Lesson 1: Reliability & validity Measures
Validity of the instrument
of central tendency Descriptive Statistics
Criteria for a Good Instrument
1. Practicality of the instrument
2. Reliability of the Instrument
- concerns its consistency and
stability
- needs to be determined whether the
instrument is a mechanical device, a
written questionnaire, or human
observer.
- the degree of reliability is determined
by use of correlational procedure
- correlation coefficient can range
between -1 to +1
- correlation coefficient of at least .70
is considered satisfactory (Polit &
Beck, 2004)
- the more items that an instrument
contains, the more reliable it will
be.2
A. Stability Reliability
- refers to its consistency over time
- interval of test may be few days to
several months
B. Equivalence Reliability
- concerns the degree to which two
different forms of an instrument
obtain the same results or two or
more observers using a single
instrument obtain the same results.
- alternate forms reliability or parallel
forms reliability
- interobserver reliability
C. Internal Consistency Reliability
- or scale homogeneity
- addresses the extent to which all
items on an instrument measure
the same variable.
3.
concerns its ability to gather data
that it is intended to gather.
- The greater the validity of an
instrument, the more confidence you
can have that the instrument will
obtain data that will answer the
research questions or test the
research hypothesis.
A. Face Validity
- when cursory examination shows
that is it measuring what it is
supposed to measure,
- on the surface, or the “face” of the
instrument, it appears, to be
adequate means of obtaining the
data needed for the research project
- can be examined through the use of
experts in the content area or
through use of people who have
characteristics similar to those of the
potential subjects
B. Content Validity
- concerned with the scope or range
of items used to measure the
variable
- “Are the number and type of items
adequate to measure the concept or
construct if interest”
- “Is there an adequate sampling of all
possible items that could be used to
secure the desired data”
Ways to evaluate Content Validity
- Compare content of the instrument
with the available literature on the
topic
- a panel of experts evaluate the
instrument
C. Criterion Validity Methods of Checking Validity and
- is concerned with the extent to which Reliability
an instrument corresponds to or is
correlated with some criterion
measure of the variable of
interest.
> Concurrent Validity
- compares an instrument’s ability to
obtain a measurement of subject’s
behavior that is comparable to some
other criterion of the behavior
- Does the instrument under
consideration correlate with another
instrument that measures the same
behavior or responses”

> Predictive Validity

- concerned with the ability of an
instrument to predict behavior or
responses of subjects in the future.

D. Construct Validity
- concerned with the degree to which
an instrument measures the
construct it is supposed to measure.
- Construct is a concept or abstraction
created or “constructed” by the
researcher.
- construct validity involves the
measurement of a variable that is
not directly observable but rather is
a construct or abstraction derived
from observable behavior.
- known-groups procedure – the
instrument under consideration is
administered to two groups of
people whose responses are
expected to differ in the variable of
interest
Mean
- The sum of all the scores divided by
the number of scores.
- Often referred to as the average.
- Good measure of central tendency.
- Central tendency is simply the
location of the middle in a
distribution of scores.
Median
- A median is the middle of a
distribution.
- Half the scores are above the
median and half are below the
median.
How do I compute the median? - indicates the typical distance
- If there is an odd number of between the scores of a distribution
numbers, the median is the middle and the mean.
number. For example, the median of - the higher the standard deviation,
5, 8, and 11 is 8. the greater the spread of data.
- If there is an even number of
numbers, the median is the mean of
the two middle numbers. The
median of the numbers 4, 8, 9, 13 is
(8+9)/2 =8.5.

Mode
- Most frequently occurring score in a
distribution.
- Greatly subject to sample
fluctuations (statistic takes on
different values with different
samples). Lesson 2: Inferential Statistics Statistics
- Not recommended as the only to examine relationship, causality, and
measure of central tendency. predictive validity Types of Statistical
- Distributions can have more than results
one mode, called "multimodal.“
- Conclusion: Examine your data in
order to determine what descriptive
statistic is appropriate.

- Inferential statistics are used to draw

Standard Deviation
- Standard deviation is a measure of
the spread or dispersion of a set of
data. given in the same units as the
indicator.
inferences about a population from a
sample.
- Population: Group that the
researcher wishes to study.
- Sample: A group of individuals
selected from the population.
- Census: Gathering data from all
units of a population, no sampling.
 - Inferential statistics generally require
that data come from a random
sample.
- In a random sample each
person/object/item of the population
has an equal chance of being
chosen.
Goal of statistical analysis
The goal of statistical analysis is to answer
2 questions:
- Is there a significant
effect/association/difference
between the variables of interest ?
(i.e., can we reject the null
hypothesis?)
- If there is an
effect/association/difference – how
big is it?
Hypotheses
Null hypothesis: A hypothesis put forward
to argue that a relationship or pattern does
not exist.
- Cholesterol study example: In a
Randomized Control Trial, the
control group and the treatment
group have equal levels of
cholesterol at the end of a study.
- Null hypothesis: Groups A and B are
equal.
- Denoted by Ho:
Alternative Hypothesis: Statement of what
study is set to establish.
- Alternative Hypothesis: Groups A
and B have different levels of
cholesterol.
- The null hypothesis will be true if the
findings are insignificant.
- The null hypothesis will be false if
the findings are significant.
- Denoted by H1:
Alpha
- Alpha level, or significance level, is
the value that is determined by the
researcher in order to reject or retain
the null hypothesis. It is a
predetermined value, not calculated.
- In other words, if we select a value
of .05, findings would be deemed
statistically significant if they were
found to be .05 or less.
- Alpha indicates the probability that
the null hypothesis will be rejected
when it is true (in other words, the
null hypothesis is wrongly rejected).
- This is called Type 1 error or alpha
error.
Type 1 error
- E.g. in a trial of new Drug X, the null
hypothesis might be that the new
Drug X is no better than the current
Drug Y.
- H0: there is no difference between
Drug X and Drug Y.
- A Type 1 error would occur if we
concluded that the two drugs
produced different effects when
there was no difference between
them.
Beta
- Beta is the probability of making a
Type 2 error when testing a
hypothesis.
- Type 2 error is failing to detect an
association when one exists, or
failing to reject the null hypothesis
when it is actually false.
- You kept the null hypothesis when
you should not have. If Drug X and
Drug Y produced different effects, it
was concluded that they produce the
same effects.

Statistic Significance
- Statistically significant findings mean
that the probability of obtaining such
findings by chance only is less than
5%. findings would occur no more
than 5 out of 100 times by chance
alone.
What if your study finds there is an
effect?
- You will need to measure how big
the effect is, you can do this by
using a measure of association
(odds ratio, relative risk, absolute
risk, attributable risk etc.).
> Absolute Risk is the chance that a
person will develop a certain disease over a
period of time.
- E.g. Out of 20,000 people, 1600
developed lung cancer over 10
years, therefore the absolute risk of
developing lung cancer is 8%.
> Relative Risk (RR) is a measure of
association between the presence or
absence of an exposure and the occurrence
of an event.
- RR is when we compare one group
of people to another to see if there is
an increased risk from being
exposed.
- RR is the measure of risk for those
exposed compared to those
unexposed.
- Used in randomized control trials
and cohort studies- Can't use RR
unless looking forward in time.
- E.g. The 20 year risk of lung cancer
for smokers is 15%
- The 20 year risk of lung cancer
among non-smokers is 1%
- Most commonly reported.
> Odds Ratio (OR) is a way of comparing
whether the probability of a certain event is
the same for two groups.
- Used for cross-sectional studies,
case control trials, and retrospective
trials.
- In case control studies you can't
estimate the rate of disease among
study subjects because subjects are
selected according to disease/no
disease. So, you can't take the rate
of disease in both populations (in
order to calculate RR).
- E.g. Smokers are 2.3 times more
likely to develop lung cancer than
non-smokers.
- OR is the comparison between the
odds of exposure among cases to
the odds of exposure among
controls.
- Odds are same as betting odds.
Example: if you have a 1 in 3 chance
of winning a draw, your odds are 1:2.
- To calculate OR, take the odds of
exposure (cases)/odds of exposure
(controls).
Power
- If findings are statistically significant,
then conclusions can be easily
drawn, but what if findings are
insignificant?
- Power is the probability that a test or
study will detect a statistically
significant result.
- Did the independent variables or
treatment have zero effect?
 - If an effect really occurs, what is the Normality
chance that the experiment will find - How do you know if data are
a "statistically significant" result? normally distributed?
- Run a test or histogram in SPSS to
determine if data meet the normality
Determining power depends on several assumption required for parametric
factors: tests.
1. Sample size: how big was your
sample?
2. Effect size: what size of an effect are
you looking for? E.g. How large of a
difference (association, correlation)
are you looking for? What would be
the most scientifically interesting?
3. Standard deviation: how scattered
was your data? Type of Analyses
- For example, a large sample, with a
large effect, and a small standard Univariate analysis - the analysis of one
deviation would be very likely to variable.
have found a statistically significant - Mean
finding, if it existed. - Median
- A power of 80%-95% is desirable. - Mode
- One of the best ways to increase the - Range-equal to the difference
power of your study is to increase between the largest and the smallest
your sample size. values.
- Standard deviation

Parametric Test vs. Non-Parametric Test Bivariate analysis is a kind of data analysis
that explores the association between two
Parametric Test variables.
- assume that the variable in question - Pearson’s correlation
is from a normal distribution. - T-Test
- Used or interval or ratio scale - Spearman’s Rho
- Mann-Whitney Test
Non-parametric tests - Linear regression (not multiple
- do not require the assumption of regression)
normality.
- Most non-parametric tests do not
require an interval or ratio level of
measurement; can be used with
nominal/ordinal level data.

Multivariate analysis - the analysis of
more than two variables.
- Multiple regression
- Multiple logistic regression
Research Examples for Types
Analysis
Univariate Analysis
- How many women have heart
disease in BC?
Bivariate Analysis
- Are height and weight correlated?
Multivariate Analysis
- Do age, diet, exercise, and diabetes
predict heart disease?
Statistical Tools/Test
T-test
- Allows the comparison of the mean
of 2 groups.
- Compares actual difference between
two means in relation to the variation
in the data (expressed as the
standard deviation of the difference
between the means).
- To test the significant differences
between two samples/ means
- t values (critical value of t)
- Paired t-test- pre and post design
- Independent t-test- comparing 2
means from different group
- If the computed statistic is greater
than or equal to the critical value, the
groups are significantly different
- Eq. A doctor gives two different
drugs to a group of diabetics to see
if blood sugar lowering times differ,
and if the difference between times
are in fact significant.
Null hypothesis: Drug A and Drug B will
have equal blood sugar lowering times (no
difference).
Alternative hypothesis: Drug A and B will
have different blood sugar lowering times
(difference)
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
- Allows the comparison of 3 or more
of
groups.
- Looks at the variation within groups,
then determines how that variation
would translate into variation
between groups (considering
number of participants).
- If observed differences are larger
than what would be expected by
chance, the findings are statistically
significant.
- To test differences
- Used to examine 2 or more
groups/means
- tests for differences in variance
- The test for ANOVA is always
one-tailed
- F- value
- If the f statistic is is equal or greater
than the appropriate table value ,
there is a statistically significant
difference between groups
Ex. Are psychotherapy, family therapy and
behavior therapy equally effective in treating
alcoholism?
Correlation
- Allows an examination of the
relationship between variables; is
there a relationship between these
variables? Are they positively or
negatively related?
- A correlation coefficient of 0 means
that there is no relationship between
the variables, -1 negative
relationship, 1 positive relationship.
- Important: Correlation is not
causation.
Ex. What is the relationship between
exercise and depression?
Does depression increase when exercise
increases?
Does depression decrease when exercise
increases?
Is there no significant correlation between
exercise and depression?
Linear Regression
- Focuses on prediction. Involves
discovering the equation for a line
that is the best fit for the given data.
That linear equation is then used to
predict values for the data.
- Do variables a and b predict event
c?
Ex. Does age predict income?
USING STATISTICS TO PREDICT
Regression Analysis
- Is used to predict the value of one
variable when the value of one or
more variables is known
- dependent variable- the value to be
predicted
- Independent variable- Variables
used to predict values of the
dependent variable
- If there is more than one
independent variable, the analysis is
referred to as multiple regression
analysis
Types of Result
5 possible results:
1. Significant results that agree with
those predicted by the researcher
2. Non significant results
3. Significant results that are opposite
those predicted by the researcher
4. Mixed results
5. Unexpected results
M10 While Task Lesson 1 : Guidelines in
Preparing Research Proposal
1. What is a Research Proposal?
A research proposal is a concise summary
of your research paper. It creates the
general idea of your research by
highlighting the questions and issues you
are going to address in your paper.
For writing it, demonstrate the uniqueness
of your research paper. This is the first draft
that demonstrates your skills to conduct
research.
To clarify the concept further, it is the most
important document as it tells how you will
successfully conduct complex research by
communicating your clear and concise
ideas.
1.1 Research Proposal Definition
A detailed definition is, a research proposal
is a document written with the goal of
presenting and justifying your interest and
need for conducting research on a particular
topic. It must highlight the benefits and
outcomes of the proposed study, supported
by persuasive evidence.
2. Research Proposal Outline
Sometimes students don’t realize how
important a research paper proposal is and
just end up putting all the information
together without following the basic outline
or thinking this through.
To summarize its importance, if you want a
successful research project, you need to
write a great proposal for it.
Before starting with the outline, you need to
understand the basic components. It goes
without saying that a clear outline is
important when it comes to presenting the
literature review and writing the entire
paper.
—---
A research proposal describes what you will
investigate, why it’s important, and how you
will do the research. The format of a
research proposal varies between fields, but
most proposals should contain at least
these elements:
Cover Page
Chapter 1 : Introduction And its Background
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Chapter 3: Methodology
Research Schedule/Gantt Chart
Engaging in research means investing time.
It is a challenge for the students on how to
plan and manage their time in doing
research at the same time complying to all
the subjects at hand. It is very important to
list down all activities that need to be done
with a target time element, so a research
could be completed on time.
Creating a Gantt chart will help the students
track down their schedule. This is a
detailed timeline of the research, explaining
exactly what you will do at each stage and
how long it will take. Gantt charts convey
this information visually. They outline all of
the tasks involved in a project, and their
order, shown against a timescale. This gives
you an instant overview of a research, its
associated tasks, and when these need to
be finished.
Example research schedule
BUDGET Proposal
Aside from investment of time, in making a
research you need to invest money because
conducting research needs a budget. It is
very important that a researcher estimate
how much it costs, so they can prepare
ahead of time.
In determining the budget the following
could be included:
- Travel costs: do you need to go to
specific locations to collect data?
How will you get there, how long will
you spend there, and what will you
do there (e.g. interviews, archival
research)?
- Materials: do you need access to
any tools or technologies? Are there
training or installation costs?
- Assistance: do you need to hire
research assistants for the project?
What will they do and how much will
you pay them? Will you outsource
any other tasks such as
transcription?
- Time: do you need to take leave
from regular duties such as
teaching? How much will you need
to cover the time spent on the
research?
PROPOSED BUDGET
M10 While Task Lesson 2: Writing
Chapter 1-3
Lesson 2
Writing Chapters 1- 3
Most research studies begin with a written
proposal. Again, nearly all proposals follow
the same format. In fact, the proposal is
identical to the first three chapters of the
final paper except that it's written in future
tense. In the proposal, you might say
something like "the researchers will secure
the sample from ...", while in the final paper,
it would be changed to "the researchers
secured the sample from ...". Once again,
with the exception of tense, the proposal
becomes the first three chapters of the final
research paper.
The most commonly used style for writing
research reports is called "APA" and the
rules are described in the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological
Association. Any library or bookstore will
have it readily available. The style guide
contains hundreds of rules for grammar,
layout, and syntax. This paper will cover the
most important ones.
Avoid the use of first person pronouns.
Refer to yourself or the research team in
third person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or
"We will ...", say something like "The
researcher will ..." or "The research team
will ...".
A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough)
copy of your proposal, thesis, dissertation,
or research paper...even if asked. A paper
that looks like a draft, will be interpreted as
such, and you can expect extensive and
liberal modifications. Take the time to put
your paper in perfect APA format before
showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be
great since it will then be perceived as a
final paper, and there will be far fewer
changes.
Students will prepare the first three chapters
of the research. Please be guided on the
content:
Chapter 1: Introduction and Background
of the Study
- Introduction
- Background of the Study
- Statement of the Problems
- Hypothesis
 - Significance of the Study
- Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
- Scope and Limitation
- Definition of Terms or Operational
Definition
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature
and Studies
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
- Research Design
- Setting of the Study
- Subjects of the Study
- Sampling Technique
- Research Instrument
- Validation of Instrument and
Reliability Testing
- Procedure of Data Gathering
- Research Protocol
- Ethical Consideration
- Statistical Treatment of the Data
Prepare also:
- Sample of Instrument to be used
- Budget Proposal
- Gantt chart
Preparing a validated research
instrument
The validity of an instrument is a
determination of how well the instrument
reflects the abstract concept of being
examined. Validity, like reliability, is not an
all or nothing phenomenon, it is measured
on continuum. No instrument is completely
valid. Thus, one determines the degree of
validity of measure rather than whether
validity exists (Waltz et al, 2005).Validity will
vary from one sample to another and one
situation to another; therefore validity testing
evaluates the use of an instrument for a
specific group or purpose, rather than the
instrument itself. (Burns and Grove’s,2013).
Instruments to be used in the proposed
research should undergo validation and
indicate the Cronbach Alpha. If the
instrument is adopted, source and author
should be acknowledged and reliability
results should be indicated. If possible, get
permission from the author, but this is
optional.
M10 While Task Lesson 3: Guidelines in
Presentation and Preparation for IERB
Lesson 3
Presenting research work with panel
members
Once the manuscript of the research is
completed, students should pass it to their
assigned research adviser for approval.
Students will prepare a PowerPoint
presentation.
Online platform via zoom will be the means
of presenting the paper to the panel of
evaluators.
Correction and suggestion should be carried
out by the proponent.
INTERNAL ETHICAL REVIEW BOARD
Students should comply with the Internal
Ethical Review Committee requirement
before proceeding to the gathering of data.
Please refer to University Guidelines for
Undergraduate regarding IERC
requirements.
Content of Research Protocol Prepare a PowerPoint presentation.

1.SCIENTIFIC DESIGN Researchers will be given 30 minutes for

1.1 Objectives presentation and 30 minutes for question
1.2 Literature Review and answer.
1.3 Research Design
1.4 Sampling Design Members of the panel will have the say if
1.5 Sample Size Failed or Pass.
1.6 statistical Analysis Plan
1.7 Data Analysis Plan The adviser cannot help her/his adviser
1.8 Inclusion Criteria during the defense. She/he will serve as a
1.9 Exclusion Criteria recorder but he/she can always clarify the
1.10 Withdrawal Criteria comments /suggestions of the panel.

2.CONDUCT OF STUDY Revised copy will be checked by the

2.1 Specimen Handling adviser.
2.2 Principal Investigator Qualification
2.3 Suitability of site
2.4 Duration of human subject involvement Oral presentation and Defense will be
evaluated by the following criteria:
3.ETHICAL CONSIDERATION (University Research Guidelines for
3.1 Declaration of Conflict of Interest Undergraduate)
3.2 Privacy and Confidentiality
3.3 Informed Consent Process
3.4 Vulnerability
3.5 Recruitment
3.6 Assent
3.7 Risk
3.8 Benefit
3.9 Incentive or compensation
3.10 Community Considerations
3.11 Collaborative study terms of reference
3.12 Other Issues
UNIVERSITY GUIDELINES FOR
Guidelines in Presentation: UNDERGRADUATE

The manuscript should be submitted to the
following: Adviser and members of the
Panel.
The date and time of the proposal defense
will be determined.
A platform for presentation via online.
You may be able to present your aims and
objectives as bullet points rather than as full
sentences but check with your tutor before
you write your final draft.
An introduction provides both a summary
and background of your intended research.
You should explain what the topic is and
why you have chosen it, i.e. its significance kinds of questions posed and the
in the field and/or to you. Also, discuss why methods you have selected.
it is a good time to be doing the research
now – you could look in the news, or read
an organization’s documentation, or find
recent or current debates in academia or
the media on your topic.

You may be set a specific literature review

assignment and asked to produce a large
review in your final report or dissertation,
but a shorter literature review section is
required in a proposal to show how previous
research has influenced your research. This
may relate to your choice of research
following the identification of a gap in
previous work, or a method you chose to
employ. The point is to clearly connect the
literature to your own enquiry. If you require
additional support or information on
literature reviews, we run workshops on
undertaking and writing literature reviews.
Please visit our website for more
information.

The next section may be called ‘Research

design’ or ‘Methodology’ or another name,
but it is a discussion of the reasons behind
your choice of approach and tools/methods.
Specifically, it includes:
- The research methods and tools are
chosen to collect and analyze the
data, and why you have chosen
them. Are there any particular
advantages and limitations you have
discovered if they were used in
previous research, and how you
intend to address them?
- Which methods you rejected and
why, and what you may have
gained/lost by not using them.
- What is your ‘stance’ as a
researcher (more discussion below).
Express how this has affected the