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A NOVEL APPROACH TO SLUDGE TREATMENT
USING MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGY

Eva Kocbek
A NOVEL APPROACH TO SLUDGE TREATMENT
USING MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGY

DISSERTATION

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of

the Board for Doctorates of Delft University of
Technology
and
of the Academic Board of the IHE Delft
Institute for Water Education
for
the Degree of DOCTOR
to be defended in public on
 Friday, 5 November 2021, at 10.00 hours
in Delft, the Netherlands

by

Eva KOCBEK
Master of Science in Urban Water and Sanitation;
Specialization Water Supply Engineering,
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft,
The Netherlands
born in Maribor, Slovenia
This dissertation has been approved by the
promotor: Prof. dr. D. Brdjanovic and
copromotor: Dr. H.A. Garcia Hernandez

Composition of the doctoral committee:

Rector Magnificus TU Delft

Rector IHE Delft
Prof.dr. D. Brdjanovic
Dr. H.A. Garcia Hernandez

Independent members:
Prof.dr. A. Léonard
Prof.dr. T. Koottatep
Prof.dr. sc. M. Matosic
Prof.dr. ir. M.K. de Kreuk
Prof.dr. ir. J.B. van Lier

Chairman
Vice-Chairman
IHE Delft / TU Delft, promotor
IHE Delft, copromotor

University of Liège, Belgium

Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
University of Zagreb, Croatia
TU Delft
TU Delft, reserve member

This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate

School for Socio-Economic and Natural Sciences of the Environment
(SENSE)

CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an

informa business

© 2021, Eva Kocbek

Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this
publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed
by the publishers, the author nor IHE Delft for any damage to the
property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication
and/or the information contained herein.

A pdf version of this work will be made available as Open Access via
https://ihedelftrepository.contentdm.oclc.org/ This version is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0
International License, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync/4.0/

Published by:
CRC Press/Balkema
enquiries@taylorandfrancis.com
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN 978-1-032-21799-4.
 To

my father
 Summary

As most cities are engaging in an ongoing rapid process of

urbanization, and the corresponding increase in population, waste
generation, and urban settlement, multidimensional issues have
emerged concerning the management of municipal sewage and
faecal sludge. These problems have resulted in a series of health
concerns as ineffective management of these forms of sludge can
result in pathogens and contaminants entering terrestrial
ecosystems, leading to the contamination of water resources and
disease outbreaks, among other issues. The situation is particularly
complicated when large amounts of sludge that contain a variety of
contaminants are produced in areas characterized with a rapid
accumulation of sludge, such as emergency settlements, slums and
other densely populated settlements. The establishment of fast and
effective sludge management approaches are essential in these
settings.

In more recent times, researchers have examined an array of

technological means of recovering fertilizer, energy, and water from
on-site sanitation and wastewater treatment facilities while aiming
for pathogen inactivation and/or removal. A group of researchers
(Mawioo et al., 2016a; 2016b; 2017) suggested a novel method of
treating sludge that could make it possible to inactivate and/or
destroy the pathogens and in the same time increase the energetic
potential of sludge from sewage treatment, fresh faecal sludge and
septic tank sludge by the application of microwave technology.

A limited number of lab-based studies so far have found that

microwave energy is a fast and efficient method for sludge
treatment, which can facilitate sterilization of sludge and reduce
sludge mass and volume by up to 5% over a shorter time duration
than the conventional sludge drying technologies. The prospective
benefits of microwave treatment have prompted scientists to invest
efforts in studying this promising technology and amid efforts to
design and establish the microwave system's performance in sludge
treatment at a pilot-scale level. However, when attempting to scale-
up a microwave system from lab-to pilot-scale, the system’s energy
performance in the treatment of sludge was low, and considerable
operational cost in terms of specific energy consumption (SEC) were
reported during the drying process (> 16 MJ L−1 or 4 kWh L−1).

The first objective of this research is to develop and implement

solutions that can adequately address the existing issues associated
with the microwave technology observed in the previous studies.
The solutions include measures that can relatively easily extract
vapour generated during the use of the system and augment
electromagnetic distribution uniformity within the sample. The novel
microwave pilot-scale system's performance was evaluated in the
treatment of mechanically (centrifugation) dewatered sludge and
assessed through monitoring the achieved throughput capacity and
specific energy consumed during the drying process using
microwaves. The results showed that the technical solutions
introduced had a beneficial impact on the system's energy
performance; a 70% decrease in the specific energy consumption
was achieved compared to microwave sludge drying studies
elsewhere (from 16 MJ L−1 or 4.4 kWh L−1 to 4.3 MJ L−1 or 1.2 kWh
L−1). The results showed that the specific energy consumption was
dependent on the conversion efficiency of the system from electric
energy to electromagnetic energy (i.e., microwave generation
efficiency), which varied because of changes in the microwave
output power. The lowest specific energy consumption observed was
obtained at the maximum microwave output power, generating the
highest microwave generation efficiency. The study outcomes
indicated that industrial microwave generators with a high
microwave conversion efficiency should be implemented to obtain
optimal results, and should be operated at maximum capacity. The
results also indicated that it might be possible to achieve a further
reduction in specific energy consumption by recovering energy from
the condensate that is generated during the process of drying to
subsequently preheat the incoming sludge.

Another fundamental aspect that influenced the electrical demand of

the microwave system and throughput capability is the power
density, i.e., the amount of microwave energy absorbed by sample
mass or volume. The microwave unit's performance was enhanced
by adjusting the power-to-mass ratio to adapt the power density
across the sample. More precisely, the utilization of high microwave
power outputs and a reduced applied mass during treatment
decreased the exposure time, increased the rate of drying and
reduced the amount of energy consumed for water removal. The
results also indicated that the application of a low sample mass in
combination with high powers might have also led to enhanced
reflective power energy losses, thereby undermining the energy
system's performance. This situation worsened when the depth of
the sludge layer exposed to the radiation was considerably higher
than the level to which the microwaves can penetrate. The thicker
the sample, the greater the extent of the lack of uniformity of the
electromagnetic field that is distributed throughout the sample. This
subsequently led to a reduction in the process energy efficiency with
a corresponding increase in specific energy consumption. The non-
uniformity of electromagnetic energy strength along the material
depth was, however, to a certain extent mitigated by the effect of
moisture levelling, which is the preferential absorption of microwaves
in material regions with higher moisture content. In other words,
while the uniformity and efficiency of the microwave energy that is
absorbed by the material over a given period represent a vital aspect
in increasing the energy performance of the system, it is the
characteristics of the material processed, specifically the dielectric
properties of sludge, that regulate and determine the absorption of
the microwave. This research demonstrated that water molecules'
quantity and distribution are among the main parameters that
govern the sludge dielectric properties. Specifically, the findings
demonstrated that the water not attached to the sludge matrix
moved (rotated) more efficiently under the applied microwave field
than bound water molecules, causing enhanced water removal from
the material. The research also established that the distribution of
free and bound water was, to a certain extent, dependent on the
sludge hydrophobicity as it is influenced by its fat and oil content.
The selected sludge samples containing higher fat and oil content
were more hydrophobic and thus held less available sites for
absorption by bound water. The latter also proved to have a positive
impact on the energetic content of the sludge.

Overall, these findings have advanced a fundamental understanding

of the relationship between microwave energy and sludge and have
shown that the advantages consistently cited in the literature, such
as volumetric and selective heating, effectively result in rapid
processing of sludge with a relatively low physical footprint
requirement and competitive energy use in comparison to other
thermal drying technologies.

The system's high throughput capacity at low required

contact/surface area for heat and mass transfer between the sludge
samples and the microwave energy enabled the system to be
containerized (manufactured in a single container) and mounted on
the trailer to perform in-situ sludge treatment. The potential benefits
of using microwave technology in the in-situ treatment of sludge
from on-site sanitation facilities have been successfully tested and
confirmed in the field under a real scenario in Jordan Valley
(Jordan). Results obtained from the field testing demonstrated that
the microwave technology effectively reduced the level of pathogens
and moisture in sludge obtained from septic tanks, and thus
positively impacted the potential use of sludge, which depending on
the composition, may be directly used for soil amendment or fuel.
Therefore, the key shortfall leading to a large bottleneck (i.e., the
sludge moisture content) hindering the sludge management
efficiency has been addressed through the application of microwave
heating. Besides microwave technology, several other technological
solutions have been implemented into the mobilized treatment
system, including; mechanical dewatering technique assisted by
conditioning agents and ultrafiltration units followed by reverse
osmosis. The innovative use of technology incorporated in the
mobile system has made it possible to reduce the cost of microwave
sludge drying while at the same time allowing for the recovery of
additional resources, including water and dried sludge residue that
may be reused either for irrigation or industrial processes.

This doctoral thesis demonstrates that treatment of sludge using

microwave technology in standalone treatment and with or without
alternative solutions for liquid and solid treatment is a sustainable
technological option for sludge derived from wastewater treatment
and on-site sanitation, generating products that may be reused.

References
Mawioo PM, Garcia HA, Hooijmans CM, Velkushanova K, Simonič M,
Mijatović I, Brdjanovic D. (2017). A pilot-scale microwave
technology for sludge sanitization and drying. Science of the
Total Environment, 601, 1437–1448.
Mawioo PM, Hooijmans CM, Garcia HA, Brdjanovic D. (2016a).
Microwave treatment of faecal sludge from intensively used
toilets in the slums of Nairobi, Kenya. Journal of Environmental
Management, 184, 575–584.
Mawioo PM, Rweyemamu A, Garcia HA, Hooijmans CM, Brdjanovic
D. (2016b). Evaluation of a microwave based reactor for the
treatment of blackwater sludge. Science of the Total
Environment, 548, 72–81.
 Samenvatting

Aangezien de meeste steden zich bezighouden met een voortdurend

snel verstedelijkingsproces, en de overeenkomstige toename van de
bevolking, afvalproductie en stedelijke nederzettingen, zijn er
multidimensionale problemen ontstaan met betrekking tot het
beheer van gemeentelijk rioolwater en fecaal slib. Deze problemen
hebben geleid tot een reeks gezondheidsproblemen, aangezien
ondoelmatig beheer van deze vormen van slib ertoe kan leiden dat
ziekteverwekkers en verontreinigende stoffen terrestrische
ecosystemen binnendringen. Dit kan onder meer leiden tot de
vervuiling van watervoorraden en het uitbreken van ziekten. De
situatie is bijzonder gecompliceerd wanneer grote hoeveelheden slib
met een verscheidenheid aan verontreinigingen worden
geproduceerd in gebieden die worden gekenmerkt door een snelle
ophoping van slib, zoals noodnederzettingen, sloppenwijken en
andere dichtbevolkte nederzettingen. Het opzetten van snelle en
effectieve slibbeheerbenaderingen is essentieel in deze omgevingen.

Recentelijk hebben onderzoekers een reeks technologische middelen

onderzocht om kunstmest, energie en water terug te winnen uit
lokale sanitaire voorzieningen en afvalwaterzuiveringsinstallaties,
waarbij werd gestreefd naar inactivering en/of verwijdering van
pathogenen. Een groep onderzoekers researchers (Mawioo et al.,
2016a; 2016b; 2017) stelde een nieuwe methode voor de
behandeling van slib die het mogelijk zou maken om de
ziekteverwekkers te inactief te maken en/of te vernietigen en
tegelijkertijd het energetisch potentieel van slib uit
rioolwaterzuivering, fecaal slib en septageslib door de toepassing van
microgolftechnologie te verhogen.
Een beperkt aantal laboratoriumstudies heeft tot dusverre
aangetoond dat microgolfenergie een snelle en efficiënte methode is
voor slibbehandeling, die sterilisatie van slib kan vergemakkelijken
en ook slibmassa en -volume tot 5% kan verminderen in een kortere
tijdsduur dan de conventionele technologieën voor het drogen van
slib. De toekomstige voordelen van microgolfbehandeling hebben
wetenschappers ertoe aangezet om te investeren in het bestuderen
van deze veelbelovende technologie en hierbij de prestaties van het
microgolfsysteem bij slibbehandeling op pilotschaal te ontwerpen en
vast te stellen. Bij een poging om een microgolfsysteem op te
schalen van laboratorium- naar pilootschaal, waren de
energieprestaties van het systeem bij de behandeling van slib laag
en werden aanzienlijke operationele kosten in termen van specifiek
energieverbruik (SEC) gerapporteerd tijdens het droogproces. (> 16
MJ L−1 or 4 kWh L−1).

Het eerste doel van dit onderzoek is het ontwikkelen en

implementeren van oplossingen die de bestaande problemen in
verband met de microgolftechnologie die in de vorige studies zijn
waargenomen, adequaat kunnen aanpakken. De oplossingen
omvatten maatregelen die relatief gemakkelijk damp kunnen
extraheren die tijdens het gebruik van het systeem wordt
gegenereerd, en die de uniformiteit van de elektromagnetische
distributie binnen het monster vergroten. De prestaties van het
nieuwe microgolf-pilootschaalsysteem werden geëvalueerd bij de
behandeling van mechanisch (centrifugatie) ontwaterd slib. Deze
werd beoordeeld door het monitoren van de bereikte
doorvoercapaciteit en het specifieke energieverbruik tijdens het
droogproces met behulp van microgolven. De resultaten toonden
aan dat de geïntroduceerde technische oplossingen een gunstige
invloed hadden op de energieprestaties van het systeem; een daling
van 70% in het specifieke energieverbruik werd bereikt in
vergelijking met microgolf-slibdroogonderzoeken elders (van 16 MJ
L−1 or 4.4 kWh L−1 to 4.3 MJ L−1 or 1.2 kWh L−1). Ook toonden de
resultaten aan dat het specifieke energieverbruik afhankelijk was van
het omzettingsrendement van het systeem van elektrische energie
naar elektromagnetische energie (d.w.z. efficiëntie van
microgolfopwekking) die varieerde vanwege veranderingen in het
microgolfuitgangsvermogen. Het laagste specifieke energieverbruik
dat werd waargenomen, werd verkregen bij het maximale
microgolfuitgangsvermogen, waardoor de hoogste efficiëntie van
microgolfopwekking werd gegenereerd. De onderzoeksresultaten
gaven aan dat industriële microgolfgeneratoren met een hoge
microgolfconversie-efficiëntie moeten worden geïmplementeerd om
optimale resultaten te verkrijgen en op maximale capaciteit moeten
worden gebruikt. De resultaten gaven ook aan dat het mogelijk zou
zijn om een verdere verlaging van het specifieke energieverbruik te
bereiken door energie terug te winnen uit het condensaat dat tijdens
het drogen wordt gegenereerd om vervolgens het binnenkomende
slib voor te verwarmen.

Een ander fundamenteel aspect dat de elektrische vraag van het

microgolfsysteem en de doorvoercapaciteit beïnvloedde, is de
vermogensdichtheid, d.w.z. de hoeveelheid microgolfenergie die
wordt geabsorbeerd door de massa of het volume van het monster.
De prestaties van de microgolfunit werden verbeterd door de
vermogen-massaverhouding aan te passen om de
vermogensdichtheid over het monster aan te passen. Preciezer, het
gebruik van een hoog microgolfvermogen en een verminderde
toegepaste massa tijdens de behandeling verminderde de
belichtingstijd, verhoogde de droogsnelheid en verminderde de
hoeveelheid energie die werd verbruikt voor het verwijderen van
water. De resultaten gaven ook aan dat de toepassing van een lage
monstermassa in combinatie met hoge vermogens ook zou kunnen
hebben geleid tot grotere energieverliezen door reflecterend
vermogen, waardoor de prestaties van het energiesysteem zijn
ondermijnd. Deze situatie verslechterde toen de diepte van de
sliblaag die aan de straling werd blootgesteld aanzienlijk hoger was
dan het niveau waartoe de microgolven kunnen doordringen. Hoe
dikker het monster, hoe groter het gebrek aan uniformiteit van het
elektromagnetische veld dat door het monster wordt verdeeld. Dit
leidde vervolgens tot een vermindering van de energie-efficiëntie van
het proces met een overeenkomstige toename van het specifieke
energieverbruik. De niet-uniformiteit van de elektromagnetische
energiesterkte langs de materiaaldiepte werd echter tot op zekere
hoogte verzacht door het effect van vochtnivellering. Dit is de
voorkeursabsorptie van microgolven in materiaalgebieden met een
hoger vochtgehalte. Met andere woorden, hoewel de uniformiteit en
efficiëntie van de microgolfenergie die gedurende een bepaalde
periode door het materiaal wordt geabsorbeerd een essentieel
aspect vormen bij het verbeteren van de energieprestaties van het
systeem, zijn het de kenmerken van het verwerkte materiaal, met
name de diëlektrische eigenschappen van slib, dat de opname van
de microgolf reguleert en bepaalt. Dit onderzoek toonde aan dat de
hoeveelheid en distributie van watermoleculen de belangrijkste
parameters zijn die de diëlektrische eigenschappen van slib bepalen.
Specifiek toonden de bevindingen aan dat het water dat niet aan de
slibmatrix was gehecht, efficiënter onder het toegepaste
microgolfveld bewoog (geroteerd) dan gebonden watermoleculen,
waardoor het water beter uit het materiaal werd verwijderd. Het
onderzoek toonde ook aan dat de verdeling van vrij en gebonden
water tot op zekere hoogte afhankelijk was van de hydrofobiciteit
van het slib, aangezien dit wordt beïnvloed door het vet- en
oliegehalte. De geselecteerde slibmonsters met een hoger vet- en
oliegehalte waren meer hydrofoob en hielden dus minder
beschikbare plaatsen vast voor opname door gebonden water. Dit
laatste bleek ook een positieve invloed te hebben op het energetisch
gehalte van het slib.

Al met al hebben deze bevindingen geleid tot een fundamenteel

begrip van de relatie tussen microgolfenergie en slib en hebben ze
aangetoond dat de voordelen die consequent in de literatuur worden
genoemd, zoals volumetrische en selectieve verwarming, effectief
resulteren in een snelle verwerking van slib met een relatief lage
fysieke voetafdruk en concurrerend energieverbruik in vergelijking
met andere thermische droogtechnologieën.
Door de hoge doorvoercapaciteit van het systeem bij een laag
vereist contact/oppervlak voor warmte- en massaoverdracht tussen
de slibmonsters en de microgolfenergie kon het systeem worden
gecontaineriseerd (vervaardigd in een enkele container) en op de
trailer gemonteerd om in-situ slibbehandeling uit te voeren. De
potentiële voordelen van het gebruik van microgolftechnologie bij de
in-situ behandeling van slib uit lokale sanitaire voorzieningen zijn
met succes getest en bevestigd in het veld onder een reëel scenario
in Jordan Valley (Jordanië). Resultaten verkregen uit de veldtesten
toonden aan dat de microgolftechnologie het niveau van
ziekteverwekkers en vocht in slib uit septic tanks effectief verlaagde
en dus een positief effect had op het potentiële gebruik van slib, dat,
afhankelijk van de samenstelling, direct kan worden gebruikt voor
bodemverbetering of brandstof. Daarom is het belangrijkste tekort
dat leidt tot een groot knelpunt (d.w.z. het vochtgehalte van het
slib) dat de efficiëntie van slibbeheer belemmert, aangepakt door de
toepassing van microgolfverwarming. Naast microgolftechnologie zijn
er verschillende andere technologische oplossingen
geïmplementeerd in het gemobiliseerde behandelingssysteem,
waaronder; mechanische ontwateringstechnieken ondersteund door
conditioneringsmiddelen en ultrafiltratie-eenheden gevolgd door
omgekeerde osmose. Het innovatieve gebruik van technologie die in
het mobiele systeem is ingebouwd, heeft het mogelijk gemaakt om
de kosten van het drogen van slib in de magnetron te verlagen en
tegelijkertijd de terugwinning van extra hulpbronnen mogelijk te
maken, waaronder water en gedroogd slibresten die kunnen worden
hergebruikt voor irrigatie of industriële processen.

Dit proefschrift toont aan dat de behandeling van slib met behulp
van microgolftechnologie in een op zichzelf staande behandeling en
met of zonder alternatieve oplossingen voor de behandeling van
vloeistoffen en vaste stoffen een duurzame technologische optie is
voor slib afkomstig van afvalwaterzuivering en lokale sanitatie,
waarbij producten worden gegenereerd die kunnen worden
hergebruikt
References
Mawioo PM, Garcia HA, Hooijmans CM, Velkushanova K, Simonič M,
Mijatović I, Brdjanovic D. (2017). A pilot-scale microwave
technology for sludge sanitization and drying. Science of the
Total Environment, 601, 1437–1448.
Mawioo PM, Hooijmans CM, Garcia HA, Brdjanovic D. (2016a).
Microwave treatment of faecal sludge from intensively used
toilets in the slums of Nairobi, Kenya. Journal of Environmental
Management, 184, 575–584.
Mawioo PM, Rweyemamu A, Garcia HA, Hooijmans CM, Brdjanovic
D. (2016b). Evaluation of a microwave based reactor for the
treatment of blackwater sludge. Science of the Total
Environment, 548, 72–81.
 Table of content

Summary
Samenvatting
Table of content
1 Introduction
2 Microwave treatment of municipal sludge: Drying
performance and energy demand of a novel
pilot-scale microwave drying system
3 Microwave treatment of municipal sludge:
Effects of the sludge thickness and sludge mass
load on the microwave drying performance
4 Effects of the sludge physical-chemical
properties on the microwave drying performance
5 Novel semi-decentralised mobile system for the
sanitization and dehydration of septic sludge
6 Reflections and outlook
About the Author
List of Publications
Acknowledgement
 1
Introduction

1.1 General introduction

The pressure on the environment in the pursuit for resources and
the lack of drinking water access, exacerbated by poorly managed
wastewater treatment and disposal, pose some of the main
challenges modern society is in urgent need to address (Corcoran et
al., 2010). According to the World Health Organisation, almost 1.7
million people die every year from diarrhoeal diseases worldwide and
more than a quarter of diarrheal disease is experienced by children
below the age of five (WHO, 2017). One of the factors contributing
to these alarming figures is the exponential growth rate of the
World's population, which is projected to increase to approximately
9.7 billion by the end of 2050 (UN, 2019). The population projections
show that the highest growth is expected to occur in urban areas,
from 4.2 to 6.6 billion people (UN, 2018). The uncontrolled
discharges of untreated faecal sludge and wastewater not only have
an impact on the mortality and morbidity rates but also contribute
towards perpetuating poverty and social inequalities through cost for
medical care and hampered workforce productivity (Corcoran et al.,
2010; Afolabi et al., 2017). For instance, the estimated annual costs
spent on health care resulting from inadequate sanitation alone may
be as high as USD 223 billion (Hutton et al., 2007). Whereas, a
dollar invested in water and sanitation improvements, may result in
savings of USD 5–46 depending on the intervention (Hutton et al.,
2007).

Recognising the financial, environmental and societal costs of the

impact of uncontrolled sludge and wastewater discharges on human
health, international attention has shifted to increasing access to
sanitation with the commitment expressed at the Millennium Summit
of the United Nations in 2000, following the adoption of the United
Nations Millennium Declaration that resulted in the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) (Corcoran, 2010). MDGs’ partial success
as far as sanitation is concerned urged that Clean Water and
Sanitation becomes one of the Sustainable Millennium Goals (Goal nr
6) to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all” by 2030. These goals also include a variety of sub-
goals such as: “achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation
and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention
to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations”
and “the participation of local communities for improving water and
sanitation management”. The achievement of sanitation goals would
ultimately prosper and aid other goals such as objective under Goal
nr. 3 to ensure healthy lives and endorsing security for all individuals.
Within the scope of the formulated objectives, sanitation service,
therefore, needs to be improved and to consider an integrated
approach to fulfil not only the technical aspects regarding pathogen
removal, environmental compliance and resource recovery, but also
have the capacity to adapt into diverse social-cultural environments
where the perception of acceptable sanitation practices is different
(Afolabi et al., 2017). In essence, water and sanitation are
intrinsically a vital part of many indicators across the entire array of
SDGs.
1.2 Overview of the approaches to
safeguarding people's health
The range of possible adaptive responses for safeguarding people's
health was first identified in the 1970s and catalogued as a series of
methods, policies and practices that governed the sanitation service
chain, which was composed of various elements, as reported by
Rosenqvist et al. (2016). The first approach to sanitation services
started, viewing and aiming the focus of sanitation services away
from income generation and towards the fulfilment of basic human
needs. This particular concept was also seen as a way of protecting
public health and transferring the responsibility for sanitation to the
national level (Young et al., 1988). Subsequently, the World Bank
and other international financial institutions and governments
directed more resources to the cities for construction of centralised
systems with combined and/or separate sewerage. However, the
provision of sanitation service provided by centralised sanitation
systems is challenging due to high investment requirements, which
are difficult to obtain even today (Rosenqvist et al., 2016). For
instance, the centralised sanitation alternatives involve high capital
costs, which were estimated to be around 30 billion dollars in 2001
and are predicted to increase to 75 billion by the year 2025 (Esray,
2001). These values do not include the necessary operation and
maintenance cost needed for the sewerage network. Approximately
80 to 90% of the capital and operational costs are linked to the
expense of sewerage conveyance systems with economies of scale
associated with its implementation in densely populated areas
(Libralato et al., 2012). As stated by van Lier et al. (1999); “Apart
from its proven benefits, a large sewage network, is nothing more
than a transportation system for human excreta and/or industrial
water with valuable drinking water as the transport medium”. While
centralised sewer systems will remain the best available option in
many cases, a more critical approach is necessary to consider other
viable alternatives, where applicable.
Many of the drawbacks associated with centralised systems,
mentioned previously, are partially addressed by improving the
sanitation coverage through on-site sanitation facilities. These
facilities, which are currently being used by approximately 3.1 billion
people around the World, include on-site storage, such as a flush or
pour-flush toilets connected to a septic tank, and dry or wet pit
latrines; thus, separating the faeces characterised with high
pathogenic content from direct and indirect contact with the user,
which in turns enable protection of the environment and public
health (Connor et al., 2017). One of the comprehensive and rather
complete overviews of on-site sanitation technologies is published by
Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag)
(Tilley et al., 2014; Gensch et al., 2018). The schematic
representation of the faecal/municipal sludge management chain is
shown in Figure 1.
 Figure 1: Schematic representation of the faecal and municipal
sludge management chain (adapted from Mihelcic (2018)).

One-third of the population worldwide lacks access to basic

sanitation, with the challenge of providing sanitation service in
rapidly increasing urban areas that typically lack space or finances
for centralised service level investment, as well as cheaper solutions
(Mosello, 2016). The lack of provision of sanitation services and
thus, the unsanitary living conditions observed in densely populated
areas make public health hazards more prominent than typical urban
settlements (Zakaria, 2019). Unsafe sanitation conditions, which
favours the spread of diseases more rapidly, is a situation also
commonly faced in a post-disaster situation, such as emergency
relief sites, caused by the result of a human-made and/or natural
disaster (Zakaria, 2019).

Furthermore, it is generally accepted that the technical advances

alone provide only a partial solution to inadequate sanitation and
that sustainable solutions require innovations at all parts of the
sanitation service provision chain. A recently formalised approach by
the World Bank, called City-wide Inclusive Sanitation (CWIS)
recognises the multifaceted nature of sanitation and states that it “…
looks to shift the urban sanitation paradigm, aiming to ensure
everyone has access to safely managed sanitation by promoting a
range of solutions—both on-site and sewered, centralised or
decentralised—tailored to the realities of the World's burgeoning
cities. CWIS means focusing on service provision and its enabling
environment, rather than on building infrastructure”.

1.2.1 Approaches to sludge management

Humans produce excreta (urine and faeces) daily, ranging from 0.6
to 2.1 L of urine cap−1 day−1 and from 130 to 530 g of fresh excreta
cap−1 day−1 (Rose et al., 2015; Afolabi et al., 2017). In case of
centralised systems, excreta end up in the sewers and may
eventually undergo treatment at centralised wastewater treatment
plants. In the treatment process, so-called sewage sludge is
produced and it needs further treatment before it is disposed of or
reused. In case of decentralised systems, excreta may be captured,
contained and (partially) treated on-site, and in some cases, emptied
as faecal or septic sludge, and transported to a centralised treatment
plant (Figure 1). Often, treated sludge (e.g., fertiliser, charcoal) or
end-products (e.g., biogas, nutrients) are reused or disposed of.

The faecal/septic sludge management, or as some call it non-

sewered sanitation, has been neglected for decades, and only
recently, attention has been paid to it, both financially and in terms
of education and research. It is important to note that in this thesis,
a distinction has been made in terminology between fresh faecal
sludge, septic sludge and sewage sludge. The definitions adopted
here are as stipulated in the recent literature (Strande et al., 2014;
Guang-Hao Chen, 2020; Velkushanova et al., 2021).

Methods for the treatment of various sludges are numerous, and

costly to the extent that presents a major investment and
operational cost. Since its early developments, experts are trying to
bring down the cost of treatment per unit of sludge (a ton of dry
solids – DS, or a ton of ‘wet’ sludge), and until today the cost
reduction remains the challenge.

Sludge contains water. Depending on the type, water content in the

raw sludge can range from around 98%, for untreated sewage
sludge or dilute septic sludge, to approximately 70-75%, for partially
dewatered sewage sludge or some thicker septic sludge and fresh
faecal sludge. This consequently means 2 and 25-30% DS,
respectively. A specific distinction is applied among faecal sludge
professionals where four types of sludge are recognised, depending
on its DS%, namely: liquid (DS<5%), slurry (DS =5-15%), semi-
solid (DS=15-25%) and solid (DS>25%) faecal sludge
(Velkushanova et al., 2021).
In general, faecal sludge treatment objectives are stabilisation,
nutrient management, pathogen inactivation and dewatering/drying
(Niwagaba et al., 2014). The focus of this research is the treatment
of sludge in terms of reduction of volume by drying. In principle,
water in sludge is present in four distinctive forms, some more
difficult to remove than others. This aspect will be addressed in the
following section.

Methods for dewatering and drying or their combination can be

divided into low-rate (slow, extensive) or high-rate (rapid, intensive).
The purpose of sludge drying is to create end-product, solids that
can be reused, most frequently as fuel. Technological options range
from noncarbonised to carbonised, as presented in Figure 2. These
technologies are well-capable of a high degree of drying, but the
ultimate goal is still (how) to reduce the energy input per unit of
sludge (kg DS or kg wet sludge).
Figure 2: An overview of technology options for producing solid fuel,
starting from dewatered faecal sludge at 80% moisture and ending
at non-carbonised or carbonised solid-fuel end products. The
position of the technology icons from left to the right indicates the
required dryness of the input sludge for each technology, as
indicated by the size of the droplets, ranging from 80% moisture on
the left to 10% moisture on the right (figure and caption adopted
from Velkushanova et al. (2021) which is modified from Andriessen
et al. (2019).

The fundamental characteristics of sludge structure define the

interaction between sludge and water and choice of technology for
its removal. As said earlier (Figure 3), the water present in the
sludge may exist in different physical forms, which are distinguished
by their distribution, and by the intensity of their physical bonds
ranging from capillary forces, adsorptive and adhesive forces to
chemisorption and include (Neyens et al., 2003a): i) free water:
water not attached to the solid particles or affected by capillary
forces (void water), ii) interstitial moisture: water confined within
crevices and capillaries of the sludge floc and organisms, iii) surface-
water: liquid adsorbed or adhered to the surface of the solid particle
and iv) intracellular and chemically bond water. Free water and water
loosely attached to the pores and interstitial spaces of the sludge
particles and flocs may be removed by using gravity or by application
of external pressure (Flaga, 2005). Further removal of water
characterised with a higher binding strength such as surface water,
intracellular water and others may be achieved by applying heat-
driven processes, such as drying technologies (Flaga, 2005).
 Figure 3: Distribution of water in the sludge floc (Neyens et al.,
2003b)

In this thesis, dewatering is defined as a process used to remove

free water, while drying is a process used to remove both free and
bound water from the solid fraction of sludge.

As shown in Figure 2, traditional approaches to faecal sludge drying

include sludge drying beds, which are available in a variety of
options, such as sand drying beds, paved drying beds, planted
drying beds, and many more (Wang et al., 2007; Nikiema et al.,
2014). The sludge moisture reduction in sludge drying beds is
achieved through percolation/filtration and evaporation process. The
essential advantage of this technique, as illustrated in Figure 4, is
the independence of the process from electrical energy, i.e., no
energy is needed for the dewatering nor the drying process (Wang
et al., 2007; Nikiema et al., 2014). However, the operation of the
sludge drying beds is associated with relatively low drying rates
(e.g., 0.06 kg m−2 h−1), long residence time (weeks to months) and
increased physical footprint requirements, which may be high as
0.08 m2 capita−1 land requirement (Clark, 1970; Cofie et al., 2006;
Nikiema et al., 2014). Consequently, sludge drying beds are not a
viable option in areas characterised with space footprint constraints
commonly observed in congested cities, slums and others (Ronteltap
et al., 2014). The space footprint requirements of drying systems
may be significantly reduced by the addition of auxiliary equipment
such as ventilators, belt conveyors and/or by the introduction of
external heat or energy sources such as hot air, heated oil, steam or,
as in the case of LaDePa technology, infrared irradiation panels. In
the LaDePa process and in other traditional drying approaches, the
heat required for water vaporisation is initially delivered to the
material's surface, which progressively spreads into the solid, mainly,
through conduction mechanisms (Mujumdar et al., 2000;
Bennamoun et al., 2013; Mujumdar, 2014; Septien et al., 2018).
Depending on the heat source and its intensity, the heat transfer
may occur rapidly, with a corresponding increase sludge drying rates,
which may be high as 35 kg m−2 h−1 (Bennamoun et al., 2013). The
drying techniques, mentioned above, may also be combined with
extrusion and compaction processes supported by or without binding
agents (Figure 2); thereby increasing the marketability of sludge-
based products and thus generating revenues that could potentially
offset the sludge drying costs (Nikiema et al., 2014; Andriessen et
al., 2019). In other words, due to the increase in mechanical
complexity and the high sensible and latent energy requirements of
wet sludge, the specific energy required for the removal of water
from solids, as shown in Figure 4, may be as high as 5 MJ L−1 (i.e.,
1.4 kWh L−1). Given the high specific energy consumption demand,
pre-treatment technologies such as hydrothermal carbonation
techniques can substantially improve the drying process's energy
efficiency. The latter is directly related to the reduction in
evaporative latent heat losses typically seen in conventional drying
methods, accounting for energy costs of approximately 2.3 MJ kg−1
(i.e., 0.6 kWh kg−1) (Bryan, 1907; Moon et al., 2015). However, as
mentioned previously, to increase the sludge DS content up to 90%,
post-treatment is required, including mechanical dewatering (70%
DS) and drying techniques (90%DS) (Moon et al., 2015). Alternative
options to pre-treatment processes include implementation of the
cogeneration system, such as Rankine cycle (Sohail et al., 2018).
During this process, the dry sludge (<90 DS%) or other fuel such as
coal is combusted in a flue gas application unit to generate high-
pressure steam that is converted to electricity by a reciprocating
piston steam engine (Sohail et al., 2018). The process heat
generated by the combustion process is used to dry the incoming
faecal or septic sludge, which may be thereafter used as a fuel
agent. One of the recently implemented technologies utilising such
principle is the Janicki Omni-Processor (Sohail et al., 2018). The
Janicki Omni-Processor is an energy-positive process while
recovering water and nutrients from on-site sanitation facilities
(Sohail et al., 2018). Other thermochemical processes, such as
pyrolysis, are available to achieve the latter, which as opposed to
combustion processes, occur within a limited supply of oxygen and
can be used to produce several products, including oil, syngas and
carbon (Barry et al., 2019; Nuagah et al., 2020). The resulting
products can be applied to soil as a carbon supplement or used as
an energy source that may be recuperated elsewhere. The
carbonisation techniques, such as pyrolysis and hydrothermal
carbonisation, are gaining momentum in sludge treatment. However,
relatively limited research on carbonisation, specifically in terms of
specific energy consumption requirements, excluded this technology
in further considerations.
 Figure 4: Specific energy consumption of different types of non-
carbonised technologies (Léonard et al., 2011; Nikiema et al., 2014)

From the above overview and Figure 4, it can be concluded that the
energy consumption for drying is still a critical factor for the
technology selection. The drying techniques’ energy demand may be
reduced by implementing dewatering techniques, hydrothermal
carbonisation techniques, and/or by reusing the energy released
from the pyrolysis, (co-)combustion processes or other processes
where the waste heat may be recuperated. Other contemporary
developments have also been considered and researched by Mawioo
et al. (2016a; 2016b; 2017). The authors suggested that microwave
technology has potential in sludge treatment, ranging from faecal,
septic and sewage sludge. However, the research of Mawioo and
coworkers was not geared towards energy optimisation, because of
the following reasons: (i) lack of thermal insulation of the drying
system, (ii) inefficient use of microwave energy due to suboptimized
design of the reactor, (iii) less efficient mixing at higher sludge
densities, (iv) low ambient temperature (5°C), (v) poor extraction of
the condensate from the cavity, (vi) unnecessary heating of the
cavity, and (vii) absence of energy recovery features (Kocbek et al.,
2020; Velkushanova et al., 2021).

1.3 Microwave technology and research gaps

As introduced earlier in this chapter, the focus of this thesis is the
use of microwave technology for sludge drying. Microwave
technology is a relatively new technique successfully used by almost
1 billion people worldwide on a day-to-day basis at the household
level, without requiring the user to have any knowledge of the basic
principle of microwave functioning (Osepchuk et al., 2002).
Microwave technology, however, offers an interesting range of
application beyond the commonly known domestic purposes. Since
1945, the microwave has been successfully utilised for food
processing (Venkatesh et al., 2004; Chandrasekaran et al., 2013),
synthesis of organic and inorganic compounds (Abramovitch et al.,
1991), pyrolysis of wood, (Borges et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2014),
sewage sludge treatment (Menendez et al., 2002; Tyagi et al., 2013),
devulcanization (Paulo et al., 2012) and processing of medical waste
(Wu et al., 2008).

The microwaves are a form of non-ionising, electromagnetic waves

with wavelengths from 1 to 1,000 mm and corresponding
frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. Within this
electromagnetic spectrum, frequencies are reserved for various
applications in telecommunication, satellite communication, and
radar, which can interfere with each other. Therefore, frequencies
are allocated for industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) bands of 915
and 2,450 MHz, respectively (Thostenson et al., 1999; Bilecka et al.,
2010). These frequencies cause interaction of dipolar molecules
within particular materials and generate heat (Bhattacharya, et al.,
2016). The alternating electric field energy positioned outside of
absorbing material is irreversibly absorbed, resulting in quick
‘volumetric”‘ heating with a conforming inverted temperature profile;
i.e., upon exposure to microwave radiation, the microwaves
penetrate the material, which generates heat, leading to quick
sanitation and sludge mass/volume reduction. The volumetric
heating effect has been reported to substantially enhance the
system throughput capacity in sludge treatment systems, leading to
rapid reductions in the sludge volume and mass, while
simultaneously mitigating the chances of disease outbreaks related
to excreta health threats through pathogen inactivation. Advantages
of microwave drying applications also include fast process start-up
and shutdown, lower adverse effects on global warming if renewable
energy sources can produce the electrical energy needs for the
microwaves, and low physical footprint (Maskan, 2000; 2001;
Kouchakzadeh et al., 2010). Microwave thermal technology may
therefore potentially pave the way for more compact and even
mobile plants that can be deployed to rural areas or close to the
end-user. That is why researchers considered microwave technology
as a feasible sludge drying alternative that may provide treatment of
both sewage sludge generated at centralised wastewater treatment
facilities, and faecal sludge generated in remote decentralised areas
without access to sewerage (such as informal settlements and/or
emergency camps, (Afolabi et al., 2017; Mawioo et al., 2017).
Accordingly, using this technology, treatment of sludge generated at
wastewater treatment plants and on-site sanitation facilities, can be
considered as a viable option (Mawioo et al., 2017).

However, despite the benefits of microwave technology, further

research is required to optimise the value recovery and the efficiency
of treatment by microwave heating processes, specifically on energy
needs and process optimization. Current research shows that
microwave technology possesses a comparatively high energy
footprint (> 4 kWh L−1 or 16 MJ L−1) when employed in sludge
volume reduction in comparison with traditional drying methods,
e.g., conductive and convective based dryers (Mawioo et al., 2017).
Mitigation measures include introduction of a water vapour
extraction unit that might ease the difficulties caused by internal
cavity vapour condensation, introduction of turntable units that
would allow the microwave energy to be more uniformly distributed
within the sample, and isolation material additives for the reduction
of the losses caused by the dissipated energy and the heat into the
environment (Mawioo et al., 2017).

Alternative approaches that may raise the energy efficiency of the

microwave performance in the treatment of sludge also include
increase in sludge solids content prior the drying process (e.g.
mechanical dewatering techniques), as well as the knowledge of the
changes in a sludge's moisture content affected by the atmospheric
conditions such as the relative humidity, temperature and pressure
(Schaum et al., 2010; Bougayr et al., 2018).

All these measures can reduce the total energy demands for the unit
and remove moisture more efficiently, thereby effectively reducing
pathogenic content, sludge volume and mass.

Furthermore, the currently available research on microwave drying

of sewage and faecal sludge is aimed at applying microwave
technology for sludge at different power level, and exposure time,
using different sample mass and type of sludge, aimed at pathogen
destruction and sludge mass/volume reduction (Mawioo et al.,
2016a; 2016b; 2017; Karlsson et al., 2019).

The evaluation of microwave technology in the treatment of sludge

was mainly obtained by intermediate sampling, meaning that the
sludge mass and temperature were monitored sequentially by
discontinuing the operation of the system; hence the changes in the
parameters monitored, for instance, in sludge mass cannot fully
reflect the accuracy of the results due to potential losses in sludge
moisture content occurring during the sampling period.
Consequently, the quality of the data gathered is rather insufficient
to allow thorough fundamental understanding, and factors that
provide essential information regarding the way materials behave
during drying are not accurately depicted and understood.
Furthermore, in order to enable microwave treatment in-situ of
sludge, several other factors need to be considered, including; i)
implementation of measures that may reduce the costs of drying
(e.g., mechanical dewatering unit) and ii) incorporation of ancillary
water treatment technologies, such as ultrafiltration and reverse
osmosis that may enable the integration of treatment of the liquid
streams generated from the mechanical and drying process.

As such microwave technology, when coupled with complementary

technologies, can increase the process reliability treating sludge with
high water content and pathogenic organisms and thus guarantee
that the end products could be reused and pollution reduced.

1.4 Research hypotheses and objectives

In this study, the microwave technology is proposed as one of the
viable technological alternatives to conventional drying, to be applied
as a centralised, or in-situ treatment options for municipal sewage
sludge, fresh faecal sludge, or septic sludge derived from on-site
sanitation facilities. This technology may be operated as a
standalone treatment unit, or coupled with mechanical dewatering
techniques, membrane separation technology and, thus potentially
increase the reliability of technology in the treatment of sludge while
recovering useful resource that may be recovered through an
agricultural or thermochemical application such as (co-) combustion.
Based on the research gaps outlined in the previous sections, this
particular research focuses on the development and evaluation of a
novel microwave-based sludge treatment system both as standalone
treatment and in conjunction with mechanical dewatering and
membrane separation technology.

The overall objective of this study is to address the challenges in

curbing the pollution and protect public health against factors
caused by exposure to and contamination by untreated
sludge/wastewater through the application of a novel mobile/semi-
decentralised treatment concept, with microwave technology at the
heart of it.

This research addresses the following hypotheses:

i. The overall specific energy consumption reported in microwave

treatment of sludge can be significantly reduced (up to 70%) in
comparison to results of present studies, and this can be
achieved by improving the design and construction of the
microwave system, including the drying chamber, the microwave
generator and the water vapour extraction unit. Once this is in
place, the specific energy consumption of the system will be in
the range of traditional drying technologies (e.g., approximately
1.0 kWh L−1 or 3.6 MJ L−1);
ii. The thickness of the sample limits the propagation of
(microwave-induced) energy within the sample, and this
limitation can be counteracted by the microwave-selective
‘moisture levelling’ effect1;
iii. Variation in sludge composition (specifically concerning the
distribution of water as the result of its fat and oil content), has
a direct influence on the (efficiency of) operation of microwave-
based dryers, and thus, on the operational cost and the design
of the system;
iv. Integration of existing technologies for wastewater and sludge
treatment, such as microwave technology coupled with
mechanical dewatering and membrane separation technology,
enables efficient treatment of various types of sludge in-situ.

The specific research objectives are as follows:

i. To identify and implement appropriate solutions to address the

microwave energy performance issues associated with high
specific energy consumption (SEC) observed so far in microwave
sanitisation and drying of sludge2;
 ii. To evaluate and analyse the drying and energy performance of
a novel microwave pilot-scale treatment system in the treatment
of dewatered waste activated sludge as a function of microwave
power output2;
iii. To compare the energy performance of the microwave
treatment system in terms of specific energy consumption with
the results of present studies carried out on microwave drying
of sludge and conventional sludge drying treatment systems2;
iv. To study the drying and energy performance of a microwave
pilot-scale system in the treatment of municipal dewatered
activated sludge at various thickness levels ranging from 45 to
150 mm at constant sludge sample mass3;
v. To determine the microwave penetration limits and moisture
levelling effect by measuring the temperature at various
thickness level in the samples in unit of time3;
vi. To develop a fundamental understanding of the impact of
microwave operating conditions (such as microwave power
output, sludge dimensions and mass) on the microwave system
energy and throughput performance in the treatment of
2,3
municipal sludge ;
vii. To measure the physical-chemical properties (such as porosity,
moisture, organic, fat and oil content, heavy metals, calorific
value) and sorption isotherms for the selected sludge types,
including samples from municipal wastewater treatment plant
and on-site sanitation facilities4;
viii. To evaluate the drying and energy performance of the
microwave treatment system in treatment of different types of
sludge4;
ix. To determine if a relationship exists between the sorption
isotherms, the fat and oil content of sludge, drying and energy
performance of the system in treatment of various types of
sludges4;
x. To evaluate and assess the performance and applicability of
technologies (such as mechanical dewatering, microwave
 irradiation, ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis) in treatment of
septic tank sludge (sludge from septic tanks) under field-testing
conditions in Jordan Valley (Jordan)5.

1 Microwave ‘moisture levelling’ effect selectively improves microwave absorption

rates in material regions characterized by a high dielectric loss.
2 This specific objective is addressing the hypothesis nr. i
3 This specific objective is addressing the hypothesis nr. ii
4 This specific objective is addressing the hypothesis nr. iii
5 This specific objective is addressing the hypothesis nr. iv

1.5 Research approach

In order to achieve the research objectives listed above, the study
was aimed, firstly, at assessing the microwave technology
performances so far used in the treatment of sludge, both in the
laboratory and pilot-scale applications. Special attention was placed
towards the evaluation of technological problems that were
associated with low (energy) efficiency of the system and identifying
solutions to improve it.

With the knowledge obtained from scientific literature and

experiences from industrial partners, a pilot microwave plant was
designed and built. Following the manufacturing of the unit, a
fundamental understanding of the sludge drying process under
various microwave operating conditions and an insight into suitability
and effectiveness of the proposed design for its implication in the
demo pilot was investigated. The results obtained from the pilot-
scale testing allowed us to make informed choices on the necessary
modification required to enhance the efficiency of the unit in terms
of specific energy consumption and maybe used for future reference
to upscale the system and to stir the research towards other design
alternatives.
Alongside the effect of operational parameters on the treatment of
sludge using microwave technology, the effect of different types of
sludge, and as such physical-chemical properties of sludge, on
microwave performance was assessed. Emphasise was placed on the
evaluation of water sorption properties and heat of sorption of
different types of sludges tested. The aforementioned parameters
provide essential information on the ability of the material to absorb
or desorb water from the environment and the energy required to
remove the water at different stages of drying. Thus, the analysis of
water vapour sorption properties and heat of sorption of sludge may
be used for the design of a drying process and/or identification of
the necessary condition for sludge storage and thus final processing
sludge moisture content. Finally, the synergistic effect of the
technologies incorporated in the full-scale mobile system was
investigated in Jordan.

The system made effective use of the electromagnetic energy

derived from the operation of microwave technology, the energy
gained from the mechanical action of the dewatering unit and
physical barrier provided by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis
membrane. The system was evaluated by assessing the
characteristics of obtained outputs and determining the mass
balances and efficiencies of the monitored technologies. The
evaluation of the system is also aimed at assessing the flexibility of
the microwave system in terms of treatment capability, which was
adapted for sanitisation of the sludge (pathogen reduction) and the
production of the end product with high calorific value (sludge
volume reduction).

1.6 Outline of the thesis

This thesis is divided into six chapters. The graphical representation
of the thesis structure and connection of the chapters with the
hypothesis of this doctoral thesis is shown in Figure 5. The first
chapter provides a general introduction, knowledge gaps and
rationale for the research topic. The second chapter deals with the
assessment of design solutions implemented in a novel microwave-
based pilot scale evaluated by quantifying and monitoring the energy
consumption, sludge drying rates and the exposure time required to
reduce the sludge volume and mass. The performance indicators
used to evaluate the success of the microwave pilot plant system
developed in this study were further used to illustrate the technical
and economic potential of this technology in the treatment of sludge
affected by operating parameters such as microwave power output
(Chapter 2), sludge thickness and mass (Chapter 3) and
physicochemical properties of sludge (Chapter 4). The fundamentals
of sludge volume/mass loss and sanitisation under the influence of
microwave operational parameters are discussed throughout the
study. The fifth chapter evaluates and presents the findings of the
field-testing assessment of the microwave-based containerised
mobile system assisted with a wide range of complementary
technologies such as mechanical dewatering unit and membrane
separation technology. The final chapter concludes and summarises
the findings of this research and provides further recommendations
and perspectives on the subject.
 Figure 5: Structure of the thesis and links between chapters and
hypotheses

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
That evening, as the clock told the hour of seven, William Jordan,
Junior, was honoured by the most signal act of condescension on
the part of his mentor that had as yet been vouchsafed to him.
“Luney,” said Mr. Dodson, “your best way to Milton Street, E.C., is to
go down the Strand and to take a ’bus from Ludgate Circus. I am
going down the Strand myself; if you like we will toddle down
together.”
A few minutes later William Jordan, Junior, might have been
discerned walking down the Strand in association with his mentor.
The eminent worldling had his arm within that of his protégé.
“Luney,” he said, “out of office hours you can call me Jimmy.”
As they went their way, with the whole of the conversation furnished
entirely by one only of the parties to it, Mr. Dodson produced an
elaborate silver case.
“Smoke?” he said.
“Oh n-n-no,” said the boy, startled in much the same way as he
would have been had he been asked whether he committed
murders.
“Pity,” said Mr. Dodson, as he selected a cigarette from the silver
case with the unmistakable air of the connoisseur. “Ought to. Great
thing for the nerves. Though perhaps you are not troubled with ’em. I
shouldn’t say myself that you lived at very high pressure.”
At the end of Fleet Street master and pupil parted company.
“Ta ta, old boy,” said Mr. Dodson, with a genial wave of the hand. “I
go round the corner to the station. Nice time for the 7.50 to
Peckham. That’s your ’bus—the green one. Ta ta; one of these days
we will do a music-hall together.”
Mr. Dodson stood to watch the frail figure enter the green ’bus.
“Absolutely the rummest kid I ever struck,” said he. “Fancy a thing
like that able to read Homer in the original! Well, I will say this—he
don’t put on side about it like most chaps would.”
With this reflection the philosopher turned the corner, immediately to
engage in a war of words, in which he did not come off second best,
with the driver of a “growler,” who nearly ran over him as he stepped
somewhat unwarily off the pavement.
 XXI
In the course of the following week an announcement was made
which marked an epoch in the history of the great publishing house
of Crumpett and Hawker.
However, before this event had burgeoned forth upon the counting-
house staff, Mr. M. Arnold Dodson, with whose individual destiny it
was concerned, continued to live in that condition of soul-distraction,
to which it would seem even the most philosophic minds are
susceptible, which is known as hope deferred.
All the week Mr. Dodson had waited in vain to be summoned into the
presence of authority, to receive the seal of official recognition to
which he felt his mature talents were unquestionably entitled. He had
set his heart upon the dethronement of young Davis. To that other
accomplished worldling, who in mere point of age was a year older
than himself, he never referred without the prefix “young.” But the
misdemeanour of which that successful adventurer had been
convicted, of smoking in the room of the head of the firm, had not as
yet borne the fruit that Mr. Dodson had confidently predicted. Mr.
Davis was still enthroned in high places, triumphant still in his
original deceit; every morning he appended his signature in the time-
book, G. Eliot Davis, 9.15, not the least among the Olympians whose
seat was on the second storey; while Mr. M. Arnold Dodson, in every
way his superior in moral and mental attainment, still languished in
the comparative obscurity of the counting-house below.
On two occasions during that week had Mr. Dodson walked into the
Strand during the luncheon hour, and had purchased an extremely
pungent cigar, for which he had disbursed the sum of one penny.
Armed with this implement he had stolen up-stairs in the absence of
the staff during the hour of luncheon, and had smoked it grimly and
relentlessly in the middle of the sanctuary of Mr. Octavius Crumpett.
Melancholy to relate, however, in spite of the physical pangs
endured by the heroic Mr. Dodson, who in the very act of informing
William Jordan, Junior, that “that young Davis had been smoking
again in Octavius’s room,” had to make a sudden and somewhat
undignified exit to the back of the building—in spite of such
tribulations as these the wicked, in the person of G. Eliot Davis,
continued to flourish in that time-honoured fashion which has been
celebrated by Holy Writ.
“Luney,” said Mr. Dodson, with an unaffected pathos in his voice,
when the second of these heroic efforts to dethrone the unrighteous
had been fraught with no other compensation than that of suffering
of a purely physical kind, which is too often the reward of human
nature’s disinterestedness, “Luney, it fairly turns me sick to see that
young Davis walk up those stairs. I shouldn’t mind, you know, I
shouldn’t mind at all if he had played the game. But he got where he
is by a trick, and it is doing him no kindness to try to gloss it over.”
Upon the delivery of this altogether admirable piece of morality
touched by emotion, Mr. M. Arnold Dodson, for the second time that
afternoon, retired to the back of the building with a haste which
scarcely harmonized with his natural dignity.
As he returned with an unwonted pallor upon a countenance which
as a rule bore evidence of being soundly nourished, whom should he
meet, as if by the irony of circumstance, but Mr. G. Eliot Davis
descending the stairs. For once the eminent philosopher and man of
the world seemed to lack the moral strength to encounter one whom
he could only regard in the light of a successful adventurer.
Therefore he strove to escape without attempting to outface a
demeanour, which in his view was flown to an exaggerated degree
with the insolence of office. This afternoon, however, he was not able
to control the fates.
“Dodson,” said Mr. G. Eliot Davis, in the tone which Mr. Dodson
made a point of describing as “insufferable”; “Dodson,” said Mr.
Davis, “perhaps it may interest you to know that Mr. Octavius’s
personal translation of Homer’s Odyssey will be issued to the Trade
on Monday next.”
“Thank you, Davis,” said Mr. Dodson, with the self-command that the
great display on great occasions. “I am glad to know that, very glad
indeed.”
Mr. Dodson’s official duties should have led him there and then into
the counting-house of Crumpett and Hawker; but as he stood to
watch the small but stout, erect, and prosperous form of Mr. G. Eliot
Davis saunter out of the front entrance of No. 24 Trafalgar Square,
an idea flashed across that Napoleonic brain.
Therefore, instead of returning to admonish William Jordan, Junior,
for omitting to inscribe the courtesy prefix to the name of a peer’s
daughter in returning the manuscript copy of her verses, Mr. Dodson
also sauntered forth of No. 24 Trafalgar Square. He turned the first
corner and entered the refreshment buffet of the Brontë Hotel.
Presiding over that hall of public entertainment was the lady of the
scarlet blouse and yellow earrings. This afternoon the blouse was
heliotrope, and she wore no earrings.
“Chrissie,” said Mr. Dodson, “I want something to pull me together. It
must be up to proof, but it must leave no odour.”
“I always say you can’t do better than brandy,” said Chrissie, with the
assured yet quiet air of the unmistakable expert. “Of course, some
prefer a John Collins, or an American, or a Dog Toby, but I am not
partial to so much fancy work myself.”
“Same here,” said Mr. Dodson. “But there must be no odour—none
whatever.”
“You shall have a toothful of the Waterloo, as your face seems
familiar,” said Chrissie benignly.
“You are a good sort, Chrissie,” said Mr. Dodson, with a small display
of emotion that became him perfectly. “I shall not forget you.”
“My size is nine and a quarter,” said the lady, as with extreme
precision she measured out a small quantity of a curiously-coloured
liquid from a very mysterious-looking bottle. “Jimmy, I must say you
do look a bit below yourself. Has the moon come up yet?”
“Not yet,” said Mr. Dodson in a tone of amiable deprecation. He was
greatly indebted to the kindness of the lady in the heliotrope blouse,
but her question was alien to his dignity, as was also the situation in
which he found himself. Even at this period of his career all those
attributes were clearly developed which in after years brought him so
much distinction in political life.
“Well, if you will smoke El Destinkers at one and fourpence a
hundred,” said the lady in the heliotrope blouse.
“Chrissie,” said Mr. Dodson impressively, after swallowing the brandy
at a single gulp, “you should know that I am physically incapable of
doing anything of the kind.”
“I can smell it from here,” said the lady in the heliotrope blouse.
“I know it is not considered the thing to contradict a lady,” said Mr.
Dodson, withdrawing two steps from the buffet, “but you appear to
have paid me the compliment of forgetting the commercial traveller
who has just gone out. So long. Be good.”
Mr. Dodson sauntered out of the refreshment buffet of the Brontë
Hotel with the inimitable nonchalance of bearing which many,
besides the lady in the heliotrope blouse, never failed to admire.
Before returning to his official duties at No. 24 Trafalgar Square, Mr.
Dodson went in quest of a chemist, whom he found a few doors up
the street. Of him he purchased a pennyworth of pungent pink
lozenges, which immediately he proceeded to suck. He then re-
entered the premises of the eminent publishing house; but instead of
going forthwith to admonish William Jordan, Junior, he proceeded to
wash his face, to part his hair in the middle with much care, and to
re-adjust his necktie.
These preliminaries accomplished, Mr. Dodson walked very slowly
and erectly up to the second storey. He entered the small ante-
chamber at the head of the stairs, which was dedicated to the sole
use of the vigilant guardian of these Olympian altitudes, one G. Eliot
Davis.
“Davis,” said Mr. Dodson, peering within, “is Mr. Octavius in his
room?”
“Yes, Dodson, he is,” said Mr. Davis.
“Alone, Davis?”
“Alone, Dodson.”
“Thank you, Davis.”
“Don’t mention it, Dodson.”
Upon the conclusion of this exchange of courtesies, which an
impartial observer might have considered as a trifle elaborated on
both sides, Mr. Dodson knocked smartly and boldly, yet withal
respectfully, upon the portals of Mr. Octavius Crumpett. Mr. Dodson
entered the august presence briskly, but closed the door after him
with delicacy and with self-possession.
Mr. Octavius Crumpett was seated at the table in close proximity to
the fire. Every letter and document, every book, every small article
was arranged upon it with scrupulous nicety. The head of the firm
was enjoying the academic pleasure of running a paper-knife
through the close-pressed leaves, within a chaste and scholarly
binding, of his personal translation of the Odyssey, which was to be
issued to an expectant world upon the following Monday.
Mr. Octavius Crumpett looked up urbanely from his insidious and
alluring occupation. A slight frown of perplexity almost seemed to
cloud for a moment that serene brow. In his boundless
conscientiousness Mr. Octavius Crumpett conceived it to be his duty
to be able to remember the name of each individual member of his
staff, however lowly or obscure his station. For an instant he almost
feared that he had forgotten the name of the individual before him.
But this moment of doubt, of almost tremulous perplexity, which did
him such credit as a man, as the head of a house of eminent
publishers, as an enlightened patron of labour, passed almost as
soon as it appeared, for a weak wet glint of the afternoon sun
suddenly illumined the wizened countenance of the young
gentleman who stood before him; and as if touched by inspiration Mr.
Octavius Crumpett remembered that the name of the young
gentleman was Matthew Arnold Dodson.
“Well, Mr. Dodson?” said Mr. Octavius Crumpett, in that tone and
manner which were ever the despair and admiration of his staff.
Mr. M. A. Dodson, who had already shown his consummate breeding
by waiting for his chief to speak first, as though he were a royalty
incarnate, bowed slightly from his full height, which was hardly more
than four feet ten inches, and said in a very carefully modulated
voice, “I apologize, sir, for my intrusion, but I learn that your personal
translation of the Odyssey is to be issued to the Trade on Monday
next.”
“That is in accord with existing arrangements, I believe,” said Mr.
Octavius Crumpett, with a masterly implication that his well-cut
diction dealt merely with human nature’s daily food.
“Well now, sir,” said Mr. M. A. Dodson, whose mellifluous accent
might have sounded a little ingratiating had it been used by a less
able practitioner, “I am taking the freedom of asking you, sir, whether
I might purchase my own private copy this evening. The fact is, sir,”
Mr. M. A. Dodson added, in a burst of humble yet half-whimsical self-
revelation, “I can hardly possess my soul in patience until Monday
next. May I ask, sir, would it be infra dignitatem if I were to obtain my
own copy this evening? I am particularly anxious to have the
opportunity of studying the entire achievement—I feel sure, sir, I am
justified in applying beforehand that much-abused word—before the
journals of professional criticism, which are very excellent in their
way, which I needn’t tell you, sir, I read every week, have had the
opportunity of swaying my private judgment.”
Mr. Octavius Crumpett paused, with his solid silver paper-knife
suspended in the air, to listen to this masterful piece of elocution on
the part of Mr. M. A. Dodson. As the delicately enunciated phrases
fell from those gently simpering lips, quite as they would have
proceeded from those of the listener himself, an emotion of pleasure
and gratitude percolated through the entire being of this good and
benign gentleman. That portion of his being which was arrayed in a
waistcoat of immaculate whiteness rose and fell in visible accord
with the internal harmony. The traditions of the house of Crumpett
and Hawker were never so secure as in the keeping of even one of
the latest additions to its clerical staff. By some mysterious means
the rarefied air of that establishment had wrought already upon one
of the least considerable of its members.
“Mr. Dodson,” said Mr. Octavius Crumpett, speaking with obvious
emotion, “it will—ah, give me immense pleasure if you will accept the
first copy of my—ah, little book.”
“It will delight me, sir, of course, to accept the first copy,” said Mr. M.
A. Dodson, speaking with a quiet dignity and a mature reserve which
became him superbly; “it will overwhelm me with honour, but if my
acceptance of the first copy could in any way be misconstrued—that
is, sir, I mean to say, the freedom I have been guilty of in coming
here this afternoon to speak to you on the subject could be
misconstrued—I should greatly prefer to obtain the first copy by
purchase in the usual manner. And after all, sir,” Mr. M. A. Dodson
concluded, with an arch smile, “if you will permit me to say it, sir, the
labourer is worthy of his hire. If this custom, sir, became in any sense
general of an author giving away his own works, every author, sir,
would either have to become his own publisher, or every publisher
would have to become his own author.”
The glow behind the immaculate waistcoat of Mr. Octavius Crumpett
was heightened to such a degree by these scruples, and by the
cultivated terms in which they gained expression, that the good man
was fain to embody it by beaming like a seraph.
“Pray, my dear Mr. Dodson,” purred his august employer, “do not vex
a nice conscience with scruples that are not in the least necessary. I
shall be charmed if you will allow me to present you with the first
copy of my—ah, little book. Will you kindly ask Mr. Davis to give you
one of the copies set apart for review? and if, Mr. Dodson, you will
take an early opportunity of telling me precisely what you think about
it I shall be honoured indeed, for I perceive, Mr. Dodson, that you
have a real and deep love of letters.”
The manner in which Mr. M. A. Dodson took leave of Mr. Octavius
Crumpett was entirely worthy, in the amplest sense, of two such
ornaments of their age. As the head of the firm watched the close-
knit figure of Mr. M. A. Dodson recede through the door of his room,
he said for his own private delectation: “This house undoubtedly has
an atmosphere of its own. It seems to exude an aroma. That is a
very remarkable youth; a youth of precocious attainment. He talks
like a book.”
Mr. M. Arnold Dodson, with his hand on the door of Mr. G. Eliot
Davis, said to himself, “I never talk to Octavius without wanting to run
straight out into the street to beat out the brains of a little boy in a
sailor suit.”
“Davis,” said Mr. Dodson, entering modestly the sanctum of that
worthy, “Mr. Octavius’s compliments, and will you have the kindness
to give M. Arnold Dodson a review copy of his translation of Homer?”
“Have you a signed order, Dodson, to that effect?” said Mr. Davis,
who cloaked his profound astonishment somewhat ineffectually in a
display of officialdom.
“As you appear to doubt my bona fides, Davis,” said Mr. Dodson,
with leisurely dignity, “perhaps you will have the condescension to
verify them for yourself.”
“Very good, Dodson,” said Mr. Davis, who by now had regained his
own natural self-possession, which was not inconsiderable. “Excuse
me for one moment. Take a chair. Make yourself quite at home.”
“I shall make myself quite at home a good deal sooner than you
think, you young swine,” said Mr. Dodson through clenched teeth, as
Mr. Davis betook himself to the presence of Mr. Octavius Crumpett.
“Jack in office! But your days are numbered, my son, your days are
numbered!”
The bewildered Mr. G. Eliot Davis returned and handed a copy of Mr.
Octavius Crumpett’s translation of the Odyssey to Mr. M. Arnold
Dodson.
“Davis,” said Mr. Dodson, placing the handsome volume
ostentatiously under his arm, “you are a youth of intellectual gifts, but
unfortunately, like many others of your type, your gifts don’t take you
quite far enough. You will understand a little better what I mean
about this time on Monday. Good afternoon, Davis.”
“Good afternoon, Dodson. Mind the stairs!” said Mr. Davis, as Mr.
Dodson picked his way delicately down them.
“What does Octavius mean, I wonder, by giving him an advance
copy?” mused Mr. Davis, pale with anger. “He knows what two and
two make, does James Dodson. I shouldn’t mind a bit if only he
played the game. I wish Octavius was not such a d——d old fool.”
With this reflection, which it must be conceded was in somewhat
questionable taste, upon the mental attainments and general calibre
of his august employer, Mr. G. Eliot Davis put on his hat, and went
his virtuous way to that hall of public entertainment, the annexe to
the Brontë Hotel, and accepted a cup of tea from the hands of the
lady in the heliotrope blouse.
“Chrissie,” said Mr. Davis, stirring his tea apprehensively, “that young
cad, Jimmy Dodson, cut me out with you, and now he’s trying to cut
me out with Octavius.”
“Well, Percy,” said the lady in the heliotrope blouse, “if that is so you
can go home to mamma. Whatever Jimmy Dodson tries to do he
does.”
 XXII
“Luney, my son,” said the mellifluous accents of Mr. M. A. Dodson,
ascending upwards to the high stool on which was perched the
assiduous form of William Jordan, Junior, “I want you to do me a
personal favour. I’ve got here an advance copy of Octavius’s
translation of the Odyssey. Now, my good and virtuous boy, I want
you to take it home with you to-night, read it carefully, and criticize it
for all you are worth. Just make a note, like a good chap, of any
particular points that strike you. If any of his truck strikes you as
better than the truck of the other johnnies, you had better underline
it. Or if you think some of his truck is worse than the truck of the
other johnnies, put a bit of blue pencil round it. If you can suggest
any improvements, so much the better. I want an expert like yourself
to handle this by Monday next, before the reviews come out, see?
Do this for me, Luney, old boy, and about the end of next week we’ll
do a music-hall together.”
The brand new volume that the boy carried home reverently under
his arm, was a source of great bewilderment to him that evening in
the little room. Again and again he scanned the virgin pages with
wondering eyes. Great names were there, great events, things and
men who had been his constant companions all his life long, but one
and all were envisaged in an alien tongue. A strange metamorphosis
had taken place. He was filled with despair. An acute sense of
mystery oppressed him. He compared this new and shining tome
with the old black volumes that were his priceless treasures. The
mystery deepened. The letter was there in almost its original
integrity; but an incommunicable something had passed away.
On the following day during the luncheon hour, William Jordan,
Junior, resigned the new volume to the care of Mr. M. Arnold
Dodson.
“It has not taken you long to go through it,” said that gentleman, with
a light of admiration in his eye, for he himself was prosecuting
researches into the subject which were fraught with pain. “Let me
see your notes, my son. They will help me a good deal.”
William Jordan, Junior, was fain to confess that he had not thought fit
to commit to paper the result of his own researches.
“You had better do so at once,” said Mr. Dodson, whose stern
countenance showed plainly that it would brook no trifling. “I want to
take ’em to-night to the British Museum. They will help me no end.”
“B-b-but,” said the boy nervously, “it is n-n-not Homer.”
For the moment the attitude of horror adopted by Mr. M. Arnold
Dodson seemed designed to suggest that the heavens were about to
fall.
“Not Homer!” exclaimed Mr. Dodson. “Not Homer!”
He appeared to gather up each particular unit of his four feet ten
inches, to lend emphasis to a reply which somehow refused to come
forth.
“Not Homer!” he said after a pause whose length had ceased to
make it dramatic. “Now look here, my son, I have only one word of
advice to give you. You have only to let that come to the ears of
Octavius, and you will be fired out of this old-established publishing
house with one week’s salary and no character.”
In spite, however, of the total failure of this source, to which he
looked chiefly for sustenance and inspiration in his arduous
undertaking, Mr. Dodson was of far too considerable a mental and
moral calibre to relinquish his self-imposed task. Thus early in his
career he had adopted the saying of a compatriot, for he too, like so
many of our national heroes, claimed the blood of Caledonia stern
and wild, upon his mother’s side, “genius is an infinite capacity for
taking pains,” and had made it his own. Therefore in a crisis where
one of other clay would have been daunted indeed, Mr. M. A.
Dodson girt his loins like a veritable giant, and re-addressed himself
to his labours with the greatest possible valour. Luney had failed him,
as it was only reasonable to expect such a lunatic to do. It was a
Napoleonic visage that crossed the threshold of a monumental
building in Bloomsbury Square, immediately opposite the Hotel
Thackeray, on three consecutive evenings at the hour of seven-thirty,
and stayed there with its nose pinned to unaccustomed documents
until it was turned out.
Upon the afternoon of that Monday which was made memorable in
the national life by the fact that upon that day, Mr. Octavius
Crumpett’s version of Homer was issued to the Trade, towards five
o’clock on that epoch-making afternoon, the calm and self-contained
right hand of Mr. M. A. Dodson smote the portal of the sanctum
sanctorum of Mr. Octavius Crumpett, while in his equally calm and
self-contained left hand he bore the sacred volume upon which he
had been concentrating the whole of his critical faculty, which was
not inconsiderable, for three days past.
“Ah, Mr. Dodson, good-morning,” said Mr. Octavius Crumpett, with a
benign beam in his mild eyes, as he looked up from the perusal of
the list of books received by his favourite Journal of English and
Foreign Literature, Science, the Fine Arts, Music and the Drama. It is
to be observed inter alia that the seeming inconsistency of which this
great and good man was guilty of ascribing the name of morning to
five o’clock in the afternoon, was in strict accordance with the higher
usage.
“Good-morning, sir,” said Mr. M. Arnold Dodson, with a slightly
austere but perfectly amiable self-possession.
“Is it to be my privilege, Mr. Dodson, to hear the first verdict which
has been passed upon—ah, my little book?” said Mr. Octavius
Crumpett, with the expansive pleasantness of one who had received
already that morning, at his favourite hall of physical and mental
refreshment, the sonorously-tendered compliment of a stalwart of the
Episcopal Bench, upon its long-expected-and-eagerly-looked-for
appearance.
“Well, sir,” said Mr. Dodson, opening at a leisure which conferred an
adventitious weight upon an utterance which stood not in the least
need of it; “well, sir, it is not my intention to enter into petty details
nor into the minutiæ and fine points of scholarship. I think, sir, those
can be resigned with every propriety into more competent hands. But
what I would like to do, sir, with your kind indulgence, is to view this
work as a whole. I do not know, sir, that I have any special claim to
do this, but I would like to say just in what manner your—ah,
achievement strikes me——”
“Pray proceed, Mr. Dodson, pray proceed,” said Mr. Octavius
Crumpett, as Mr. M. A. Dodson inserted one of those masterful
pauses in his oratory which in after days were likely to stand him in
such good stead in both houses of parliament, and on political
platforms in the United Kingdom far too numerous to mention.
“My survey of your achievement as a whole, sir,” Mr. M. A. Dodson
continued at a forensically magnificent leisure, “can be summed up
in one word. That word is the word consummate. To my mind, sir, the
word consummate alone envisages in any adequate sense that
which you have achieved. I say, sir, I do not propose to go into fine
points of scholarship, which even under the most favourable
auspices are apt to be vexed and over-nice. I speak merely as an
amateur, sir, as a humble, but ardent lover of letters. And in that
capacity, sir, and in no other, as I hope, sir, you will please
understand, I have been unable to refrain from underlining certain
passages of your—ah, rendering which to my mind are in-
comparably fe-lic-i-tous.”
Mr. M. A. Dodson paused to take from his pocket a slip of paper on
which was set forth a collocation of mystic numerals. Mr. Octavius
Crumpett lay back in his revolving chair with closed eyes, and with
his hands folded over that portion of his being that was embellished
by his waistcoat of immaculate whiteness; and he seemed to vibrate
internally with that large content which it is only given to the good
and great to feel.
“Page sixty-four, the line beginning, ‘Behold the deep-shaking
thunder,’” Mr. M. A. Dodson continued as he ran his fingers through
the pages with that precision which is the fruit of a long and loving
intercourse with books. “Now, sir, to my mind, the whole passage as
far as ‘all-fostering Zeus’ could not be improved. To my mind, it is an
incomparable advance upon Pope and upon Chapman, and even
upon the extremely skilful version of the late Lord Derby. If I may be
permitted to say it, sir, to my mind, the manner in which you have
surmounted the well-nigh in-superable difficulties of metre is worthy
of the highest praise; and yet, sir, you do not appear to have
sacrificed one iota of the sense or the spirit of the peerless original.
Then, sir, page seventy-two, beginning with line eighteen, ‘Treads
the waves of the many-tremulous seas.’ Or page ninety-one, that
matchless rendering of—— But I must not pause to enumerate.”
As Mr. M. A. Dodson ran his fingers with extreme rapidity through
one after another of these underlined passages, a kind of generous
enthusiasm communicated itself to his wizened countenance. His
diction, ever touched by Attic grace, seemed presently to glow with a
little of the Promethean fire. Yet never for a moment did it fall into
incoherence, nor lapse from the ideal of style in spoken diction,
however rapidly uttered, which was ever before him.
“In fact, sir,” Mr. M. A. Dodson concluded as he came to the last
passage he had underlined, “language fails me, as, sir, it has failed
me from the first, to say in precisely what manner your consummate
achievement has addressed my critical sense.”
With this striking peroration, Mr. M. A. Dodson made as if to
withdraw, but suddenly he appeared to think better of his resolution,
for he returned again to the near proximity of his great and good
master, and said in a modest voice, from which all traces of his
infinitely creditable mental excitement had been removed, “If I dare,
sir, I would ask of the author one small boon. I feel, sir, I have no
right to ask it, but if it were granted to me, it would mean the
overflowing of the cup. I should cherish beyond expression, sir, and I
think I can vouch for it, that in after life my children also will do the
same; I should cherish beyond expression, sir, the autograph of one
who is at once the author of this great book, and who is at the same
time the head of this great house.”
Immediately Mr. Octavius Crumpett dipped his pen in the ink and
inscribed upon the first page of the volume, Mr. Matthew Arnold
Dodson, with the Author’s good wishes.
“Mr. Dodson,” said Mr. Octavius Crumpett, after handing back the
volume to that gentleman, and curtailing in some measure a
gratitude that already had been choicely expressed; “Mr. Dodson,
when you go down-stairs, I shall be obliged if you will have the
goodness to ask Mr. Walkinshaw to have the kindness to come and
see me.”
As Mr. M. A. Dodson pursued his meritorious way towards the
basement of the famous building, he took occasion to knock at the
door of the adjoining room.
“Enter,” said a clear official tone.
“Mr. Davis,” said Mr. Dodson, with a formidable politeness as he
entered, and laying an unmistakable stress upon the prefix, “I have
the honour to inform you that your goose is already cooked. Perhaps
you will have the condescension to look at this.”
With immemorial calm Mr. M. Arnold Dodson disclosed for the
edification of Mr. G. Eliot Davis, the fly-leaf of the volume he carried.
A short exclamation of surprise and incredulity escaped the lips of
that young gentleman, which Mr. Dodson did not pause to elucidate.
As the thin, tall, melancholy but intellectual form of Mr. Walter Pater
Walkinshaw wended its way up-stairs, Mr. Dodson turned to William
Jordan, Junior, with a Napoleonic air.
“Luney,” he said, “you can fetch me the time-book.”
William Jordan, Junior, descended from his stool obediently. Mr.
Dodson, with the aid of a ruler and some red ink, crossed out the
name of M. Arnold Dodson from the current page of that work, and
wrote thereunder, G. Eliot Davis 8.30, vice M. Arnold Dodson gone
up-stairs.
No sooner had Mr. Dodson performed this operation than Mr. W. P.
Walkinshaw returned to that sphere over which he presided with so
much distinction, and said in his kind but cultivated voice, “Mr.
Dodson, Mr. Octavius will be glad if you will go up and see him.”
“I will, sir,” said Mr. Dodson in a tone which, subdued as it was,
resounded through the counting-house.
As for the second time within a very short period Mr. Dodson took his
meritorious way up the familiar stairs to Mount Olympus, he knocked
again on the door of Mr. G. Eliot Davis.
“Mr. Davis,” said Mr. Dodson, thrusting in his head, “prepare to
receive cavalry.”
Before Mr. Davis could demand the meaning of this enigmatic
injunction, Mr. Dodson had entered the august presence yet again.
Mr. Octavius Crumpett was seated in pontificalibus with the glass in
his benign right eye, and the tips of his white and beautifully-kept
hands pressed together.
“Mr. Dodson,” said Mr. Octavius Crumpett, “I learn from Mr.
Walkinshaw that during the four years you have been associated
with this house, your conduct has been exemplary in the highest
degree. I learn that your attainments are entirely worthy of the—ah,
traditions of this house. It gives me more pleasure, Mr. Dodson, than
I can express to ask you to accept an increase of honorarium from
£90 per annum, which I understand you enjoy at present, to the sum
of £200 per annum, which will date from to-day. Further, it is my
intention to ask you to take up your duties to-morrow morning in the
next room, which at present is in the occupation of Mr. Davis. I think I
may say that I concur entirely with Mr. Walkinshaw in the opinion to
which he has given recent expression, that your considerable natural
talent marks you out for a higher destiny than that which you enjoy at
present. I shall be obliged, Mr. Dodson, if you will ask Mr. Davis to
come here.”
“Mr. Davis,” said Mr. Dodson, projecting a somewhat sinister
countenance into the ante-room, whose accomplished occupant was
studying the Sporting Times, “Mr. Octavius will be obliged if you will
have the condescension to go next door.”
 XXIII
As the weeks passed it was as if by a miracle that the young William
Jordan found himself still deriving pieces of silver from his
mysterious association with the counting-house of Messrs. Crumpett
and Hawker. Yet for some occult reason the impending sword never
fell. Perhaps it was that after a while he learned to assimilate his
painful and slow-wrung experience; at least in the process of time his
growth of knowledge in the practical sciences intervened to save him
from some of the dire pitfalls to which he was exposed.
Twelve months went by, twelve months fraught for the boy with
infinite vicissitude, but he still retained the occupation of the stool at
No. 24 Trafalgar Square. There could be no doubt that he owed
much to the early supervision and the sagacious counsel, diversified
on occasion by the eminent practice, of Mr. James Dodson. Even
after the elevation of that accomplished worldling and philosopher to
a higher sphere of influence, he retained an almost paternal interest
in his humble pupil. It is true that the association of William Jordan,
Junior, with one of Mr. Dodson’s calibre was apt on occasion to
diminish the number of pieces of silver which he was able to
dedicate to the cause that was never out of his thoughts. But on the
other hand, there can be no doubt that William Jordan, Junior,
gained a first-hand acquaintance with the practical sciences that he
could never have hoped otherwise to obtain.
At the end of his first year of servitude his pieces of silver were
augmented to the number of fifteen shillings per week. When he first
carried home this increase to his father in the little room, he was no
longer delirious with joy as was the case a year ago.
He spread them out on the table after supper with a curious
melancholy. During the few months previous to this event, his chief
characteristic, his eager, almost infantile, simplicity, had become
tinged with a quietude which seemed to be a foreshadowing of a
sombre ripening to maturity. He had been strangely silent and
thoughtful of late. He had given up in a great measure, even on
Sundays, those thrice-blessed days, his habit of reading constantly
in the ancient authors.
“My father,” he said, as he arranged the pieces of silver upon the
table, “it is hard to believe that the same heart propels these fingers
that first laid these pieces of silver upon this table before you, a long,
long year ago. I think that year must have been an age, an epoch. Or
is it that during that time, my father, I have been reading over-much
in the Book of the Ages?”
“Ah, my beloved Achilles,” said his father, “may it not be that your
existence is entering upon a new phase? You know that the mortal
life of heroes has three phases. May not this be the second phase
upon which you are now entering?”
“Yes, my father,” said the young man thoughtfully, “I believe that to
be true. Things are not so mysterious to me as they once were.
During the past year I seem to have won knowledge that is great and
strange and rare.”