These findings suggested
that guides could be trained in strategies for empowering, motivating and coaching clients to become positively engaged in their
adventures, as well as strategies for managing challenging clients. In addition, some guides reported how receiving positive post-trip
feedback from clients (e.g., via email or formal feedback measures) further enhanced beneficence. This suggests that operators should

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proactively seek feedback and impact stories from clients (e.g., post-trip surveys), and ensure these are appropriately shared with
guides. While traditionally used to improve visitor experiences, client feedback may be an important, but overlooked, means of
fostering guide well-being.

Limitations

This study addressed gaps in the literature by investigating the positive potential of tourism work (Filep et al., 2017). While
unique insights were gained through the SCIM methodology, this approach had limitations. The findings may not apply to all
adventure guides, such as those working in different adventure guiding contexts. While the sample was diverse in terms of activities,
experience, and gender, research with a wider range of participants and activities may refine and/or challenge the proposed model. In
addition, alternative data interpretations may have been overlooked due to the lead author's background in psychology and ad-
venture guiding. To reduce this issue, the second author, who had no prior knowledge of the theoretical concepts, independently
coded all inductive data prior to deductive analyses. Finally, longitudinal designs that collect data over multiple time points (e.g., pre-
season, mid-season, post-season) or throughout a career may provide more in-depth data on how guide well-being determinants
function over time.

Conclusion

Given Positive Tourism goals to advance beyond preventing ill-being to supporting worker well-being, understanding key factors
that determine adventure guides' psychological well-being is important for researchers and practitioners. This study advances tourism
research by identifying how key elements of adventure guide experiences are related to determinants of their psychological well-
being. It also differentiates among primary, secondary and tertiary well-being determinants based on their relative influence on guide
well-being. These findings are used to propose a conceptual model of adventure guides' psychological well-being for use in research
and practice. The model can be empirically evaluated and refined using existing measurement tools, and translated into a range of
practical strategies for improving guides' well-being. These findings have the potential to enhance future tourism discourses, studies,
and practices in relation to guide well-being.

Acknowledgements

1. This work was supported by a University of Otago Research Grant and Commerce Research Grant.
2. The authors would like to thank all of the adventure guides involved in this study for making this project possible by generously
sharing their time, insights, and experiences; it was an honour to work with you all. The authors would also like to thank Professor
Ken Hodge, Hannah Parsons, and Patrick Boudreau for their invaluable feedback on manuscript drafts.

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Dr. Susan Houge Mackenzie is an Associate Professor in the University of Otago, Department of Tourism where she investigates links between adventure and
psychological well-being. She is a former adventure guide and has provided consulting for government and tourism agencies including NZ riverboarding, the History
Channel, and the United States Forest Service. She is an Associate Editor for JOREL, an International Advisory Board member for JAEOL, and a member of the
Adventure Tourism Research Association steering committee, and member of the Central Otago Tourism Advisory Board.

Eliza Raymond is a co-founder and Director of GOOD Travel, a socially responsible travel company. She holds a Master of Tourism from University of Otago in New
Zealand and is a former Executive Director of the Global Volunteer Network Foundation. Eliza has travelled to over 40 countries and published widely on tourism.

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