11.

4 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES
centre of a crystal generall
Crystallographic axes are imaginary lines of reference converging at the
occupying the three important positions in a crystal such as front to back, side side and top bottom
to to
three crystallographic axes
They are mentioned with algebraic letters a, b and c respectively. If all the
are unequal then the symbol or (Weiss) Notation wiil be a : b:c[Fig. 11.2(a).

Example: Orthorhombic System,

Monoclinic System, and
Triclinic System.
Ifthe entire three crystallographic axes are equal it is written as a : a : a [Fig. 11.2(b)].
Example: Isometric System
Ifany two crystallographic axes which are equal andinterchangeable it will be a:a:c[Fig. 11.2(c)
Example: Tetragonal System
But in the case of Hexagonal system the crystal possess four crystallographic axes three cqual and
interchangeable with one unequal being the vertical axis the symmetry is represented as a : a: a:e
[Fig. 11.2(d)].
Example: Hexagonal System
Based on the crystallographic axis all the erystals are classified into six different crystal systems
such as:
1. Isometric System,
2. Tetragonal System,
3. Hexagonal System,
4. Orthorhombic System,
Crystallography
185

5. Monoclinic System, and

6. Triclinic System.

5 cm C

5 cm a
5 cm a
2 cm a

3 cm b -5 cm a

(a) (6)
a:b:c a:a:a

a 5 cm
C

2 cm a - a a
-

a 5 cmn
a 1 cm C
2 cm 2 cm
a5cm
(c) (d)
a:a:c
a:a:a:C

Fig. 11.2 Cystallographic axes

between b and c.
Note: a is the angle
between a and c.
i s the angle
between a and b.
X is the angle
 1. Axial Characters of Isometric System: In this system there arethree crystallographic axes. All the
three crystallographic axes which are equal and interchangeable cut at 90°, therefore, the symbol is
a : a : a and the axial angle isZa Za La= 90° [Fig. 11.3(a)].

Example: Halite
2. Axial Characters of Tetragonal System: In this system there are three crystallographic uxes, among
these two crystallographic axes (Front to Back and Side to Side) which are equal and interchangeable.
The third crystallographic axes (vertical crystallographic axis) which is unequal (it may be bigger or
smaller) therefore the symbol is a:a:cand the axial angle is Za Za Lc= 90° [Fig. 11.3(b)].
Example: Zircon
3. Axial Characters of Hexagonal System: In this system there are four crystallographic axes. Three
crystallographic axes which are equal and interchangeable cut at 60 or 120°. The fourth one thut is
vertical crystallographic axis which is unequal (it may be bigger or smaller), therefore, the symbol is
a : a : a : cand the axial angle is Za La = 60° or 120°, Za Lc=90° [Fig. 11.3(¢)]

Example: Quartz
4. Axial Characters of Orthorhombic System: In this system there are three crystallographic axes. Au
the three crystallographic axes, which are unequal in length and cut at 90, therefore, the symbol
a:b:candthe axial angle is Za 2b Zc=90° Fig. 11.3(d).
Example: Staurolite
5. Axial Characters of Monoclinic System: In this system there are three crystullographie axes. A
three crystallographic axes, which are unequal in length. Therefore, the symbol is a:5:cand the u
angle is a Lc= 90°, Zb Zc = 90°, Za Zc not equal to 90° [Fig. 11.3(c)|.
Example: Orthoclase
 Triclinic
Arial
Characters of
crystallographic axes, which are
System:
In this
system there are three
187
unequal
in length and
not cut at crystallographic
thre

the axial.
angle is a La Zc not 90°, axes.. All the
equal to 90° [Fig. 11.30]. therefore, the symbol is
Eanple:
Albite

(a)
(6)

(c) (d)

(e) (
g11.3 (a) A cubic (Zircon) (c) A hexagonal
(b) A tetragonal crystal
Crystal (Quartz) crystal (Halne crystal (Staurolite) (e) A
monoclinic

A(d) n An orthorhombic
«
(Albie
ystal (Orthoclase) () A triclinic crystal
 Bascd on the property on which the method depends the geophysical techniques Ca

classified as:
Gravity Prospecting
Magnetic Pronpecting
Electrical and Hlectro-magnetic Pronpecting
Seismic Prospecting
Well Logging Techniques
Radiometric and Nuclear Techniquc.
Gravity Prospecting Method
The gravity method of geophysicl prospecting is based on the fact that the gravitational attraction of
ub-surface bodies directly up on their masses and inversely upon second power of the depth of their
occurrcnce (i.c., their distance from the surface of the earth). This method utilizes the changes in the
gravity ficld of the earth as measured in the surface of the earth. If in a region sub-surface bodies whove
density is different from surrounding rocks exist, then the gravity field on the surface deviates from the
normal value (i.e., the field measured if the inhomogencous would not have been present). From these
deviations it is possible to locate the inhomogeneous body its parameters.
Instruments used in gravity prospecting are:
1. Ciravimeters,
2. Torsion balances, and
3. Gradientometer.
The pendulums measure the absolute value of the earth's gravity field at any point, whercas the
gravimeters measure its relative variation in the field from one placeto another. Gradientometer are used
for the measurement of the gradient of gravity and the curvature of the gravity equipotent surface.
Gravity methods have limited use in the exploration of ground water, because the change in gravity
ficld cauncd by the presence of ground water is very small. Inspite of this, under favourable conditions
the gravity methods are used for:
. The determination of subsurface structures in the form of large ground water basins;
2. Tracing tectonieally disturbed zones;
3. Effects of ground water movement but not in all cases;
4. Detailed inventigation of areus ofartificiul
ground water recharge
5. Mapping valley fills;
6. Mapping permenble zones in loose sediments; and
7. Mupping thin sediments lying over impermeable sub-stratum possibleif the rock iscrystalline
Magnetic Prospecting Method
The magnetic methods are based on the fact that the mugnetic bodies
present in the sub-surface contripu
to the total magnetic field, which is measured on the surface of the
earth. The contribution due to ln
magnetic body directly proportionul
is to the nugnetic moment of the body and inversely proportuon
the
second power of the depth ofits occurrence from the surface the earth. The
of controlingfactorin
magnetic is the magnetic sUNceptibility: in addition the natural magnetic remanence of the bodies also
HydrogeolO

maonetic field. The total magnetic

to the
magnetic field
of the earth or one of its components
(either
ontributes
vertical
or horizontai ntals components) is measured on the surface. Bodies
moments possessing magnetic
different from those of the surrounding rocks give rise to the deviations in the measured field. From
aiferentefic anomalies it is possible to locate the anomalies object.
these magnetic

I n s t r u m e n t s
used in magnetic prospecting are:
Magnetometers are the instruments used in magnetic prospecting.
meSchmidt and Torsion
Schmidt and Tors magnetometer measure the variation of the vertical or horizontal component
The
field.
earth's magnetic
of the
The flux-gate, proton procession and Rubidium-Vapour magnetometers measure the magnitude of
(total) magnetic field of the carth and latter find application for not only for surface exploration but
on oceans and in
boreholes,
also in air,
The following are the ground water problems solved by magnetic methods:
1. Determination of sub-surface structure of large ground water basins,

2. Tracing tectonically disturbed zones, and

3. Effects of ground water movement.

Electrical and Electromagnetic Prospecting Method

It is the only geophysical method, which is most commonly used for ground water prospecting and also
solved other problems related to ground water prospecting. The electrical methods permit a variety of
applications in mapping geophysical structures like contacts, faults, shear zones, basement relief, etc.
The methods can also aid in the investigation of civil and military engineering.
Under the broad field of electrical methods we make use of the following methods:
1. Selfpotential (SP) method
2. Telluric method
3. Magneto telluric method
4. Equi-potential line method
5. Potential-drop ratio (PDR) method
6. Induced
polarization (IP)
7. Electromagnetic method
Simplest of all the geophysical methods is the spontaneous polarization (SP) method. which makes
of minerals this method
natural potentials existing inside the earth. Besides its use for exploration
below sea, river lakes and also for
also very helpful for the location of ground water discharge zones
inding the direction of ground water movement.
The comparatively easy to apply and are inexpensive; they are

SUitable es:
Si resistivity methods are
for a
variety of purposes:
n there exploration ofhighly conductive supplied ores,
2.
High resistivity minerals like quartz,
ce
Mapping geological structures, and
ln
solving engineering and water supply problems.
unsophisticated.
ruments: Instrument and resistivity methods are simplest and
Electroma sgenerally used for SP location of conductive ore bodies and
are undoubtedly better
suited for
ground water
Sound water investisc methods where the over-burden
has high resistivity.
VCSgations particularly in areas
Seismic Prospecting Methods
Seismic methods make use of the differences in elastic properties of rocks. These change with
in
changes
lithology. Measurement of seismic wave velocities of rocks formations therefore provides a means to
distinguishing different sub-surface lithological units.
n seismic methods waves are generated artificially in the ground. The seismic waves thus produced
travel through the sub-surface layer of the earth. Suffer reflection or critical refraction and arrive at the
sub-surface of the earth where they are detected by geophones. From the time taken by the waves to
travel through the sub-surface formations and from the seismic wave velocities of the media; it is
possible to determine the depths to various elastic boundaries. Depending upon the types of waves
recorded the investigation are classified as reflection and refraction methods.
The following ground water problems could be solved by this method:
1. Determination of sub-surface structure of large ground water basins,
2. Determination of horizontal and vertical distribution of aquifers,
3. The regional boundaries and correlation,
4. Tracing technically disturbed zones,
5. Effects of ground water movement but not in all cases,
6. Mapping promising ground water in hard rock areas like:
(a) Saturated weathered rock,
(b) Fractures and fissures, and
(c) Mapping thick sediments lying over impermeable substratum.
Well Logging Techniques
Geophysical methods of prospecting can be divided into three types. They are:

Surface,
Sub-surface, and
Air-borne investigations.
before the actual exploitation sets in
Boreholes are the only possible approach to the hidden treasure
Cter the surface geophvsical investigation to have the accurate parameters of the concealed body it is
esse Here physical properties ofvarious formations
tincorporate borehole geophysical investigations.
field measurement on the surface. For the
d s r e d along the borehole in contrast to the physical