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1r~
• r~

r~
G

~
NIN TH EDITION
~~

-~
.~
,. . í,~

!~
.--,r~ Diana Hacker
;, Nancy Sommers
 ~
00 How to use this book
Have questions about writing? Find
the answers you need at a glance.
"ó
~
Find your favorite way to search the handbook: O.
~ Brief menu next page
o
@ Detailed menu inside back cover
o
1• lndex
(:\
o
\.!) p. 327
~
e Lists of documentation models e,
e MLA p. 107

e APA p. 187
6
• Chicago p. 251
e CSE p. 292

~
~ Glossary of usage p. 311

Faster and more reliable than a Google search,

A Pocket Style Manual covers everything
you need for college writing-especially
researched writing. You can turn to it
for quick help with finding, evaluating,
integrating, and citing sources-as well
as advice on revising sentences for clarity,
grammar, and punctuation.

6o Look out for the at-a-glance icon for

fast, straightforward help on everything from
prepositions to signal phrases.
~ ---~------ -, ~
Brief Contents
·r-~

~ 1

1 Tighten wordy sentences. 2

·~ 2 Prefer active verbs. 3
3 Balance parallel ideas. 4
~ . 4 Add needed words. 6
5 Eliminate distracting shifts. 8

~ .. 6 Untangle mixed constructions. 9

7 Repair misplaced and dangling modifiers. 1O
8 Provide sentence variety. 13
~ . 9 Find an appropriate voice. 15

~ \ 1 Grammar 18 j

~
1
1 O Make subjects and verbs agree. 19
11 Be alert to other problems with verbs. 23
12 Use pronouns with care. 29
~ 13 Use adjectives and adverbs appropriately. 36
14 Repair sentence fragments. 39

4 15
16
Revise run-on sentences. 41
Consider grammar topics for multilingual
writers. 44
~ .
[ Punctuation 53
~ 17 The comma 54
18 The semicolon and the colon 62
~ '
19 The apostrophe 65
20 Quotation marks 68
.~ 21 Other punctuation marks 72

.o Mechanics 76]
22 Capitalization 77
/~
23 Abbreviations, numbers, and italics 80
24 Hyphenation 84
~
[ Research 86
~ 25 Posing a research question 87
26
~
Finding appropriate sources 90

4
- :_~
L - - $ { i_ : : : : _ :_ _ _ ~~
~ _ :-........ ~

27 Managing information; avoiding plagiarism 93

~1
28 Evaluating sources 98

MLA Papers 107

"1
~ ·· ~

~
29 Supporting a thesis 108
30 Avoiding plagiarism 111
31

~
lntegrating sources 116
32 lntegrating literary quotations 129
33 MLA documentation style 132

~
34 MLA format; sample research paper 176

APA Papers

35 Supporting a thesis 188

187
~1
36
37
38
Avoiding plagiarism 190
lntegrating sources 194
APA documentation style 201
"lf
39 APA format; sample research paper 232
<'-lf
Chicago Papers 251
~
40
41
Supporting a thesis 252
Avoiding plagiarism 253
~1
42
43
lntegrating sources 257
Chicago documentation style 262
t1
re.-l
44 Chicago format; sample pages 284

CSE Papers 292

~ -
45 CSE documentation style 293
46 CSE format 307
~~
fil)
1 Glossar~es
@

---
Glossary of usage 311
Glossary of grammatical terms 319

lndex 327
(IL.
Editing marks
.J 1

&~
1
r \\i
~
~
~
~
--a
-a oc e
-a
~
~
e
~
~
anua NINTH EDITION

~
~
Diana Hacker
~
~
Nancy Sommers
Harvard University

~
~
~ ~ Ibedford/st.martin's
; Macmillan Learning

~
Boston I New York

~
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Acknowledgments
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For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin's, 75 Arlington Street,
Boston, MA 02116
\~
\~

~
\~

~
~ Clarity
~
O] Wordy sentences 2
~ [!] Active verbs 3
~ (!] Parallelism 4
~ 0 Needed words 6

Shifts 8
~ Mixed constructions 9

~ Misplaced and dangling modifiers 10

~
Sentence variety 13

r¡: Appropriate voice 15

~
~
~
~
~
-~

~
~
I
2 1b Wordy sentences
~,
w
et, 1
1 Tighten wordy sentences. (f> 1
Long sentences are not necessarily wordy, nor are ~,,
.,
short sentences always concise. A sentence is wordy if
it can be tightened without loss of meaning.

1a Redundancies
Redundancies such as cooperate together, yellow in color,
~,:-r¡
~
and basic essentials are a common source of wordiness.
There is no need to say the same thing twice.

~
works
► Daniel is empl0yecl at a private rehabilitation
"
center w0rkiag as a physical therapist.

Modifiers are redundant when their meanings are sug-

gested by other words in the sentence.
~
► Sylvia :,;ery hurrieclly scribbled her name and
~
~
phone number on the back of a greasy napkin.

1b Empty or inflated phrases

An empty word or phrase can be cut with little or no
loss of meaning. Common examples of empty phrases
are word groups that weaken a writer's authority by
apologizing or hedging: in my opinion, I think that, it
seems that, etc.
T ~1
► le my 0piai0R, jheir current immigration policy is

misguided.
" ef
An inflated phrase can be reduced to a word or two.
now.
► Funds are limited at this p0iBt iR time.
"
INFLATED CONCISE
along the Unes of like ~
because of the fact that because
because

._I
dueto the fact that ~ I
for the purpose of for
in order to to
in spite of the fact that although, though
in the event that if
~
r
1-~ Active vs. be verbs 2a 3

:~ 1c Needlessly complex structures

active

~~
Simplifying sentences and using stronger verbs can

.4 help make writing more direct. Look for opportunities

to strengthen the verb.

,4 ►
st udied
Researchers were ia:,,xoh1ed ia studyiag the effect
A

of classical music on unbom babies.

4 ► The financia! analyst claimed that she could not

4 mal'=e aa estimate ef the company's future profits.

4
2 Prefer active verbs.
4
Choose an active verb whenever possible. Active verbs
4 express meaning more vigorously than forms of the
verb be or verbs in the passive voice. Forros of be (be,
am, is, are, was, were, being, been) lack vigor because they
4 convey no action. Passive verbs lack strength because
their subjects receive the action instead of doing it.

4 BE VERB A surge of power was responsible for the

destruction of the purµps.

~ PASSIVE The pumps were destroyed by a surge of power.

ACTIVE A surge of power destroyed the pumps.
JI·
2a
~:, When to replace be verbs

,... Not every be verb needs replacing. The forros of be (be,

am, is, are, was, were, being, been) work well when you
want to link a subject to a noun that clearly renames it
orto an adjective that describes it: Orchard House was
the home ofLouisa May Alcott. The harvest will be bounti-
4' ful after the summer rains.
If using a be verb makes a sentence needlessly
~ wordy, consider replacing it. Often a phrase follow-
ing the verb contains a noun or an adjective (such as
violation or resistant) that suggests a more vigorous,
$ active verb (vio/ate, resisted).
violate

~ ► Burying nuclear waste in Antarctica would be iB

A

violatioa of an international treaty.

•
 '
((i>~-

4 3 Parallelism
------- -
//

rei,lst ocl
~í>
► When Rosa Parks lr+ e:1 re:1i,tent t6 giving up her
I\
1
~~
seat on the bus, she became a civil rights hero.

NOTE: When used as helping verbs with present parti- tí>

ciples to express ongoing action, be verbs are fine: She
was swimming when the whistle blew. (See 1 lb.) (Í)
2b When to replace passive verbs
i>
In the active voice, the subject of the sentence per-
forms the action; in the passive, the subject receives
-
the action. The active voice is usually more effective
because it is clearer and more direct.
ACTIVE The committee reached a decision.
"'
(i•
A decision was reached by the committee.
~
PASSIVE

In passive sentences, the actor (in this case, committee)

frequently does not appear: A decision was reached.
In most cases, you will want to emphasize the (l,
actor, so you should use the active voice. To replace
a passive verb with an active one, make the actor the
subject of the sentence. ~
lnveetigator,.; eamplee
► Samples were collected daily from the stagnant
~

pond.
I\

The eettlere etrlpped the land of t lmber befo re rea llzlng

"<l•
► '.fhe land was stripped 6f timeer befare the settlers

~
~

reali~ed the consequences of their actions.

The passive voice is appropriate in sorne disciplines

and writing situations. In much scientific writing, for ,~ ¡
example, the passive voice properly emphasizes an
experiment ora process, nota person. In the following -~
sentence, the writer intends to focus on the tobacco
plants, not on the people spraying them: f ust befare the
harvest, the tobacco plants are sprayed with a chemical to e
prevent the growth of suckers.
~e
3 Balance parallel ideas.

Jf two or more ideas are parallel, they should be

expressed in parallel grammatical form. Single words
 Pairad ideas 3b 5
//

should be balanced with single words, phrases with

phrases, clauses with clauses.
r
~
A kiss can be a comma, a question mark, or an
exclamation point. - Mistinguett

~ r
This novel is not to be tossed lightly aside, but to

~ be hurled with great force. - Dorothy Parker

~ 3a ltems in a series

~
Balance ali items in a series by presenting them in par-
allel grammatical form.

'~ ► Cross-training involves a variety of exercises, such

llftln0
as running, swimming, and weights.
I\
' ~
► Children who study music also learn confidence,
creatlvit y.
1~ discipline, and thcy ere ereetir.;c.
I\

► Racing to work, Sam drove down the middle of

1 ~
i0nored
the road, ran one red light, and two stop signs.
~
I\

3b Paired ideas
' ~
When pairing ideas, underscore their connection by
expressing them in similar grammatical form. Paired
.~ ideas are usually connected in one of three ways: (1) with
a coordinating conjunction-and, but, or, nor, for, so, or
~ ~ yet; (2) with a correlative conjunction-either ... or, nei-
ther ... nor, not only ... but also, or whether ... or; or (3)
~
with a word introducing a comparison, usually than or as.
1,
► Many states are reducing property taxes for home

~
extendin0
owners and cxtetttl financial aid in the form of tax
I\

~
credits to renters.

The coordinating conjunction and connects two -ing verb

~
forms: redueing . .. extending.

l'
 I

6 4a Needed words ( V'

I
add
(V
► Thomas Edison was not only a prolific inventor

but also wa5 a successful entrepreneur. (~

The correlative conjunction not only . .. but also connects
two noun phrases: a prolific inventor and a successful (~
entrepreneur.

• . ~ grou~
(-\)
► It 1s eas1er to speak in abstractions than grounding
I\

one's thoughts in reality. (ij

The comparative term than links two infinitive phrases:
to speak .. . to ground.

NOTE: Repeat function words such as prepositions (by,

to) and subordinating conjunctions (that, because) to
make parallel ideas easier to grasp.

► Our study revealed that left-handed students were

more likely to have trouble with classroom desks

that
and rearranging desks for exam periods was
I\

useful.

4 Add needed words.

Sometimes writers leave out words intentionally,
without affecting meaning. But often the result is a
confusing or an ungrammatical sentence. Readers
need to see at a glance how the parts of a sentence are
connected.

4a Words in compound structures

In compound structures, words are often omitted for
economy: Tom is a man who means what he says and
e
[who] says what he means. Such omissions are accept-
able as long as the omitted words are common to both
parts of the compound structure.
lf omitting a word from a sentence would make
the sentence ungrammatical because the word is not
common to both parts of the compound structure, the
word must be left in.
~ Comparisons 4c 7

add

► Advertisers target customers whom they identify

who
through demographic research or have purchased
/\

their product in the past.

The word who must be included because whom . . . have

purchased is not grammatically correct.
acce pted
► Mayor Davidso n never has and never will accept
/\

a bribe.

Has . .. accept is not grammatically correct.

4b The word that

Add the word that if there is any danger of misread ing
without it.

► In his obedien ce experim ents, psychol ogist

that
Stanley Milgram discovered ordinar y people were
/\

willing to inflict physica l pain on strangers.

Milgram didn't discover people; he discovered that

people were willing to inflict pain on strangers.

4c Words in comparisons
Compar isons should be made between items that are
alike. To compare unlike items is illogical and distracting.

► The forests of North America are much more

those of
extensive than Europe.
/\

Compar isons should be comple te so that readers

will underst and what is being compar ed.
INCOMPLETE Depression is more common in adolescent
girls.
COMPLETE Depression is more common in adolescent
girls than in adolescent boys.
Also, compar isons should leave no ambigu ity about
meanin g. In the sentenc e on the next page, two inter-
pretatio ns are possible.
8 5b Shifts
(Íy
--------- - - -

~
shift

AMBIGUOUS Kai helped me more than my roommate.

CLEAR Kai helped me more than he helped my
room mate.
t,, 1
Kai helped me more than my roommate
CLEAR
did. ty 1
~~
5 Eliminate distracting shifts.
t, ~
5a Shifts in point of view
The point of view of a piece of writing is the perspec-
tive from which it is written: first person (/ or we), sec-
~~
ond person (you), or third person (he, she, it, one, or
they). The I (or we) point of view, which emphasizes
t, 1
the writer, is a good choice for writing based primarily
on personal experience. The you point of view, which
emphasizes the reader, works well for giving advice or
t, 1
explaining how to do something. The third-person
point of view, which emphasizes the subject, is appro- ~1
~1
priate in most academic and professional writing.
Once you settle on an appropriate point of view,
stick with it. Shifting points of view within a piece of
writing confuses readers. (See also 12a.)
~1
~1
► Our class practiced rescuing a victim trapped in a
We our
wrecked car. ~ were graded on ~ speed and
/\ I\

skill in freeing the victim.

You
el
~
► Tra~elers need a signed passport for trips
/\

abroad. You should also fill out the emergency 11

information page in the passport.
~~
5b Shifts in tense
Consistent verb tenses clearly establish the time of the
~l
actions being described. When a passage begins in one
tense and then shifts without warning and for no rea-
son to another, readers are distracted and confused.
•1
► Our candidate lost in the debate. Just as we gave
soared
:f
up hope, she soars ahead in the polls.
I\
. 1
 lllogical connections 6b 9

mix

Writers often shift verb tenses when writing about

literature. The literary convention is to describe fictional
events consistently in the present tense. (See p. 27.)

6 Untangle mixed constructions.

A mixed construction contains sentence parts that do

not sensibly fit together. The mismatch may be a mat-
ter of grammar or of logic.

6a Mixed grammatical structure

You should not begin a sentence with one grammati-
cal plan and then switch without warning to another.
Rethinking the purpose of the sentence can help you
revise.
M
► ~ q'lost drivers who have a blood alcohol level of
I\

.05 percent increase their risk of causing an accident.

The prepositional phrase beginning with For cannot

~ serve as the subject of the verb increase. The revision
makes drivers the subject.

~ ► Although Luxembourg is a small nation, but it has

~
a rich cultural history.

The coordinating conjunction but cannot link a subordi-

~
na te clause (Although . . .) with an independent clause (it
has a rich ... ).

~ 6b lllogical connections

~ A sentence's subj ect and verb should make sense

together.

~ ►
financ lal-ald beneflte for
Under the revised plan, first-generation college
' I\

students/ who now receive financial aid benefits,

will increase.

The benefits, not th e students, will increasc.

 10 7a Misplaced and dangling modifiers
((Vl 1

---- - ---
mm/dm
-- ---

Tiffany
cvt
► The court decided that Tiffany's welfare would be
A
(f 1
safer living with her grandparents.

Tiffany, not her welfare, would be safer. (I> ~I

(i>w~
6c /s when, is where, and reason .. . is
because constructions
(l> l
In formal English, readers sometimes object to is when,
is where, and reason ... is because constructions on
grammatical or logical grounds. (~t
(l; ~
a disorder s uffered by people who
► Anorexia nervosa is where people diet to the point
"
of starvation.

Where refers to places. Anorexia nervosa is a disorder, not

a place.
~1
►
T
The reasoR fhe experiment failed is because
tl1--I
A

conditions in the lab were not sterile.

~1
~,
7 Repair misplaced and
dangling modifiers. ,~,
~11
Modifiers should point clearly to the words they mod-
ify. As a rule, related words should be kept together.

7a Misplaced words
Limiting modifiers such as only, even, almost, nearly,
and just should appear in front of a verb only if they
:1
modify the verb. If they limit the meaning of sorne ' 1
other word in the sentence, they should be placed in
front of that word.

► Research shows that students aRly leam new

~
only
vocabulary words when they are encouraged to read.

~l
A

Only limits the meaning of the when clause.

.!
~
L.
 Dangling modiftef'S 7c 11
mm/dm

just
► lf you just interview chemistry majors, your
I\

picture of students' opinions on the new policies

will be incomplete.

Toe adverb just limits the meaning of chemistry majors,

not interview.

When the limiting modifier not is misplaced, the sen-

tence usually suggests a meaning the writer did not intend.
not
► In the United States in 1860, ali black southemers
I\

were Ret slaves.

Toe original sentence means that no black southemers were

slaves. The revision makes the writer's real meaning dear.

7b Misplaced phrases and clauses

Although phrases and clauses can appear at sorne dis-
tance from the words they modify, make sure your
meaning is clear. When phrases or clauses are oddly
placed, absurd misreadings can result.
On the walls
► Taere are many pictures of comedians who have
I\

performed at Gavin's. en the ,~1aHs.

The comedians weren't performing on the walls; the

pictures were on the walls.
1 70 -pound,
► The robber was described as a six-foot-tall man

with a mustache. weighing 170 paunds.

I\

The robber, not the mustache, weighed 170 pounds.

7c Dangling modifiers
A dangling modifier fails to refer logically to any word in
the sentence. Dangling modifiers are usually introductory
word groups (such as verbal phrases) that suggest but do
'~ not name an actor. When a sentence opens with such a
modifier, readers expect the subject of the next clause to
,~ name the actor. lf it doesn't, the modifier dangles.

·~ DANGLING Upon entering the doctor's office, a skeleton

caught my attention.
This sentence suggests- absurdly- that the skeleton
entered the doctor's office.
12 7d Mlsplaced and dangllng modiflers

mm/dm
tV
ti•l
To repair a dangling modifier, you can revise the
sentence in one of two ways:

1. Name the actor in the subject of the sentence.

2. Name the actor in the modifier.
1not lced
~,\ ~
► Upon entering the doctor's office, a skeleton.

eeught nty eHentien.

I\ I\ (l> 1
►
Ae I cntered
~pen entering the doctor's office, a skeleton
(l>
I\

caught my attention.
\l> 1
You cannot repair a dangling modifier simply by mov-
ing it: A skeleton caught my attention upon entering the
doctor's office. The sentence still suggests that the skele-
;¡, 1
ton entered the doctor's office.

► Wanting to create checks and balances on power,

the framere of
the Constitution divided the government into
'"(t, i1
"three branches.
The framers (not the Constitution itself) wanted to create " 1

"
checks and balances.
women were often denled
► After completing seminary training, wemen'~
I\

access to the priesthood. wes eften denied.

I\

The women (not their access to the priesthood) com-

pleted the training. The writer has revised the sentence
by making women (not women's access) the subject.

7d Split infinitives
An infinitive consists of to plus a verb: to think, to
dance. When a modifier appears between to and the
verb, the infinitive is said to be "split": to slowly drive.
If a split infinitive is awkward, move the modifier to
another position in the sentence.

► Cardiologists encourage their patients to

more carefu lly.
mere eerefully watch their cholesterol levels/
e
I\

e
•
 Choppy sentences 13
var

Attem pts to avoid split infinit ives somet imes

result in awkward sentences. When alterna tive phras-
ing sounds unnatu ral, most experts allow -and even
encou rage- splitti ng the infinit ive. We decided to
actually enforce the law is a natura l constr uction in
English. We decided actual/y to enforce the law is not.

~ Provide sentence variety.

Senten ce variety can help keep readers interes ted in

your writing . If most of your senten ces are the sarne
length or begin the sarne way, try cornbining thern or
varying senten ce starters.

8a Combining choppy sentences

If a series of short sentences sounds choppy, consider
combi ning sentences. Look for opport unities to tuck
sorne of your ideas into subord inate clauses. A sub-
ordina te clause, which contai ns a subject anda verb,
begins with a word such as although, because, if, unless,
which, or who. (See p. 326.)

► We keep our use of insecticides to a minim um/

becauee we
We
I\
are concem ed about the enviro nment .

Also look for opport unities to tuck sorne of your

ideas into phrase s, word groups that lack a subjec t
and a verb. You will usually see more than one way
to combi ne chopp y sentences; the metho d you choose
should depen d on the details you want to emphasize.

► The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, is a 184-mile

I\

waterw ay constructed in the 1800s/, lt: was a

I\

major source of transportation for goods during

the Civil War.

This revision emphasizes the significance of the canal

during the Civil War. The first sentence, about the age
of the canal, has been made into a phrase modifying
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal.
14 8b Sentence variety
(t~
var (lr
►
Used as a major source of transportatlon for goods
during the Civil War, the
:i:ae Chesapeake and Ohio Canal is a 184-mile
(t~
~
/\

waterway constructed in the 1800s. lt was a ma¡er

(~
s0urce 0f traRsf)0rtati0B fer g00ds duriag the
(V I
This revision ernphasizes the age of the canal. The
second sentence, about the canal's use for transportation (~·1
of goods, has becorne a participial phrase rnodifying
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. (~,
When short sentences contain ideas of equal
importance, it is often effective to combine them with (~,
and, but, or or.

► Shore houses were flooded up to the first floor/,

/\
and
(~,
Brant's Lighthouse was swallowed by the sea.
\~ 1
8b Varying sentence openings
Most sentences in English begin with the subject, move
\~,
to the verb, and continue to an object, with modifiers
tucked in along the way or put at the end. For the most ~1
part, such sentences are fine. Put too many of them in
a row, however, and they become monotonous.
~1
Words, phrases, or clauses modifying the verb can
often be inserted ahead of the subject.
Eventually a
~,
► A few drops of sap e1reatuaUy began to trickle into
/\

the pail. gl
►
Justas the sun was coming up, a
A pair of black ducks flew over the pond. just as
/\
~
/\

the SHB was C0HliRg Hf).

~
Adjectives and participial phrases (beginning with
verb forms such as driving or exhausted) can frequently be
moved to the start of a sentence without loss of clarity.
~
~
D
► The cemmittee, ~iscouraged by the researchers'
" the committee
apparent lack of progress, nearly withdrew
/\
~
funding for the prizewinning experiments.

."-
 Clichés 9b 15
appr

NOTE: In a sente nce that begin s with an adjec tive or

a participial phrase, the subject of the sente nce must
nam e the person or thing being described. If it doesn't,
the phrase dangles. (See ?c.)

9 Find an appropriate voice.

An appr opria te voice is one that suits your subje ct,
engages your audience, and conforms to the conv en-
tions of the genr e in whic h you are writi ng, such as
lab reports, informal essays, research papers, business
memos, and so on.
In academic and professional writing, certain lan-
guage is generally cons idere d inap prop riate : jargo n,
clichés, slang, and sexist or biased language.

9a Jargon

Jargon is specialized language used among members of

a trade , discipline, or professional group. Use jargon
only whe n read ers will be familiar with it or whe n
plain English will not properly convey your meaning.
JARGON We outso urced the work to an outfi t in Ohio
because we didn 't have the band width to tackle
it in-house.
REVISED We hired a comp any in Ohio because we had
too few employees to do the work.
Sent ence s filled with jargon are hard tore ad and
often wordy.

talk
► The CEO shou ld dialog1:1e with investors
working A
about partReriRg with clients to buy land in
poor "' neighborhoods.
ecoRomically depriir;ed ~oRes.
,/\ A

9b Clic hés

The pion eer who first anno unce d that he had "slep t
like a log no doub t amu sed his com pani ons with a
11

fresh and unlik ely comp ariso n. Today, however, that

comp ariso n is a cliché, a saying that can no longer add
emp hasis or surprise. The next page lists a few com-
mon sayings. To see just how predictable clichés are,
put your hand over the right -han d colu mn and then
finish the phrases given on the left.
16 9d Appropriate voice
~¡Hi
appr
tV
beat around
busy as
cool as
the bush
a bee, a beaver
a cucum ber
~~ ~
light as
white as
a feather, air
a sheet, a ghost
tVi
avoid clichés like the plague

The solutio n for clichés is simple: Delete them.

tV I
(~
► When I received a full schola rship from my
fe lt pressu red t o settle fo r
second-choice school, I fuund m,xself betwe en a
second -best. A
tV I
F0Ck and a hard place.
t~I
9c Slang
Slang is an informal and sometimes private vocabulary
that expresses the solidarity of a group such as teenag-
~,
ers, rap musicians, or sports fans. Although slang has
a certain vitality, it is a code that not everyone under- ~1
stands . Avoid using it in academic writing unless you
have a specific reason for doing so. ~,
►
A
evidence
Witho ut the receipts, we can't move forwar d with

our proposal.
(~1
({,., 1
9d Sexist and noninclusive language
Sexist and nonin clusiv e langua ge stereo types and ~
demea ns people and should be avoided. Using non-
sexist langua ge and recogn izing indivi duals' chose n
prono un usage show respect and audience awareness.
In your writing, avoid referring to any profession as
~1
exdusively made up of one gender (teachers as wome n
or engineers as men, for example). Avoid using gendered,
~ I
stereotypical conventions to name or identify a person.
~
STEREOTYPICAL LANGUAGE

After a nursin g studen t graduates, she must face a ~ I

difficult state board examin ation. [Not all nursin g
studen ts are women .]
Runnin g for city counci l are Boris Stotsky, an attor- ~
ney, and Mrs. Cynthi a Jones, a professor of English
and mother of three. [The title Mrs. and the phrase and
~
mother of three are irrelevant.]
.,
 Sexist and nonlnclusive language 17
appr

When a student applies for federal financial aid, he or

she is given an FSA ID. [Not ali students identify as he
or she.l
Sornetirnes sexist language arises from the practice
of using singular gendered pronouns to refer generi-
cally to persons of ali genders.

SEXIST LANGUAGE

A journalist is motivated by his deadline.

Sirnilarly, terrns including man and men were once

used to refer generically to all people of that profession
or group. Current usage demands gender-neutral terrns.
INAPPROPRIATE APPROPRIATE
chairman chairperson, chair
congressman representative, legislator
fireman firefighter
mankind people, humans
~ toma n
weatherman
to operate, to staff
meteorologist, forecaster

~ Revising sexist and noninclusive language When

revising, sorne writers substitute he or she or he/she.
~ Others alternate fernale pronouns with rnale pronouns.
These strategies are wordy, can becorne awkward or
confusing, and are not inclusive of all individuals .
? lnstead, use the plural or revise the sentence.
It is also becorning increasingly acceptable to use the

~ plural pronoun they to refer to individuals inclusively.

USING THE PLURAL

~ Journalists are motivated by their deadlines.

REVISING THE SENTENCE

A journalist is motivated by a deadline.

USING SINGULAR THEY

A journalist is motivated by their deadline.

NOTE: When using pronouns to refer to people, choose

the pronouns that the individuals thernselves would use.
Sorne transgender, nonbinary, and gender-fluid individu-
als refer to thernselves by new pronouns (ze/hir, for exam-
ple), but if you are unfamiliar with such preferences, they
and them are acceptable gender-neutraJ options.
 t~
(~
\¡,
I

(~
(f
Grammar (V
(~
Subject-verb agreement 19

[1'!J Other problems with verbs 23

(V
Pronouns 29 ~
Adjectives and adverbs 36

Sentence fragments 39
(~1
Run-on sentences 41 ~1
Grammar topics for
multilingual writers 44 \~1
~,
t;.¡
~,
~1
~,
~I
~

~
~
~~
Words between subject and verb 19

~~ svagr

~ 00] Make subjects and verbs agree.

~ In the present tense, verbs agree with their subjects
in number (singular or plural) and in person (first,
second, or third). The present-tense ending -s (or -es)
~~ is used on a verb if its subject is third-person singu-
lar; otherwise the verb takes no ending. Consider, for
example, the present-tense forros of the verb give.
~
SINGULAR PLURAL

~~ FIRST PERSON I give we give

SECOND PERSON you give you give
,~ THIRD PERSON he/she/it gives they give
Yolanda gives parents give

1 The verb be varies from this pattern; it has special

forros in both the present and the past tense.
-:¡ PRESENT-TENSE
FORMS OF BE
PAST-TENSE
FORMSOFBE
I am we are lwas we were
~~ you are you are you were you were

-~ he/she/it is they are he/she/it was

This section describes particular situations that can

cause problems with subject-verb agreement.
they were

.~
1Oa Words between subject and verb
1 Word groups often come between the subject and the
verb. Such word groups, usually modifying the sub-
~~ ject, may contain a noun that at first appears to be the
subject. By mentally stripping away such modifiers,
you can isolate the noun that is in fact the subject.
~
The samples on the tray in the lab need testing.

4 ► High levels of air pollution damage, the

4 respiratory tract.

.. ►
The subject is levels, not pollution .
has
The slaughter of pandas for their pelts ftítW caused
A

~ the panda population to decline drastically.

The subject is slaughter, not pandas or pelts.

 I
\y ,,
20 10d Subject-verb agreement
-·-·-·--
sv agr ¡
(¡.r
Phrases beginning with expressions such as as
J;i,
NOTE:
well as, in addition to, accompanied by, together with, and
along with do not make a singular subject plural: The
governor as well as his press secretary was [not were] on
the plane. ~ ¡,

10b Subjects joined with and ~ q'

Compound subjects joined with and are nearly always
plural.
~
► Bleach and ammonia creat~ a toxic gas when mixed. ~ I

EXCEPTION: If the parts of the subject form a single

unit, you may treat the subject as singular: Bacon and
eggs is always on the menu.

10c Subjects joined with or or nor

With compound subjects joined with or or nor, make
the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to
the verb.
has
► If an infant or a child have a high fever, call a doctor.
I\

► Neither the chief financia! officer nor the

were
marketing managers was able to convince the
I\

client to reconsider.

10d lndefinite pronouns such as someone

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not refer
to specific persons or things. The following indefinite
pronouns are singular: anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no
one, somebody, someone, something.
► Nobody who participated in the clinical trials
was
we,e given a placebo.
A

has
► Each of the essays ffiWe been graded.
I\

A few indefinite pronouns (ali, any, none, sorne) di

may be singular or plural depending on the noun or ~
 Subject after verb 21
- - - ---------
sv agr

pronoun they refer to: Sorne of our /uggage was lost.

Sorne of the rocks were slippery. None of his advice makes
sense. None of the eggs were broken.

10e Collective nouns such as jury

~ Collective nouns such as jury, cornrnittee, audience,
crowd, class, farnily, and couple name a group. In Ameri-
can English, collective nouns are nearly always treated
as singular: They emphasize the group as a unit.
meets
► The board of trustees meet in Denver twice a year.
/\

Occasionally, to draw attention to the individ-

ual members of the group, a collective noun may be
treated as plural: The class are debating arnong thern-
selves. Many writers prefer to add a clearly plural noun
such as rnembers: The class members are debating among
themselves.
NOTE: In general, when a fraction or unit of measure-
ment is used with a singular noun, treat it as singular;
when it is used with a plural noun, treat it as plural:
Three-fourths of the pie has been eaten. One-fourth of the
~ drivers were texting.

1Of Subject after verb

~
Verbs ordinarily follow subjects. When this normal

~
order is reversed, it is easy to become confused.
are
► Of particular concem is penicillin and
~ /\

tetracycline, antibiotics used to make animals

~ more resistant to disease.

The subject, penidllin and tetracycline, is plural.

~ The subject always follows the verb in sentences
beginning with there is or there are (or there was or there
were).
were
► There wa5 a turtle and a snake in the tank.
A

The subject, turtle and snake, is plural, so the verb must

be were.
22 10h Subject-verb agreement
r;;!
sv agr (fl/,
10g Who, which, and that rj,'
Like most pronouns, the relative pronouns who, which,
and that have antecedents, nouns or pronouns to
which they refer. A relative pronoun used as the sub- t~'
ject of a subordinate clause takes a verb that agrees
with its antecedent. m~l
~
ANT PN V
Take a train that arrives before 6:00.
((f~I
Constructions such as one of the students who (or
one of the things that) may cause problems for writ- trtí~
ers. Do not assume that the antecedent must be one.
Instead, consider the logic of the sentence. i {~
~ I~
► Our ability to use Ianguage is one of the things
set
that ~ us apart from animals.
I\

The antecedent of that is things, not one. Several things

set us apart from animals.
11 1
When the word only comes before one, you are safe
in assuming that one is the antecedent of the relative
11~
pronoun.
f1~
► Veronica was the only one of the first-year Spanish
was
students who were fluent enough to apply for the
l
(V,
MI
/\

exchange program.

The antecedent of who is one, not students. Only one

student was fluent enough.
~i, 1
10h Plural form, singular meaning
Words such as athletics, economics, mathematics, physics,
(~

~~
politics, statistics, measles, and news are usually singu-
lar, despite their plural form.

►
le
Politics al=@ among my mother's favorite pastimes.
I\
(tt_¡
EXCEPTION: Occasionally sorne of these words, espe-
cially economics, mathematics, politics, and statistics,
(t -J
have plural meanings: Office politics often affect
e~!
\i
1
1~
Irregular verbs 11a 23

~ vb

decisions about hiring and promotion. The economics of

J the building plan are prohibitive.

J 10i Titles, company names, and words

mentioned as words

z. Titles, company names, and words mentioned as

words are singular.

J ►
cleecrlbee
Lost Cities describe the discoveries of fifty ancient
/\

J civilizations.

~, ►
speclalizes
Delmonico Brothers specialize in organic produce

and additive-free meats.

/\

:- ►
Is
Controlled substances ~ a euphemism for illegal

:.
/\
r drugs.
1

J ~ Be alert to other problems

with verbs.
~~
Section 10 deals with subject-verb agreement. This
;J section describes a few other potential problems with
verbs.

~~ 11a Irregular verbs

For all regular verbs, the past-tense and past-participle
~~ forros are the same, ending in -ed or -d, so there is no
danger of confusion. This is not true, however, for

~
"~, irregular verbs, such as the following:

BASE FORM
break
PASTTENSE
broke
PAST PARTICIPLE
broken

~, fly
go
flew
went
flown
gone

~, The past-tense form always occurs alone, without a

helping verb. It expresses action that occurred entirely
in the past. The past participle is used with a helping

:, verb. lt forros the perfect tenses with has, have, or had;

( ~
24 Other problems wlth verbs
7J J
rt l
it forms the passive voice with be, am, is, are, was, were,
being, or been. mll
PAST TENSE

PAST PARTICIPLE
Last July, we went to Beijing.
We have gone to Beijing twice. atd
When you aren't sure which verb form to choose
(went or gone, broke or broken, and so on), look up the
({V ]
base form of the verb in the dictionary, which also lists
any irregular forms. The chart on the next page lists
sorne common irregular verbs.
~I
►
saw
Yesterday we seett a film about rain forests.
I\
«td
Because there is no helping verb, the past-tense form saw
is required.
((¡41
►
fallen
By the end of the day, the stock market had feH
I\
11 1
two hundred points.

Because of the helping verb had, the past-participle form

((1 1
fallen is required.

Distinguishing between líe and lay Writers often

11
confuse the various forms of líe (meaning "to recline
or rest on a surface") and lay (meaning "to put or place ~ I
something"). The intransitive verb lie does not take a
direct object: The tax forms lie on the table. The tran-
sitive verb lay takes a direct object: Please lay the tax
útfe
forms on the table.
(1~
BASE PAST PAST PRESENT

(f, ~
FORM TENSE PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
lie (recline) lay lain lying
lay (put) laid laid laying

Elizabeth was so exhausted that she lay down for a

nap. [The past tense of líe ("recline") is lay.]
The prosecutor laid the photograph on a table close
to the jurors. [The past tense of lay ("place") is laid.]
:~
Letters dating from the Civil War were lying in the
corner of the chest. [The present participle of Iie ("rest
on a surface") is lying.]
The patient had lain in an uncomfortable position all
night. [The past participle of líe ("recline") is lain.]
~7
21
(t~
 Irregular vert>s
---
~

6o Common irregular verbs at a glance

BASEFORM PASTTENSE PAST PARTICIPLÉ
be was, were been
begin bagan begun
break broke broken
bring brought brought
choose chose . chosen
cling clung clung
come carne come
do did done
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
/~
find found found
get got gotten, got
/~ give gave given
go went gene
hang (execute) hanged hanged
I~
hang (suspend) hung hung
have had had
/~ keep kept kept
know knew known
let (allow) let let
/~
make made made
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise (get up) rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
send sent sent
set (place) set set
sit (be seated) sat sat
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
take took taken
wear wore worn
write wrote written
.. ...
 / -¡
26 11b Other problems wlth verbs fv,
vb I

11b Tense 'l.Vl

Tenses indicate the time of an action in relation to f~
the time of the speaking or writlng about that action.
Tenses are classified as present, past, and future, with tS-.'.
\ ü,r
j
simple, perfect, and progressive forms for each. 1

The most common problem with tenses-shifting

from one tense to another-is discussed in Sb. Other
problems with tenses are detailed in this section, after
(Ó,.-11
the following survey of tenses. ti}- ]
Simple tenses The simple tenses indicate relatively
simple time relations. The simple present tense is used
primarily for actions occurring at the time they are
,u- j
being discussed or for actions occurring regularly. The
simple past tense is used for actions completed in the
(b- 1
past. The simple future tense is used for actions that will
occur in the future. In the following table, the simple
tenses are given for the regular verb walk, the irregular
~1
verb ride, and the highly irregular verb be.
SIMPLE PRESENT
ti- 1
SINGULAR
I walk, ride, am
PLURAL
we walk, ride, are ~1
~1
you walk, ride, are you walk, ride, are
he/she/it walks, rides, is they walk, ride, are

1-.1
SIMPLE PAST
SINGULAR PLURAL
I walked, rode, was we walked, rode, were
you walked, rode, were you walked, rode, were
he/she/it walked, rode, was they walked, rode, were ft,I
SIMPLE FUTURE
I, you, he/she/it, we, they will walk, ride, be ,~l
Perfect tenses A verb in one of the perfect tenses (a
form of have plus the past partidple) expresses an action
that was or will be completed at the time of another action.
~L.1
PRESENT PERFECT
I, you, we, they have walked, ridden, been ~
he/she/it
PAST PERFECT
has walked, ridden, been
~l
I, you, he/she/it, we, they had walked, ridden, been
FUTURE PERFECT
I, you, he/she/it, we, they will have walked, ridden, been
 1
Verb tense 11b 27
vb

Progressive forms Each of the six tenses has a pro 4

gressive form used to describe actions in progress. A

progressive verb consists of a form of be followed by
the present participle.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
I am walking, riding, being
he/she/it is walking, riding, being
you, we, they are walking, riding, being
PAST PROGRESSIVE
1, he/she/it was walking, riding, being
you, we, they were walking, riding, being
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
1, you, he/she/it, we, they will be walking, riding, being
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
I, you, we, they have been walking, riding,
being
he/she/it has been walking, riding,
being
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
I, you, he/she/it, we, they had been walking, riding,
being
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
I, you, he/she/it, we, they will have been walking,
riding, being
Special uses of the present tense Use the present
tense when writing about literature or when express-
ing general truths.
is
► Toe scarlet letter was a punishment placed on
I\

Hester's breast by the community, and yet it

is
was an imaginative product of Hester's own
I\

needlework.
revolves
► Galileo taught that the earth revolved around
I\

the sun.

NOTE: When you are quoting, summarizing, or para-

phrasing the author of a nonliterary work in MLA
style, use present-tense verbs: writes, argues. When
28 4
vb
Other problems wlth verbs
----- ------
r&H
r~JI
using APA style, use past tense or present perfect tense:
wrote, has argued. (See p. 124 for MLA style and p. 199
for APA style.)
r~ 1
The past perfect tense The past perfect tense is
used for an action already completed by the time of
rtJ
another past action. This tense consists of a past parti-
ciple preceded by had (had worked, Izad gone).
(~
► We built our cabin forty feet above an abandoned f~ j
had been
quarry that was flooded in 1920 to create a Iake.
/\ ~Í> j
► By the time dinner was served, the guest of honor
had
left.
I\
~
tw
(~
11c Mood
There are three moods in English: the indicative, used (i)~
for facts, opinions, and questions; the imperative,
used for orders or advice; and the subjunctive, used
to express wishes, requests, or conditions contrary to ttt-1
fact. For many writers, the subjunctive causes the most
problems.
For wishes and in if clauses expressing conditions
,.._'
contrary to fact, the subjunctive is the past-tense form
of the verb; in the case of be, it is always were (not was), ~tt. l
even if the subject is singular.
I wish that Jamal drove more slowly late at night. ,t,.. 1
lf I were a member of Congress, I would vote for the
bill. ,tt_~
NOTE: Do not use the subjunctive mood in if clauses
expressing conditions that exist or may exist: If
Danielle pass es [not passedJ the test, she will become a
r...¡
lifeguard.
~
Use the subjunctive mood in that clauses follow-
ing verbs such as ask, insist, recommend, and request.
The subjunctive in such cases is the base form of the
verb.
~1
~
Dr. Chung insists that her students arrive on time.

{j ~
 Pronoun•antecedent ogn,ement 29
- - --- - -- -·-- -
pn agr

~~ Use pronouns with care.

Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns: he, it,
tliem, her, me, and so on. Pronoun errors are typically
related to the four tapies discussed in this section:
a. pronoun-antecedent agreement (singular vs. plural)
b. pronoun reference (clarity)
~ c. pronoun case (personal pronouns such as / vs. me)
d. pronoun case (who vs. whom)
~
12a Pronoun-antecedent agreement
~ The antecedent of a pronoun is the word the pronoun
refers to. A pronoun and its antecedent agree when
~ they are both singular or both plural.

~
~ SINGULAR The doctor finished her rounds.
~
~ PLURAL The doctors finished their rounds.

-a lndefinite pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to

nonspecific persons or things: anybody, anyone, any-
thing, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither,
-a nobody, no one, nothing, somebody, someone, something.
Traditionally, indefinite pronouns have been treated
as singular in formal English. However, using a singular
~3 pronoun usually results in a sentence that is sex.ist, and
the traditional alternative (he or she) is often consid-

3 ered noninclusive. (See 9d.) It is becoming increasingly

acceptable in many contexts to use the gender-neutral
pronoun they to refer to an indefinite pronoun.
The following are usually your best options for
revision:
l. Use a plural antecedent.
2. Rewrite the sentence so that no problem of agree-
ment ex.ists.
3. Use the plural pronoun they to refer to the
singular antecedent or indefinite pronoun
("singular they 11
).

The sentences on the next page demonstrate these

revision options.
 _,J
30 111 Pronouns
ri JW
pn agr
rrtJ
►
any elngers want they
lf aRyoRe waRts to auditlon, he or she should
/\ /\
,¡J
►
sign up.
Anyone who
lf aRyoRe wants to auditiory he or she should
,¿J
/\

sign up. (¡f ]

►
they
If anyone wants to audition, he or she should
/\
(l( l
sign up.

Generic nouns A generic noun represents a typi-

cal member of a group, such as a typical student, or
~l
any member of a group, such as any lawyer. Although (\)
generic nouns may seem to have plural meanings, they
have traditionally been considered singular. However,
you should avoid using he to refer to generic nouns,
as in A runner must train if he wants to excel. (See 9d.)
~~
As with indefinite pronouns, the singular use of they is
becoming increasingly acceptable with generic nouns.
(lj~
When revising sentences with generic nouns, you
will usually have the same three options as for indefi-
nite pronouns.
~
►
Medica! students they want
A medieal stadent must study hard if he wants to
{lt~
/\ I\

succeed. (tt 1
► A medica! student must study hard if he wants to

succeed.
\h-1
►
theywant
A medical student must study hard if he waRts to ~1
~1
/\

succeed.

Collective nouns Collective nouns such as jury, com-

mittee, audience, aowd, family, and team name a group.
In American English, collective nouns are usually
~1
singular because they emphasize the group function-
ing as a unit.
~
®.¡
The planning committee granted its [not their]
permission to build.

(j
 Prono un reference

ref

If the members of the group function individually,

~ however, you may treat the noun as plural: The family
put their signatures on the document. Or you might add
a plural antecedent such as members to the sentence:
·~ The family members put their signatures on the document.

~ 12b Pronoun reference

~ In the sentence When Andrew got home, he went

straight to bed, the noun Andrew is the antecedent of
the pronoun he. A pronoun should refer clearly to its
~ antecedent.

Ambiguous reference Ambiguous reference occurs

-~ when the pronoun could refer to either of two possible
antecedents.
-~ The cake collapsed when Aunt Harriet put it
► Whcs .bi:ust Harrict put thc calic on the table/. il
A A

~ coHapscd.
"You have ,,
-G ► Tom toldJames, that he had won the lottery.
A A

What collapsed-the cake or the table? Who won the

~ lottery-Tom or James? The revisions eliminate the

ambiguity.

~ lmplied reference A pronoun must refer to a spe-

cific antecedent, not to a word that is implied but not

..~ actually stated.

the braids
► After braiding Ann's hair, Sue decorated them with
~8 ribbons.
A

~ Vague reference of this, that, or which The pro-

nouns this, that, and which should ordinarily refer
.¡o to specific antecedents rather than to whole ideas or
sentences. When a pronoun's reference is too vague,
either replace the pronoun with a noun or supply an
antecedent to which the pronoun clearly refers.

► Television advertising has created new demands

the ads
for prescription drugs. People respond to this by
A

asking for drugs they may not need.

32
--- --- --- -
case

► Romeo and Jullet were both too young to have

a fact
acquircd much wisdom, iHt6 that accounts for
/\

their rash actions.

lndeflnite reference of they, lt, or you The pro-

noun they should refer to a specific antecedent. Do not
use they to refer indefinitely to persons who have not
been specifically mentioned.
The 1,oard
► +Rey announced an increase in sports fees for all
/\

student athletes.

The word it should not be used indefinitely in con-

structions such as In the article, it says that ...
The
► In tee encyclopedia/ it states that male moths can
/\

smell female moths from several miles away.

The pronoun you is appropriate only when the

writer is addressing the reader directly: Once you have
kneaded the dough, Jet it rise in a warm place. Except in
informal contexts, you should not be used to mean
"anyone in general." Use a noun instead, as in the fol-
lowing example:
ti
► Ms. Pickersgill's Guide to Etiquette stipulates that
a guest
yea should not arrive at a party too early or leave
/\

too late.

12c Case of personal pronouns

(/ vs. me etc.)
The personal pronouns in the following chart change
what is known as case form according to their gram-
matical function in a sentence. Pronouns functioning
as subjects or subject complements appear in the sub-
jective case; those functioning as objects appear in the
objective case; and those showing ownership appear in
the possessive case.
 Proooun case V~. me ate.) 33

8UBJECTIVE OBJECTrYE POSSESSIVE

CASE CASE CASE
SINGULAR 1 me my
you you your
he/she/lt hlm/her/it his/hcr/it5
PLURAL we LI S our
you you your
they them their
Pronouns in the subjective and objective cases are
frequently confused. Most of the rules in this section
specify when to use one or the other of these cases ([ or
Zrw me, he or him, and so on).

Compound word groups You may sometimes be

confused when a subject oran object appears as part of
a compound sttucture. To test for the correct pronoun,
mentally strip away ali of the compound structure
except the pronoun in question.
she
► While diving for pearls, Ikiko and ltef found a
I\

sunken boat.

Ikiko and she is the subject of the verb found. Strip away
the words Ikiko and to test for the correct pronoun: she
found [not her foundj.

► The most traumatic experience for her father and

me
1 occurred long after her operation.
I\

Her father and me is the object of the preposition for.

Strip away the words her father and to test for the correct
pronoun: forme [not for n.
When in doubt about the correct pronoun, sorne
writers try to evade the choice by using a reflexive pro-
noun such as myself. Using a reflexive pronoun in such
situations is nonstandard.
me
► The cabdriver gave my husband and myself sorne
I\

good tips on traveling in New Delhi.

My husband and me is the indirect object of the verb gave.

Appositives Appositives are noun phrases that

rename nouns or pronouns. A pronoun used as an

4
34 1IO ~
CIM
(d(
apposltlvc has thc same functlon (usually subject or
objcct) u the word(s) lt renames. (r~ ¡
1,
► The chlcf strategists, Dr. Bell and

agree on a plan.
IR@;
A
could not
c(l}J 1

The appositive Dr. Bel/ and 1renames the subject, strat- (~ J

egists. Test: / could not agree on a plan [not me could not
agree on a plan).
((~ j
► The reporter interviewed only two witnesses, the

shopkeeper and ~
me. (, J
(~l
I\

The appositive the shopkeeper and me renames the direct

object, witnesses. Test: interviewed me [not interviewed /].

Subject complements Use subjective-case pronouns (~ 1

for subject complements, which rename or describe
the subject and usually follow be, am, is, are, was, were,
being, or been.
((\ 1

► During the Lindbergh trial, Bruno Hauptrnann

he.
1l, 1
repeatedly denied that the kidnapper was h+Rr.
/\

If kidnapper was he seems too stilted, rewrite the sentence:

During the Lindbergh trial, Bruno Hauptmann repeatedly
~1
denied that he was the kidnapper.
D.-1
We or us before a noun When deciding whether we
or us should precede a noun, choose the pronoun that
(t
would be appropriate if the noun were omitted.

►
We
Ys tenants would rather fight than move.
/\
o
Test: We would rather ftght [not Us would rather ftght]. ~
us
► Management is shortchanging we tenants.
/\

Test: Management is shortchanging us [not Management is

shortchanging we].

Pronoun after than or as When a comparison

begins with than oras, your choice of pronoun will
depend on your meaning. To test for the correct pro-
noun, finish the sentence.
 1
► My brother b slx y,an older than tM-:
A

Te,t: oldrr than / fam]

► We reJp«ted no other candfdate for d ty councU

he-r.
asmuchasshet
/\

Test: as muchas [we respecttdJ htr.

Pronoun before or after an inflnitive An infinitive

is the word to followed by a verb. Both subjects and
objects of infinitives take the objective case.
me
► Ms. Wilson asked John and I to drive the senator
her I\

and she to the airport.

I\

fohn and me is the subject and senator a11d her is the

object of the infinitive to drlve.

Pronoun or noun before a gerund lf a pronoun

modifies a gerund, use the possesslve case: my, our,
your, his, her, its, their. Agerund is a verb form endlng
in -ing that functions as a noun.
your
► The chances of 3/00 being hit by lightnlng are
I\

about two million to one.

Nouns as well as pronouns may modify gerunds. To

form the possessive case of a noun, use an apostrophe
and -s (victim's) for a singular noun or just an apostro-
phe (victims') for a plural noun. (See also 19a.)

► The old order in France paid a high price for the

aristocracy's
aris~0Cfacy exploiting the lower classes.
I\

12d Who vs. whom

Who, a subjective-case pronoun, is used for subjects
and subject complements. Whom, an objective-case
pronoun, is used for objects. The words who and
whom appear primarily in subordinate clauses or in
questions.
 I
(J~
adjl.tv
~
tn 1ubordlnate clauaes \,Vhen dccidlng whether to
u,e "110 0 1 whom In a subordinate clau,r, check for th~
Wllfd '~ fun ctton withln the clause.
it~
►
whocver
He tclb that story to wh0"'~' wlll listE'n.
A
f(I~
l\.'lionrr is thr subject of ni/1 listm. Toe entire
subordinate clause whon't'r will listm is the object of (~
thc preposition to.

► You will work with our senior enginttl'St wh@ vou

whom f~
~ .
wHI meet later.

Whom is the direct object of the ve_rb \\i/1 meet. This

becomes clear if you restructure the clause: ,mu wi/1 m~t
w/10,n /afer. Sorne writers test by substHuting lrt• (or sltt')
for who and llim (or her) for whom: }'011 wil/ mttt him lnh'r.

In questions When deciding whether to use wlro

or whom in a question, check for the word's function
within the question.
Who
► Wham was responsiblc for creating that computer
I\

virus?

Who is the subject of the verb was.

Whom
► Whe would you nominate for council president?
I\

W/10111 is the direct object of the verb would nominate.

This becomes clear if you restructure the question: You
would nomiuate whom?

Use adjectives and adverbs

appropriately.
Adjectives rnodify nouns or pronouns; adverbs rnodify
verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjec-
tives (formal, forrnally). But don't assurne that all words
ending in -ly are adverbs or that ali adverbs end in -ly.
Sorne adjectives end in -ly (lovely, friendly), and sorne
adverbs don't (always, here) . When in doubt, consult
a dictionary.

•
 Adverbs 37

adj/adv

13a Adjectives
Adjectives ordinarily precede the nouns they modify.
But they can also function as subject complements
following linking verbs (usually a form of be: be, am,
is, are, was, were, being, been). \Nhen an adjective func-
tions as a subject complement, it describes the subject.
~
Justice is blind.

Verbs such as smell, taste, look, appear, grow, and

feel may also be linking. If the word following one of
these verbs describes the subject, use an adjective; if
the word modifies the verb, use an adverb.
ADJECTIVE The detective looked cautious.
ADVERB The detective looked cautiously far the
fingerprints.

Linking verbs usually suggest states of being, not

actions. For example, to look cautious suggests the
state of being cautious, whereas to look cautiously is to
perform an action in a cautious way.
good
► Lori looked weü in her new raincoat.
bad
► Ali of us on the debate team felt IJadly about our
I\

performance.

~ The verbs looked and felt suggest states of being, not

actions, so they should be followed by adjectives.

~ 13b Adverbs
~ Use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs. Adverbs usually answer one of these ques-

~
tions: When? Where? How? Why? Under what condi-
tions? How often? To what degree?
Adjectives are often used incorrectly in place of
!J adverbs in casual or nonstandard speech.

JJ ► Toe manager must ensure that the office runs

s moothly effl clently.
s,noetk and efficiefll.

JJ
A

J1,
 i, 1

38 13c Adjectlves and adverbs

adj/adv
~
► The chance of recovering any property lost in the
really
fire looks fettl slim.
Gf
I\

The incorrect use of the adjective good in place of

the adverb we/1 is especially common in casual or non-
G1J
standard speech.
well
Q;
► We were delighted that Nomo had done so geetl I\
~ ,!
on the exam.

(J, j
13c Comparatives and superlatives
Most adjectives and adverbs have three forms: the pos- ~
itive, the comparative, and the superlative.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE (i)
soft softer softest
fast
careful
faster
more careful
fastest
most careful
i t~
bad
good
worse
better
worst
best ~,~
Comparative vs. superlative Use the comparative (t,_¡
to compare two things, the superlative to compare
three or more.
better ?
(í,
► Which of these two brands of toothpaste is I\~
most
({,
► Jia is the met=e qualified of the three applicants.
(a;
I\

Forms of comparatives and superlatives To form

comparatives and superlatives of one-syllable adjec-
tives, use the endings -er and -est: smooth, smoother, (G
smoothest. For adjectives with three or more syllables,
use more and most (or less and least): exciting, more excit-
ing, most exciting. Two-syllable adjectives form compar- ~
atives and superlatives in both ways: lovely, lovelier,
loveliest; helpful, more helpful, most helpful.
Sorne one-syllable adverbs take the endings -er and
-est (fast, (aster, fastest), but longer adverbs and all of
those ending in -ly use more and most or less and least (~
(carefully, less carefully, least carefully).
~
\.
 Fragmentad clauses 141 39
--·-· - -·
frag

Double comparatlves or superlatlvee When you

have added -er or -est toan adjectlve oran adverb, do
not also use more or most (or less or /east).
llkely
► Ali the polls indicated that Gore was more Hkelier
/\

to win than Bush.

Absolute concepts Do not use comparatives or

superlatives with absolute concepts such as unique or
perfect. Either something is unique or it isn't. It is illog-
ical to suggest that absolute concepts come in degrees.
unusual
► That is the most uRi(fHe wedding gown I have ever
A

seen.

~4] Repair sentence fragments.

As a rule, do not treat a piece of a sentence-a frag-
ment-as if it were a sentence. To be a sentence, a
word group must consist of at least one full indepen-
dent clause. An independent clause includes a subject
anda verb, and it either stands alone as a sentence or
could stand alone. Although fragments are sometimes
appropriate for emphasis, writers and readers do not
always agree on when they are appropriate. For aca-
demic writing, you will find it more effective to write
in complete sentences.
You can repair a fragment in one of two ways:
1. Pull the fragment into a nearby sentence,
punctuating the new sentence correctly.
2. Rewrite the fragment as a complete sentence.

14a Fragmented clauses

A subordinate clause is patterned like a sentence, with
both a subject and a verb, but it begins with a word
that tells readers it cannot stand alone-a word such
as after, although, because, befare, if, so that, that, though,
unless, until, when, where, which, or who. (For a longer
list, see p. 326.)
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The A B C of
atoms
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The A B C of atoms

Author: Bertrand Russell

Release date: February 5, 2024 [eBook #72875]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: E. P. Dutton & company, 1923

Credits: Laura Natal Rodrigues (Images generously made available

by Hathi Trust Digital Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE A B C

OF ATOMS ***
 THE A B C OF ATOMS
by

BERTRAND RUSSELL, F.R.S.

author of
“mysticism and logic,” “the analysis of mind,” etc.

NEW YORK
E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY
681 FIFTH AVENUE
 copyright, 1923
By E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY

All rights reserved

First Printing Oct., 1923

Second Printing Jan., 1924
Third Printing March, 1924
Fourth Printing Oct., 1924

Printed in the United States of America

 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. introductory 1
II. the periodic law 11
III. electrons and nuclei 22
IV. the hydrogen spectrum 36
V. possible states of the hydrogen atom 49
VI. the theory of quanta 60
VII. refinements of the hydrogen spectrum 72
VIII. rings of electrons 86
IX. x-rays 97
X. radio-activity 108
XI. the structure of nuclei 123
the new physics and the wave theory of
XII. 134
light
XIII. the new physics and relativity 144
APPENDIX bohr’s theory of the hydrogen spectrum 159
 I.
INTRODUCTORY
To the eye or to the touch, ordinary matter appears to be
continuous; our dinner-table, or the chairs on which we sit, seem to
present an unbroken surface. We think that if there were too many
holes the chairs would not be safe to sit on. Science, however,
compels us to accept a quite different conception of what we are
pleased to call “solid” matter; it is, in fact, something much more like
the Irishman’s definition of a net, “a number of holes tied together
with pieces of string.” Only it would be necessary to imagine the
strings cut away until only the knots were left.
When science seeks to find the units of which matter is
composed, it is led to continually smaller particles. The largest unit is
the molecule, but a molecule is as a rule composed of “atoms” of
several different “elements.” For example, a molecule of water
consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, which can be
separated from each other by chemical methods. An atom, in its
turn, is found to be a sort of solar system, with a sun and planets; the
empty regions between the Sun and the planets fill up vastly more
space than they do, so that much the greater part of the volume that
seems to us to be filled by a solid body is really unoccupied. In the
solar system that constitutes an atom, the planets are called
“electrons” and the Sun is called the “nucleus.” The nucleus itself is
not simple except in the case of hydrogen; in all other cases, it is a
complicated system consisting, in all likelihood, of electrons and
hydrogen nuclei (or protons, as they are also called).
With electrons and hydrogen nuclei, so far as our present
knowledge extends, the possibility of dividing up matter into bits
comes to an end. No reason exists for supposing that these
themselves have a structure, and are composed of still smaller bits.
We do not know, of course, that reasons may not be found later for
subdividing electrons and hydrogen nuclei; we only know that so far
nothing prevents us from treating them as ultimate. It is difficult to
know whether to be more astonished at the smallness of these units,
or at the fact that there are units, since we might have expected
matter to be divisible ad infinitum. It will help us to picture the world
of atoms if we have, to begin with, some idea of the size of these
units. Let us start with a gramme[1] of hydrogen, which is not a very
large quantity. How many atoms will it contain? If the atoms were
made up into bundles of a million million, and then we took a million
million of these bundles, we should have about a gramme and a half
of hydrogen. That is to say, the weight of one atom of hydrogen is
about a million-millionth of a million-millionth of a gramme and a half.
Other atoms weigh more than the atom of hydrogen, but not
enormously more; an atom of oxygen weighs 16 times as much, an
atom of lead rather more than 200 times as much. Per contra, an
electron weighs very much less than a hydrogen atom; it takes about
1850 electrons to weigh as much as one hydrogen atom.
The space occupied by an atom is equally minute. As we shall
see, an atom of a given kind is not always of the same size; when it
is not crowded, the electrons which constitute its planets sometimes
are much farther from its sun than they are under normal terrestrial
conditions. But under normal conditions the diameter of a hydrogen
atom is about a hundred-millionth of a centimetre (a centimetre is
about a third of an inch). That is to say, this is about twice the usual
distance of its one electron from the nucleus. The nucleus and the
electron themselves are very much smaller than the whole atom, just
as the Sun and the planets are smaller than the whole region
occupied by the solar system. The sizes of the electron and the
nucleus are not accurately known, but they are supposed to be
about a hundred thousand times as small as the whole atom.
It might be thought that not much could be known about such
minute phenomena, since they are very far below what can be seen
by the most powerful microscope. But in fact a great deal is known.
What has been discovered about atoms by modern physicists is
doubly amazing. In the first place, it is contrary to what every man of
science expected, and in part very difficult to reconcile with other
knowledge and with deep-seated prejudices. In the second place, it
seems to the layman hardly credible that such very small things
should be not only observable, but measurable with a high degree of
accuracy. Sherlock Holmes at his best did not show anything like the
skill of the physicists in making inferences, subsequently verified,
from minute facts which ordinary people would have thought
unimportant. It is remarkable that, like Einstein’s theory of
gravitation, a great deal of the work on the structure of the atom was
done during the war. It is probable that it will ultimately be used for
making more deadly explosives and projectiles than any yet
invented.
The study of the way in which atoms combine into molecules
belongs to chemistry, and will not much concern us. We are
concerned with the structure of atoms, the way in which electrons
and nuclei come together to build up the various kinds of atoms. This
study belongs to physics almost entirely. There are three methods by
which most of our knowledge is obtained: the spectroscope, X-rays,
and radio-activity. The hydrogen atom, which has a simple nucleus
and only one electron, is studied by means of the spectroscope
almost alone. This is the easiest case, and the only one in which the
mathematical difficulties can be solved completely. It is the case by
means of which the most important principles were discovered and
accurately tested. All the atoms except that of hydrogen present
some problems which are too difficult for the mathematicians, in
spite of the fact that they are largely of a kind that has been studied
ever since the time of Newton. But although exact quantitative
solutions of the questions that arise are often impossible, it is not
impossible, even with the more complex atoms, to discover the sort
of thing that is happening when they emit light or X-rays or radio-
activity.
When an atom has many electrons, it seems that they are
arranged in successive rings round the nucleus, all revolving round it
approximately in circles or ellipses. (An ellipse is an oval curve,
which may be described as a flattened-out circle.) The chemical
properties of the atom depend, almost entirely, upon the outer ring;
so does the light that it emits, which is studied by the spectroscope.
The inner rings of electrons give rise to X-rays when they are
disturbed, and it is chiefly by means of X-rays that their constitution
is studied. The nucleus itself is the source of radio-activity. In radium
and the other radio-active elements, the nucleus is unstable, and is
apt to shoot out little particles with incredible velocity. As the nucleus
is what really determines what sort of atom is concerned, i.e. what
element the atom belongs to, an atom which has ejected particles in
radio-activity has changed its chemical nature, and is no longer the
same element as it was before. Radio-activity has only been found
among the heaviest atoms, which have the most complex structure.
The fact that it occurs is one of the proofs that the nucleus of such
elements has a structure and is complex. Until radio-activity was
discovered, no process was known which changed one element into
another. Now-a-days, transmutation, the dream of the alchemists,
takes place in laboratories. But unfortunately it does not transform
the baser metals into gold; it transforms radium, which is infinitely
more valuable than gold, into lead—of a sort.
The simplest atom is that of hydrogen, which has a simple
nucleus and a single electron. Even the one electron is lost when the
atom is positively electrified: a positively electrified hydrogen atom
consists of a hydrogen nucleus alone. The most complex atom
known is that of uranium, which has, in its normal state, 92 electrons
revolving round the nucleus, while the nucleus itself probably
consists of 238 hydrogen nuclei and 146 electrons. No reason is
known why there should not be still more complex atoms, and
possibly such atoms may be discovered some day. But all the most
complex atoms known are breaking down into simpler ones by radio-
activity, so that one may guess that still more complex atoms could
not be stable enough to exist in discoverable quantities.
The amount of energy packed up in an atom is amazing,
considering its minuteness. There is least energy in the outer
electrons, which are concerned in chemical processes, and yield, for
instance, the energy derived from combustion. There is more in the
inner electrons, which yield X-rays. But there is most in the nucleus
itself. This energy in the nucleus only came to be known through
radio-activity; it is the energy which is used up in the performances
of radium. The nucleus of any atom except hydrogen is a tight little
system, which may be compared to a family of energetic people
engaged in a perpetual family quarrel. In radio-activity some
members of the family emigrate, and it is found that the energy they
used to spend on quarrels at home is sufficient to govern an empire.
If this source of energy can be utilized commercially, it will probably
in time supersede every other. Rutherford—to whom, more than any
other single man, is due the conception of the atom as a solar
system of electrons revolving round a nucleus—is working on this
subject, and investigating experimental methods of breaking up
complex atoms into two or more simpler ones. This happens
naturally in radio-activity, but only a few elements are radio-active, at
any rate to an extent that we can discover. To establish the modern
theory of the structure of nuclei on a firm basis, it is necessary to
show, by artificial methods, that atoms which are not naturally radio-
active can also be split up. For this purpose, Rutherford has
subjected nitrogen atoms (and others) to a severe bombardment,
and has succeeded in detaching hydrogen atoms from them. This
whole investigation is as yet in its infancy. The outcome may in time
revolutionize industry, but at present this is no more than a
speculative possibility.
One of the most astonishing things about the processes that take
place in atoms is that they seem to be liable to sudden
discontinuities, sudden jumps from one state of continuous motion to
another. This motion of an electron round its nucleus seems to be
like that of a flea, which crawls for a while, and then hops. The
crawls proceed accurately according to the old laws of dynamics, but
the hops are a new phenomenon, concerning which certain totally
new laws have been discovered empirically, without any possibility
(so far as can be seen) of connecting them with the old laws. There
is a possibility that the old laws, which represented motion as a
smooth continuous process, may be only statistical averages, and
that, when we come down to a sufficiently minute scale, everything
really proceeds by jumps, like the cinema, which produces a
misleading appearance of continuous motion by means of a
succession of separate pictures.
 In the following chapters, I shall try to explain in non-technical
language what is known about the structure of atoms and how it has
been discovered, in so far as this is possible without introducing any
mathematical or other difficulties. Although a great deal is known, a
great deal more is still unknown; at any moment, important new
knowledge may be discovered. The subject is almost as interesting
through the possibilities which it suggests as through what has
actually been ascertained already; it is impossible to exaggerate the
revolutionary effect which it may have both in the practice of industry
and in the theory of physics.
[1] A gramme is about one four-hundred-and-fifty-third of a pound.
 II.
THE PERIODIC LAW
BEFORE we can understand the modern work on the structure of
the atom, it is necessary to know something of the different kinds of
atoms as they appear in chemistry. As every one knows, there are a
great many different chemical “elements.” The number known at
present is eighty-eight, but new elements are discovered from time
to time. The last discovery of a new element was announced as
recently as January 22nd of this year (1923). This element was
discovered in Copenhagen and has been christened hafnium. Each
element consists of atoms of a special kind. As we saw in Chapter I,
an atom is a kind of solar system, consisting of a nucleus which has
electrons revolving round it. We shall see later that it is the nature of
the nucleus that characterizes an element, and that two atoms of the
same element may differ as to the number of their electrons and the
shapes of their orbits. But for the present we are not concerned with
the insides of atoms: we are taking them as units, in the way that
chemistry takes them, and studying their outward behaviour.
The word “atom” originally meant “indivisible” and comes to us
from the Greeks, some of whom believed that matter is composed of
little particles which cannot be cut up. We know now that what are
called atoms can be cut up, except in the case of positively
electrified hydrogen (which consists of a hydrogen nucleus without
any attendant electron). But in chemistry, apart from radio-activity,
there is nothing to prove that atoms can be divided. So long as we
could only study atoms by the methods of chemistry, that is to say,
by their ways of combining with other atoms to form compounds,
there was no way in which we could reach smaller units of matter out
of which the atoms could be composed. Everything known before the
discovery of radio-activity pointed to the view that an atom is
indestructible, and this made it difficult to see how atoms could have
a structure built out of smaller things, because, if they had, one
would expect to find that the structure could be destroyed, just as a
house can be knocked down and reduced to a heap of bricks. We
now know that in radio-activity this sort of thing does happen.
Moreover it has proved possible, by means of the spectroscope, to
discover with delicate precision all sorts of facts about the structure
of the atom which were quite unknown until recent years.
It was of course recognized that science could not rest content
with the theory that there were just eighty-eight different sorts of
atoms. We could bring ourselves to believe that the universe is built
out of two different sorts of things, or perhaps three; we could
believe that it is built out of an infinite number of different sorts of
things. But some instinct rebels against the idea of its being built out
of eighty-eight different sorts of things. The physicists have now all
but succeeded in reducing matter to two different kinds of units, one
(the proton or hydrogen nucleus) bearing positive electricity, and the
other (the electron) bearing negative electricity. It is fairly certain that
this reduction will prove to be right, but whether there is any further
stage to be hoped for it is as yet impossible to say. What we can
already say definitely is that the haphazard multiplicity of the
chemical elements has given place to something more unified and
systematic. The first step in this process, without which the later
steps cannot be understood, was taken by the Russian chemist
Mendeleeff, who discovered the “periodic law” of the elements.
The periodic law was discovered about the year 1870. At the time
when it was discovered, the evidence for it was far less complete
than it is at present. It has proved itself capable of predicting new
elements which have subsequently been found, and altogether the
half-century that has passed since its discovery has enormously
enhanced its importance. The elements can be arranged in a series
by means of what is called their “atomic weight.” By chemical
methods, we can remove one element from a compound and replace
it by an equal number of atoms of another element; we can observe
how much this alters the weight of the compound, and thus we can
compare the weight of one kind of atom with the weight of another.
The lightest atom is that of hydrogen; the heaviest is that of uranium,
which weighs over 238 times as much as that of hydrogen. It was
found that, taking the weight of the hydrogen atom as one, the
weights of a great many other atoms were almost exactly multiples
of this unit, so that they were expressed by integers. The weight of
the oxygen atom is a very little less than 16 times that of the
hydrogen atom. It has been found convenient to define the atomic
weight of oxygen at 16, so that the atomic weight of hydrogen
becomes slightly more than one (1.008). The advantage of this
definition is that it makes the atomic weights of a great many
elements whole numbers, within the limits of accuracy that are
possible in measurement. The recent work of F. W. Aston on what
are called “isotopes” (concerning which we shall have more to say at
a later stage) has shown that, in many cases where the atomic
weight seems to be not a whole number, we really have a mixture of
two different elements, each of which has a whole number for its
atomic weight. This is what we should expect if the nuclei of the
heavier atoms are composed of the nuclei of hydrogen atoms
together with electrons (which are very much lighter than hydrogen
nuclei). The fact that so many atomic weights are almost exactly
whole numbers cannot be due to chance, and has long been
regarded as a reason for supposing that atoms are built up out of
smaller units.
Mendeleeff (and at about the same time the German chemist,
Lothar Meyer) observed that an element would resemble in its
properties, not those that came next to it in the series of atomic
weights, but certain other elements which came at periodic intervals
in the series. For example, there is a group of elements called
“alkalis”; these are the 3rd, 11th, 19th, etc. in the series. These are
all very similar in their chemical behaviour, and also in certain
physical respects, notably their spectrum. Next to these come a
group called “alkaline earths”; these are the 4th, 12th, 20th, etc. in
the series. The third group are called “earths.” There are eight such
groups in all. The eighth, which was not known when the law was
discovered, is the very interesting group of “inert gases,” Helium,
Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, and Niton, all discovered since the
time of Mendeleeff. These are the 2nd, 10th, 18th, 36th, 54th and
86th respectively in the series of elements. They all have the
property that they will not enter into chemical combinations with any
other elements; the Germans, on this account, call them the “noble”
gases. The elements from an alkali to the next inert gas form what is
called one “period.” There are seven periods altogether.
When once the periodic law had been discovered, it was found
that a great many properties of elements were periodic. This gave a
principle of arrangement of the elements, which in the immense
majority of cases placed them in the order of their atomic weights,
but in a few cases reversed this order on account of other properties.
For example, argon, which is an inert gas, has the atomic weight
39.88, whereas potassium, which is an alkali, has the smaller atomic
weight 39.10. Accordingly argon, in spite of its greater atomic weight,
has to be placed before potassium, at the end of the third period,
while potassium has to be put at the beginning of the fourth. It has
been found that, when the order derived from the periodic law differs
from that derived from the atomic weight, the order derived from the
periodic law is much more important; consequently this order is
always adopted.
When the periodic law was first discovered, there were a great
many gaps in the series, that is to say, the law indicated that there
ought to be an element with such-and-such properties at a certain
point in the series, but no such element was known. Confidence in
the law was greatly strengthened by the discovery of new elements
having the requisite properties. There are now only four gaps
remaining.
The seven periods are of very unequal length. The first contains
only two elements, hydrogen and helium. The second and third each
contain eight; the fourth contains eighteen, the fifth again contains
eighteen, the sixth thirty-two, and the seventh only six. But the
seventh, which consists of radio-active elements, is incomplete; its
later members would presumably be unstable, and break down by
radio-activity. Niels Bohr[2] suggests that, if it were complete, it would
again contain thirty-two elements, like the sixth period.
By means of the periodic law, the elements are placed in a
series, beginning with hydrogen and ending with uranium. Counting
the four gaps, there are ninety-two places in the series. What is
called the “atomic number” of an element is simply its place in this
series. Thus hydrogen has the atomic number 1, and uranium has
the atomic number 92. Helium is 2, lithium is 3, carbon 6, nitrogen 7,
oxygen 8, and so on. Radium, which fits quite correctly into the
series, is 88. The atomic number is much more important than the
atomic weight; we shall find that it has a very simple interpretation in
the structure of the atom.
It has lately been discovered that there are sometimes two or
more slightly different elements having the same atomic number.
Such elements are exactly alike in their chemical properties, their
optical spectra, and even their X-ray spectra; they differ in no
observable property except their atomic weight. It is owing to their
extreme similarity that they were not distinguished sooner. Two
elements which have the same atomic number are called “isotopes.”
We shall return to them when we come to the subject of radio-
activity, when it will appear that their existence ought not to surprise
us. For the present we shall ignore them, and regard as identical two
elements having the same atomic number.
There are irregularities in the periodicity of the elements, which
we are only now beginning to understand. The second and third
periods, which each contain eight elements, are quite regular; the
first element in the one is like the first in the other, the second like
the second and so on. But the fourth period has 18 elements, so that
its elements cannot correspond one by one to those of the third
period. There are eight elements with new properties (the 21st to the
28th), and others in which the correspondence is not exact. The fifth
period corresponds regularly, element for element, with the fourth,
which is possible because both contain 18 elements. But in the sixth
period there are 36 elements, and 16 of these (the “rare earths” as
they are called) do not correspond to any of the elements in earlier
periods. Niels Bohr, in the book mentioned above, has offered
ingenious explanations of these apparent irregularities, which are still
more or less hypothetical, but are probably in the main correct.
Some very important facts, however, remain quite unexplained,
notably the fact that iron and the two neighbouring elements have
magnetic properties which are different in a remarkable way from
those of all other elements.
The atomic weight of the earlier elements (except hydrogen) is
double, or one more than double, the atomic number. Thus helium,
the second element, has the atomic weight 4; lithium, the third, has
the atomic weight 7 (very nearly); oxygen, the eighth, has the atomic
weight 16. But after the 20th element the atomic weight becomes
increasingly more than double the atomic number. For instance,
silver, the 47th element, has atomic weight 107.88; gold, the 79th,
has atomic weight 197.2; uranium, the 92nd, has atomic weight
238.2.
It is remarkable that X-ray spectra, which were unknown until a
few years ago, show a perfectly regular progression throughout the
whole series of elements, even in those cases where the order of the
periodic table departs from the order of the atomic weights. This is a
striking confirmation of the correctness of the order that has been
adopted.
The fact of the periodic relations among the elements, and of
progressive properties such as those shown in X-ray spectra (which
we shall consider later on), is enough to make it highly probable that
there are relations between different kinds of atoms, of a sort which
implies that they are all built out of common materials, which must be
regarded as the true “atoms” in the philosophical sense, i.e. the
indivisible constituents of all matter. Chemical atoms are not
indivisible, but are composed of simpler constituents which are
indivisible, so far as our present knowledge goes. Without the
knowledge of the periodic law, it is probable that the modern theories
of the constitution of atoms would never have been discovered; per
contra, the facts embodied in the periodic law form an essential part
of the basis for these theories. The broad lines of atomic constitution
will be explained in the next chapter.
[2] The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution, Cambridge,
1922, pp. 112-3.
 III.
ELECTRONS AND NUCLEI
AN atom, as we saw in Chapter I, consists, like the solar system,
of a number of planets moving round a central body, the planets
being called “electrons” and the central body a “nucleus.” But the
planets are not attached as firmly to the central body as they are in
the solar system. Sometimes, under outside influences, a planet flies
off, and either becomes attached to some other system, or wanders
about for a while as a free electron. Under certain circumstances, the
path of a free electron can actually be photographed; so can the
paths of helium nuclei that are momentarily destitute of attendant
electrons. This is done by making them travel through water vapour,
which enables each to collect a little cloud, and so become large
enough to be visible with a powerful microscope. These observations
of individual electrons and helium nuclei are extraordinarily
instructive. They travel most of their journey in nearly straight lines,
but are liable to sudden deviations when they find themselves very
near to the electrons or nuclei of atoms that stand in their way.
Helium nuclei are much less easily deflected from the straight line
than electrons, showing that they have much greater mass. By
exposing these particles to electric and magnetic forces and
observing the effect upon their motion, it is possible to calculate their
velocity and their mass. By one means or another, it is possible to
find out just as much about them as we can find out about larger
bodies.
An atom differs from the solar system by the fact that it is not
gravitation that makes the electrons go round the nucleus, but
electricity. As everybody knows, there are two kinds of electricity,
positive and negative. (These are mere names; the two kinds might
just as well be called “A” and “B.” None of the ideas commonly
associated with the words “positive” and “negative” must be allowed