PHILOSOPHY inward, and analyze the true nature and
values that are guiding your life.
SOCRATES
“I know that I don’t know.”
Socrates was a Greek philosopher and one
of the very few individuals who shaped
Western thought. However, unlike the
other philosophers during his time,
Socrates never wrote anything. Knowledge
about Socrates is through second-hand
information from the writings of his student
Plato (another of the most influential
Western thinkers) and historian Xenophon.
Socrates was known for his method of
inquiry in testing an idea. This is called the
SOCRATIC METHOD whereby an idea was
tested by asking a series of questions to
determine underlying beliefs and the
extent of knowledge to guide the person
toward better understanding. Socrates was
described to have gone about in Athens
questioning everyday views and popular
Athenian beliefs. This apparently offended
the leaders in his time. He was then
accused of impiety or lack of reverence for
the gods and for corrupting the minds of
the youth. At 70 years old, Socrates was
sentenced to death by drinking a cup of
poison hemlock.
Some of Socrates’ ideas were:
− The soul is immortal.
− The care of the soul is the task of
philosophy.
− Virtue is necessary to attain happiness.
Socrates believed that philosophy had a
very important role to play in the lives of
the people. One of his most-quoted phrases
is, “The unexamined life is not worth
living.” According to Socrates, self-
knowledge or the examination of one’s self,
as well as the question about how one
ought to live one’s life, are very important
concerns because only by knowing yourself
can you hope to improve your life. Socrates
believed that you as a person should
consciously contemplate , turn your gaze
He added self-knowledge would open your
eyes to your true nature; which contrary to
pop culture, is not about what you own,
how many “Likes” you get in you social
media posts, or how successful you are in
your career. In fact, your real self is not
even your body. According to Socrates, the
state of your inner being (soul/self)
determines the quality of your life.
Socrates said existence is of two kinds:
1. The visible (changes)
2. The invisible (remain constant)
According to Socrates, this is the state of
the human being. The body, which is visible,
changes; the other part, the kind that is
invisible to humans yet sensed and
understood by the mind remains constant.
In the Socratic Dialogue, Plato wrote what
Socrates said about the body and the soul:
“When the soul and body are together
nature assigns our body to be a slave and to
be ruled and the soul to be ruler and
master”.
Socrates also believed that the goal of life is
to be happy. How does one become happy?
According to Socrates, the virtuous man is a
happy man, and that virtue alone is one
and only supreme good that will secure
his/her happiness. Virtue is defined as
moral excellence, and an individual is
considered virtuous if his/her character is
made up of the moral qualities. According
to Socrates , even death is a trivial matter
for the truly virtuous because he/she has
realized that the most important thing in
life is the state of his/her and the acts taken
from taking care of the soul through self-
knowledge.
PLATO
“Good actions give strength to ourselves
and inspire good actions in others.”
Balance between mind and body.
Plato was the student of Socrates. He
wrote the SOCRATIC DIALOGUE where
Socrates was the main character and
speaker. Plato’s philosophical method was
what he identified as “collection and
division”. In this method, the philosopher
would “collect” all the generic ideas that
seemed to have common characteristics
and then divided them into different kinds
until the subdivision of ideas became
specific. He is best known for his Theory of
Forms that asserted the physical world is
not really the “real” world because the
ultimate reality exists beyond the physical
world.
Plato is perhaps the single most important
influence of the Western concept of “self.”
According to Plato, the “soul” is indeed the
most divine aspect of the human being.
However, his concept of the divine is not a
spiritual being but rather one that has an
intellectual connotation. The self/soul/mind
according to Plato is the aspect of the
human beings by which the Forms (ideas)
are known.
The three parts of the soul according to
Plato are:
1. The appetitive (sensual)
The element enjoys sensual experiences,
such as food, drink, and sex.
2. The rational (reasoning)
The element that forbids the person to
enjoy the sensual experiences; the part that
loves truth, hence should rule over the
other parts of the soul through the use of
reason.
3. The spirited (feeling)
The element that is inclined toward reason
but understands the demands of passion;
the part that loves honor and victory.
ST. AUGUSTINE
“All knowledge leads to God”
Saint Augustine, also called Saint Augustine
of Hippo, is one of the Latin Fathers of the
Church, one of the Doctors of the Church,
as one of the most significant Christian
thinkers. His philosophical approach to
Christian thinking is the most influential
theological system. His written works are
among the foundations of medieval and
modern Christian thought.
Saint Augustine was deeply influenced by
Plato’s ideas. Not surprisingly, he adopted
Plato’s view that the “self” is an immaterial
(but rational) soul. Giving the Theory of
Forms a Christian perspective, Augustine
asserted that these Forms were concepts
existing within the perfect and eternal God
where the soul belonged. Saint Augustine
held that the soul held the Truth and was
capable of scientific thinking. Saint
Augustine’s concept of the “self” was an
inner, immaterial “I” that had self-
knowledge and self-awareness. He
believed that the human being was both a
soul and body, and the body possessed
senses, such as imagination, memory,
reason, and mind through which the soul
experienced the world.
He also reasoned that human beings
through the sense could sense the material,
temporal objects as we interacted with the
material world; the immaterial but
intelligible God would only be clear or
obvious to the mind if one tunes into
his/her immaterial self/soul
The aspects of the self/soul according to
Saint Augustine’s are:
- It is able to be aware of itself.
- It recognizes itself as a holistic one.
- It is aware of its unity.
Saint Augustine believed that the human
being who is both soul and body is meant
to tent to higher, divine, and heavenly
matters because of his/her capacity to
ascend and comprehend truths through the
mind. He connected the ascension of the
soul with his assertion that everything
related to the physical world belongs to the
physical body, and if a person concerns
himself/herself with this physical world
then he/she will not be any different from
animals. Saint Augustine pointed out that a
person is similar to God as regards to the
mind and its ability; that by ignoring to use
his/her mind he/she would lost his/her
possibility to reach real and lasting
happiness.
RENE DESCARTES
“I think, therefore I am.”
Rene Descartes was a French philosopher,
mathematician, and scientists. He is
considered the father of modern Western
philosophy. Descartes is often regarded as
the first thinker to emphasize the use of
reason to describe, predict, and understand
natural phenomena based on observational
and empirical evidence.
Descartes proposed that doubt was a
principal tool to disciplined inquiry. His
method was called
hyperbolical/metaphysical doubt, also
sometimes referred to as methodological
skepticism. It is a systematic process of
being skeptical about the truth of one’s
beliefs in order to determine which beliefs
could be ascertained as true.
Rene Descartes famous line “Cogito ergo
sum” translated as “I think, therefore I am”
became a fundamental element of Western
philosophy as it secured the foundation for
knowledge in the face of radical doubt. He
asserted that everything perceived by the
sense could not be used as proof of
existence because human sense could be
fooled. He added that there was only one
thing we could be sure of in this world, and
that was everything could be doubted. In
turn, by doubting his own existence,
Descartes proved that there is a thinking
entity that is doing the act of doubting.
Descartes’ claims about the “self” are:
− It is constant; it is not prone to change;
and it is not affected by time.
− Only the immaterial soul remains the
same throughout time.
− The immaterial soul is the source of
our identity.
He further asserted that his thinking entity
could exist without the body because it is
an immaterial substance. Nevertheless, this
immaterial substance (self) possesses a
body and is so intimately bound/joined by it
that the “self” forms a union with its body.
Despite this body-soul union, Descartes
reasoned that the soul is still distinct from
the body.
Some distinction between the soul and
body as pointed out by Descartes are:
THE SOUL
It is conscious, thinking substance that is
unaffected by time.
It is known only to itself (only you know
your own mental event and others
cannot correct your mental states).
It is not made up of parts. It views the
entirety of itself with no hidden or
separate compartments. It is both
conscious and aware of itself at the same
time.
THE BODY
It is a material substance that changes
through time.
It can be doubted; The public can correct
claims about the body.
It is made up of physical, quantifiable,
divisible parts.
 JOHN LOCKE
“Human mind at birth is a tabula rasa,
which means that knowledge is derived
from experience”
John Locke was a philosopher and
physician and was one of the most
influential Enlightenment thinkers. The Age
of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason
was an intellectual and philosophical
movement that dominated the ideas in
Europe during the 18th century.
If Descartes described the “self” as a
thinking thing, Locke expanded this
definition of “self” to include the
memories of that thinking thing. Locke
believed that the “self” is identified with
consciousness and this “self” consists of
sameness of consciousness. This is usually
interpreted to mean that the “self” consists
of memory; that the person existing now is
the same person yesterday because he/she
remembers the thoughts, experiences, or
actions of the earlier self.
For Locke, a person’s provide a continuity
of experience that allows him/her to
identify himself/herself as the same person
over time. This theory of personal identity
allows Locke to justify a defense of
accountability. According to Locke since
the person is the same “self” in the passing
of time, he/she can be held accountable for
past behaviors. However, Locke insisted
that a person could only be held
accountable for behaviors he/she can
remember. Locke believed that punishing
someone for behaviors he/she has no
recollection of doing is equivalent to
punishing him/her for actions that was
never performed. He asserted that the
state of the person who cannot remember
his/her behavior is the same as the state of
the person who never committed the act,
which meant the person was ignorant.
DAVID HUME
“All knowledge is derived from human
sense.”
David Hume (1711-1776) was a Scottish
philosopher, economist, and historian
during the Age of Enlightenment. He was a
fierce ‘opponent of Descartes’ Rationalism.
Rationalism is the theory that reason,
rather than experience, is the foundation
of all knowledge. Hume, along with John
Locke and Bishop George Berkeley, was one
of the three main figureheads of the
influential British Empiricism movement.
Empiricism is the idea that the origin of all
knowledge is sense experience. It
emphasized the role of experience and
evidence (especially sensory perception) in
forming concepts, while discounting the
notion of innate ideas.
Hume is identified with the bundle theory
wherein he described the “self” or person
(which Hume assumed to be the “mind”) as
a bundle or a collection of different
perceptions that are moving in a very fast
and successive manner; therefore, it is in a
“perpetual flux.” Hume’s theory began by
denying Descartes view of the immaterial
soul and of its experiences are limited;
therefore, it is impossible to attribute it to
an independent persisting entity (i.e., soul).
David Hume concluded that the “self” is
merely made up of successive impressions.
Hume divided the mind’s perception into
two groups stating that the difference
between the two “consists in the degrees
of force and liveliness with which they
strike upon the mind”
1. Impressions - These are the
perceptions that are the most strong.
They enter the senses with most force.
These are directly experienced; the
result from inward and outward
sentiments.
2. Ideas - These are the less forcible and
less lively counterparts of impressions.
 There are mechanisms that copy and
reproduce sense data formulated
based upon the previously perceived
impressions.
Hume asserted that the notion of the “self”
could not be verified through observation.
He argued that if you can directly know,
then what you know are mere objects of
what your senses are experiencing. With
this idea, he believed there is no logical
justification for the existence of anything
other than what your senses experienced.
For Hume, the “self” was nothing but a
SERIES OF INCOHERENT EMPRESSIONS
received by the sense. This description of
experience revealed, according to Hume,
no permanently subsisting self.
Moreover, Hume compared the “self” to a
nation; whereby a nation retains its “being
a nation” not by some single core or
identity but being composed of different,
constantly changing elements, such as
people, systems, culture, and beliefs. In the
same cohesion of various personal
experiences. He insisted that there is no
one constant impression that endures
throughout you life.
Hence, Hume did not believe on the
existence of the “self.” He stressed to him,
should your perception are only active for
as long as you are conscious. According to
him, should your perception be “removed”
for any time (such as when you are
sleeping), and you can no longer sense
yourself then you also cease to exist. In this
line, Hume seemed to reduce the “self” as a
light bulb that may be switched on or off.
Hume’s “self” is a passive observer similar
to watching one’s life pass before the eyes
like a play or on a screen; whereby the total
annihilation of the “self” comes at death.
IMMANUEL KANT
“Reason is the final authority of morality.
Morality is achieved only when there is
absence of war because of the result of
enlightenment.”
Philosopher Immanuel Kant is a central
figure in modern philosophy. His
contributions to metaphysics, epistemology,
ethics, and aesthetics have had a profound
impact on almost every philosophical
movement that followed him. Among other
ideas that Kant proposed was that, the
human mind creates the structure of
human experience.
Kant’s view of the “self” is
TRANSCENDENTAL, which means the “self”
is related to spiritual or nonphysical realm.
For Kant, the self is not in the body. The self
is outside the body, and it does not have
the qualities of the body. Despite being
transcendental, Kant stressed that the body
and its qualities are rooted to the “self.” He
proposed that it is knowledge that bridges
the “self” and the material things together.
Two kinds of consciousness of self
(rationality):
1. Inner Self - the “self” by which you are
aware of alterations in your own state.
This includes your rationality intellect
and your psychological state, such as
moods, feelings, and sensations,
pleasure, and pain.
2. Outer Self - it includes your senses and
the physical world. It is the common
boundary between the external world
and the inner self. It gathers
information from the external world
through the sense, which the inner self
interprets and coherently expresses.
Kant proposed that the “self” organizes
information in three ways:
1. Raw perceptual input
2. Recognizing the concept
3. Reproducing in the imagination
Kant’s “self” has a unified point of self-
reference. You are conscious of yourself as
the subject, and you are conscious of
yourself as a common subject of different
representations. Here Kant confirms that
the impressions you perceive point to one 2. Pre-conscious/subconscious, which is
single common fact - the “self” is the related to data that can readily be
subject of these experiences. brought to consciousness.
3. Unconscious, which refers to data
retained but not easily available to the
SIGMUND FREUD individual’s conscious awareness or
scrutiny.
“Wish fulfillment is the road to the
unconscious.”
Central to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
was proposed existence of the
unconscious as:
Philosopher, physiologist, and psychologist
1. A repository for traumatic repressed
Sigmund Freud was one of the most
memories.
influential thinkers of the 20th century. His
2. The source of anxiety-provoking
most important contribution, particularly in
drives that is socially or ethically
psychology, was psychoanalysis, a practice
unacceptable to the individual.
devised to treat those who are mentally ill
through dialogue.
Psychoanalytic Theory is a personality
theory based on the notion that an
The vast majority of European philosophers
individual gets motivated by unseen forces,
before Freud (from Plato and Aristotle to
controlled by the conscious and the
Kant to Descartes) regarded human beings
rational thought. Sigmund Freud did not
as having an “essence” to which the
exactly create the notion of the conscious
self/soul is ascribed. The “self” was an
versus unconscious mind, but he certainly
entity in itself characterized as the subject
was responsible for making it popular, and
(the focal point: the topic and doer of the
this was one of his main contributions to
action) of the physical and mental actions
psychology.
and experiences. The notion is that the self
is essence and subject points to the idea of
To explain his model, Freud used the
an entity that is unified, single, undivided,
analogy of an iceberg to describe the three
and unaffected by time.
levels of the mind.
Freud, however, did not accept the
Freud further structured the psyche/mind
existence of any single entity that could be
into three parts:
put forward as the notion of “self.” His
1. Id - operates on the pleasure principle.
work in the field of psychoanalysis was
Every wishful impulse should be
groundbreaking because it answered
satisfied immediately, regardless of
questions about the human psyche in a
the consequences. When the id
way that no one else had before him. In
achieves its demands, you experience
psychology, the PSYCHE is the totality of
pleasure; when it is denied, you
the human mind, both conscious and
experience “unpleasure” or tension.
unconscious.
2. Ego - operates according to the reality
principle. It works out realistic ways of
In his earlier structural division of the
satisfying the id’s demands (often
psyche, Freud distinguished three levels of
compromising or postponing
consciousness:
satisfaction to avoid negative
consequences of society). The ego
1. Conscious, which deals with awareness
considers social realities and norms,
of present perceptions, feelings,
etiquette, and rules in deciding how to
thoughts, memories, and fantasies at
behave. If the ego fails to use the
any particular moment.
reality principle, anxiety is experienced,
 and unconscious defense mechanisms
are employed to help ward off
unpleasant feelings.
3. Supergo - incorporates the values and
morals of society. The superego’s
function is to control the id’s impulses.
It persuades the ego to choose
moralistic goals and to strive for
perfection rather than simply realistic
ones.
The superego consists of two systems:
1. Conscience - if the ego gives in to the
id’s demands, the superego may make
the person feel bad through guilt.
2. Ideal self - it is an imaginary picture of
how you ought to be. It represents
career aspirations; how to treat other
people; and how to behave as a
member of society.
According to Freud’s structure of the mind,
the ego and the superego function in
different levels of consciousness. There is a
contact movement of memories and
impulses from one level to another. The id,
on the other hand, is unaffected by reality,
logic, or the everyday world as it operates
within the unconscious part of the mind.
GILBERT RYLE
“I act, therefore I am.”
Philosopher and professor, Gilbert Ryle
produced a critique of Descartes idea that
the mind is distinct from the body. He
wrote The Concept of Mind (1949) where
he rejected the notion that mental states
are separable from physical states. Ryle
called the distinction between mind and
matter a “category-mistake” because of its
attempt to analyze the relation between
“mind” and “body” as if the two were terms
of the same categories.
Ryle points against Descartes’ theory are:
− The relations between mind and body
are not isolated processes.
− Mental processed are intelligent acts,
and are not distinct from each other.
− The operation of the mind is itself an
intelligent act.
According to Ryle, the rationalist view that
mental acts are distinct from the physical
world is a misconception. Ryle described
this distinction between mind and body as
“the dogma of the ghost in the machine”
where he explained there is no hidden
entity or ghost called “soul” (also
understood as mind/self) inside a machine
called “body”.
Ryle criticized the theory that the mind is a
place where mental images are
apprehended, perceived, or remembered.
He asserted that sensations, thoughts, and
feelings do not belong to a mental world
separate from the physical world.
Knowledge, memory, imagination, and any
other abilities or dispositions do not reside
“within” the mind as if the mind were a
space in which these could be stored or
located.
If Ryle believed that the concept of a
distinct “self” is not real, where do we get
our sense of self? Ryle asserted that it is
from our behaviors and actions. For
example, you think of yourself as a kind
person because of your acts of kindness. In
Ryle’s view, your actions define your own
concept of “self” (who you are).
PAUL CHURCHLAND
“The physical brain and NOT the imaginary
mind gives us our sense of self.”
Philosopher and professor Paul Churchland
is known for his studies in neurophilosophy
and philosophy of mind. His philosophy
stands on a materialistic view or the belief
that nothing but matter exists. In other
words, if something can be seen, felt, heard,
touched, or tasted, then it exists. There is
nothing beyond the sensory experience.
Thus, in Churchland’s view the immaterial,
unchanging soul/self does not exist because
it cannot be experienced by the senses.
Churchland insisted that the idea of a mind
or should is not be experienced by the
sense.
Churchland insisted that the idea of a mind
or soul is not in consonance with the
physical changes that have occurred in the
hereditary characteristics of the human
species idea successive generations.
Specifically, Churchland’s idea is called
eliminative materialism or the claim that
people’s common-sense understanding of
the mind (or folk psychology) is false, and
that certain classes of mental states which
most people believe in do not exists.
To prove his point, Churchland pointed out
that in mental conditions, such as
depression it is technically wrong to say
that the person is “out of his mind” because
neuroscientists have found that brain
activity, and even brain shape, appears to
be associated with severe mood disorders.
Moreover, he pointed out that in a severe
head injury, the victim’s personality
changes occur. He pointed out that if the
mind were a separate entity, then the
victim should have retained his/her
personality despite the damage to the brain.
Thus, Churchland asserted the sense of
“self” originated from the brain itself, and
that this “self” is a product of
electrochemical signals produced by the
brain.
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
“Physical body is an important part of the
self.”
Maurice Merleau-Ponty was a philosopher
and author. Emphasizing the body as the
primary site of knowing the world, Maurice
Merleau-Ponty’s idea of “self” is an
embodied subjectivity. The term
“embodied” is a verb that means to give a
body to (usually an immaterial substance
like a soul). Subjectivity, in philosophy, is
the state of being a subject- an entity that
possessed conscious experiences, such as
perspectives, feelings, beliefs, and desires.
Moreover, a subject acts upon or affects
some other entity, which in philosophy is
called the object. A subject, therefore, is
something that exists, can take action, and
can cause real effects (on an object).
Merleau-Ponty rejected the Cartesian
mind-body dualism and insisted that the
mind and body are intrinsically connected.
By emphasizing the primacy of the body in
an experience, he also veered away from
the established notion that the center of
consciousness is the mind.
He asserted that human beings are
embodied subjectivities, and that the
understanding of the “self” should begin
from this fundamental fact. He added that
the body is not a mere “house” where the
mind resides. Rather it is through the lived
experience of the body that you perceive;
are informed; and interact with the world.
Merleau-Ponty argued that the body is part
of the mind, and the mind is part of the
body; that although there could be a stand-
alone mental faculty that perceives what
the senses experience, it needs the body to
receive these experiences, act on its
perceptions, and communicate with the
external world. According to Merleau-Ponty,
the body acts what the mind perceives as a
unified one.
SOCIOLOGY
“Not only is the self entwined in society; it
owes society its existence in the most literal
sense.”
THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN
SOCIETY AMONG OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS
Sociologists are concerned with the
question about the person in the
community. For example, they ask
questions: “How does society influence
you?” “How do you affect society?” More
importantly, “Who are you as a person in
the community?”

Sociology posits that socially formed norms,
beliefs, and values come to exist within the
person to a degree where those become
natural and normal, thus, developing the
person’s self-identity.
Modernization has significantly changed
society, and this has affected how an
individual builds and develops his or her
self-identity.
Modernization has significantly changed
society and this has affected how an
individual builds and develops his or her
self-identity. Pre-modern society was
centered on survival. People behaved
according to social rules and traditions
while the family and the immediate
environment provided supervision on how
to get through life. Choosing where to live,
what line of work to do, and even who to
marry was very limited.
Modernization, however, has improved
people’s living conditions. A person ion the
modern society is free to choose where to
live, what to do, and who to be with.
However, stability has also decreased as
traditions and traditional support systems,
such as the family, have decreased in
importance. In modern societies,
individualism is dominant, and developing
one’s self-identity is central.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERNITY
According to Giddens (1991), the most
patent, major characteristics of modernity
are:
1. Industrialism, the social relations
implied in the extensive use of
material power and machinery in all
processes of production.
2. Capitalism, a production system
involving both competitive product
markets and the commodification
(putting price tag) of labor power.
3. Institutions of surveillance, the
massive increase of power and reach
by institutions, especially in
government.
4. Dynamism, the most evident
characteristics of a modern society.
Dynamism is characterized as having
vigorous activity and progress. In a
modern society, life is not a
predetermined path with limited
options based on locations, family, or
gender, it is a society full of
possibilities. Everything is subject to
change, and changes happen much
more rapidly than ever before in
human history.
SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIAL NETWORK
Sociologist George Simmel expressed that
people create social networks by joining
social groups, A social group is described as
having two or more people interacting with
one another, sharing similar characteristics,
and who members identify themselves as
part of the group. An example of a social
group is your family, your barkada, your
classmates. Meanwhile, social network
refers to the ties or connections that link
you to your social group (Khan Academy,
WEB). The connection you have with your
family is your blood relation; the
connection you have with your barkada is
your friendship; and the connection you
have with your classmates is the common
interest to learn.
A social group is either organic or rational.
An organic group is naturally occurring ,
and it is highly influenced by your family.
This is usually formed in traditional
societies because there is little diversity in
these communities. Sociologist George
Simmer stated that you join these groups
because your family is also part of it, in the
first place. He called it organic motivation.
Simmel noted that the positive effect of
organic groups is rootedness. This means
the foundation of the social network runs
deep, thus, giving the person a sense of
belongingness. The downside, however, is
that organic groups imply less freedom and
greater social conformity. You are expected
to act and behave according to your
community’s standard.
Rational groups occur in modern societies.
Modern societies are made up of different
people coming from different places. The
family in modern societies is not the main
motivation when joining rational social
groups. Rational groups are formed as a
matter of shared self-interests; moreover,
people join these groups out of their own
free will. Simmel called this rational
motivation. Rational groups imply greater
freedom, especially the freedom of
movement. Relationships based on self-
interest are not as embedded as organic
relationships. Interest change and when
they do, group members change. The
relationship between rational social
networks is tenuous, and the person feels
no meaningful connection with the others.
MEAD AND THE SOCIAL SELF
“A multiple personality is in a certain sense
normal.”
Have you ever watched someone do
something? Of course you have. Even as
babies we watch others, like mom or dad,
do something. Why do we do that? It’s how
we learn. We learn to do things; we learn
what’s safe and what’s not. When we
watch other people, we learn a lot about
ourselves. Moreover, when we watch
others. We also come to understand people.
We understand why they behave the way
they do; what identity they claim; and what
role they play in society.
On the other hand, while you get to know
yourself and understand others by
watching people, how can you understand
yourself? Can you “watch” yourself
objectively as you do the other? This is the
question that sociologist George Mead
explored.
George Herbert Mead was a sociologist
from the late 1800s. He is well known for
his “theory of the Social self.” Mead’s work
focused on how the “self” is developed. His
theory is based on the perspective that the
self is a product of social interactions and
internalizing the external views along with
the one’s personal view about oneself.
Mead believed the “self” us not present at
birth; rather it develops over time through
social experiences and activities.
DEVELOPING THE SELF
Mead developed a concept that proposed
different stages of self-development. These
stages are language, play, and game.
According to Mead, self-development and
language are intimately tied. Through
shared understanding of symbols, gestures,
and sound, language gives the individual
the capacity to express himself or herself
while at the same time comprehending
what the other people are conveying.
Language sets the stage for self-
development.
The second stage for self-development is
play. At this level individuals role-play or
assume the perspective of others. Role-
playing enables the person to internalize
some other people’s perspectives; hence,
he or she develops an understanding of
how the other people feel about
themselves in a variety of situation.
Meanwhile, the game stage is the level
where the individual not only internalizes
the other people’s perspectives, he or she
is also able to take into account societal
rules and adheres to it. According to Mead,
the self is developed by understanding the
rule, and one must abide it to win the game
or be successful at an activity.
TWO SIDES OF SELF: “I” AND “ME”
Mead sees the person as an active process,
not just a mere reflection of society. He
further proposed two interactive facets of
the self: “I” and “me”. The “me” and the “I”
have a didactic relationship, which is like a
system of checks and balances. According
to Mead, “me” is the product of what the
person has learned while interacting with
others and with the environment. Learned
behaviors, attitudes, and even expectations
comprise the “me.” The “me” exercises
social control over the self. It sees to it that
rules are not broken.
On the other hand, the “I” is that part of
the self that is unsocialized and
spontaneous. It is the individual’s response
to the community’s attitude toward the
person. The “I” presents impulses and
drives. It enables him or her to express
individualism and creativity. The “I” does
not blindly follow rules. It understands
when to possibly bend or stretch the rules
that govern social interactions. It constructs
a response based on what has been learned
by the “me.”
ANTHROPOLOGY
THE SELF AND THE PERSON IN
CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology is the study of people, past
and present. It focuses on understanding
the human condition in its cultural aspect.
In a general sense, anthropology is
concerned with understanding how
humans evolved and how they differ from
one another. Anthropology is a very
dynamic field, and anthropological
literature offers several different definitions
of “self”. This discussion, however, will
tackle the widely acceptable definitions of
“self” in modern anthropology.
A UNIT BUT UNITARY
One definition of “self” in modern
anthropology characterizes the term in its
most general, ordinary, and everyday use.
Anthropologist and professor, Katherine
Ewing (1990), described the self as
encompassing the “physical organism,
possessing psychological functioning and
social attributes.” This definition portrays
the “self” as implicitly and explicitly existing
in the mind comprised of psychological,
biological, and cultural processes
Neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux (2002)
conceptualized the implicit and explicit
aspects of the self. The aspect of the self
that you are consciously aware of is the
explicit self while the one that is not
immediately available to the consciousness
is the implicit aspect. This concept can be
traced to the famous psychologist Sigmund
Freud’s “level of consciousness;” however,
LaDoux’s view on how the “self” was
developed asserted that it is framed,
maintained, and affected biologically,
mentally, and socially. According ro LeDoux,
“the self is not static; it is added to and
subtracted from by genetic maturation,
learning, forgetting, stress, ageing, and
disease.” This is true of both the implicit
and explicit aspects of the self.
SELF AS REPRESENTATION
Ewing (1989) asserted that a “self” is
illusory. “People construct a series of self-
representations that are based on selected
cultural concepts of person and selected
‘chains’ of personal memories. Each self-
concept is experienced as whole and
continuous, with its own history and
memories that emerge in a specific context
to be replaced by another self-
representation when the context changes.”
By self-representation, Ewing meant
culturally shaped “self” concepts that one
applies to oneself; “it is the mental entities
that are supposed to represent the self”.
According to Ewing (1990), people from all
cultures have been observed to be able to
rapidly project different self-
representations, depending on the context
of the situation. The person is unaware of
these shifts; however, he/she will still
experience wholeness and continuity
despite these shifts.
 THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE relationships may be seen as voluntary or
as duty-based. In Western societies, it is
How individuals see themselves, how they essential for a person to choose whom to
relate to other people, and how they relate marry while some Eastern societies still
to the environment are deeply defined by practice arranged marriage.
culture. If one finds the view that the “self”
is a product of society, then it is plausible PERSONAL TRAITS
that the ways of how the self is developed
are bound to cultural differences as well. Culture influences whether (and how) you
value traits, like humility, self-esteem,
Culture anthropologists have argued that politeness, assertiveness, and so on, as well
the self is culturally shaped and infinitely as how you perceive hardship or how you
variable. “Cultural traditions and social feel about relying on others.
practices regulate, express, and transform
the human psyche, resulting less in psychic ACHEIVEMENT
unity for humankind than in ethnic
divergences in mind, self, and emotion”. Culture influences how you define success
The basic idea is that the principles of how and whether you value certain types of
the mind works cannot be conceived of as individual and group achievements.
universal, but that it is as varied as the
culture and traditions that people practice EXPRESSING EMOTIONS
all over the world.
Culture influences what will affect you
Cultural psychologists distinguished two emotionally, as well as how you express
ways of how the self is constructed. These yourself, such as showing your feelings in
are the independent and interdependent public or keeping it private.
constructs. These self-construals are also
embedded in culture. Construal is an
interpretation of the meaning of something;
PSYCHOLOGY
hence, in this sense, the meaning of “self.”
“The self thus becomes aware of itself, at
The independent construct is characteristic
least in its practical action, and discovers
of individualistic culture, such as in North
itself as a cause among other causes and as
America and Europe. Individualistic culture
an object subject to the same laws as other
represents the self as separate, distinct,
objects.”
with emphasis on internal attributes or
traits, skills, and values. The
THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTION
interdependent construct is typical of the
collectivist culture in East Asia stressing the
Psychology is the scientific study of how
essential connection between the
people behave, think, and feel. It includes
individual to other people.
topics, such as how the brain works, how
our memory is organized, how people
Developmental psychologist Catherine
interact in groups, and how children learn
Raeff (2010), believed that culture can
about the world. In fact, everything that
influence how you view: relationships,
concerns the human being is a concern of
personality traits, achievement, and
psychology. From the basic workings of the
expressing emotions.
human brain to consciousness, memory,
reasoning and language, to personality and
RELATIONSHIPS
mental health, and everything about the
human experience - Psychology will
Culture influences how you enter into and
scrutinize it so that you as human being will
maintain relationships. For example,
understand how it is to be “you.”

Online dictionaries define the term
cognitive as “of, relating to, being, or
involving conscious intellectual activity,
such as thinking, reasoning, or
remembering”. Self -theorists argue that it
is natural for humans to form theories
about themselves, both as a single entity
and as a group, to make meaning of one’s
existence and experience.
Psychologist Jean Piaget was a Swiss clinical
psychologist known for his pioneering work
in child development. He pioneered the
“theory of cognitive development,” a
comprehensive theory about the
development of human intelligence. The
theory deals with the nature of knowledge
itself; and how humans gradually come to
acquire, construct, and use it. According to
Piaget, cognitive development is a
progressive reorganization of mental
processes resulting from biological
maturation and environmental experience.
He believes that children construct an
understanding of the world around them,
experience inconsistencies between what
they already know and what they discover
in their environment, and then adjust their
ideas accordingly. Moreover, Piaget claims
that cognitive development is at the center
of the human organism. For example,
language is dependent on knowledge and
understanding, and the capacity to speak
and express oneself through language can
only be acquired through the development
of intelligence, conscious thought, and
problem-solving ability that begins in
infancy.
Piaget (1952) observed how children
processed and made sense of the world
around them and eventually developed a
four-stage model of how the mind
processes new information encountered.
There are three basic components to
Piaget’s cognitive theory. These are:
1. Schemas/schemes - these are the
building blocks of knowledge. Schemes
are mental organizations that
individuals use to understand their
environments and designate action.
2. Adaptation - it involves the child’s
learning processes to meet situational
demands.
3. Stages of Cognitive Development -
they reflect the increasing
sophistication of the child’s thought
process.
According to Piaget, the knowledge
children acquire is organized into schemas
(scheme) or groupings of similar actions or
thoughts. Over time, these schemes may
change, but the provide an important base
level of information about particular events,
objects, and information.
Furthermore, he describes two processes
used by the individual in his/her attempt to
adapt - assimilation and accommodation.
The individual uses both these processes to
adjust to his/her environment in an
increasingly complex manner.
Assimilation is the application of previous
concepts to new concepts. For example, a
child who was just learned the word “fish,”
shouts “fish!” upon seeing one.
Accommodation happens when people
encounter completely new information or
when existing ideas are challenged. For
example, a child knows dogs and cats. At
school, he/she learns the world “animals.”
The child will then adjust her understanding
that dogs and cats are both animals. People
often have to form a new schema or alter
existing mental categories to accommodate
new information.
In the “Stages of Cognitive Development,”
Piaget theorized that children progress
through 4 stages and that they all do so in
the same order. A brief summary of Piaget’s
four stages of cognitive development
appears below.
1. SENSORIMOTOR (Age: 0-2)
The children learns by doing: looking,
touching, sucking the child also has a
primitive understanding of cause-and-effect
relationships. Object permanence appears
around 9 months.
2. PREOPERATIONAL (Age: 2-7)
The children uses language and symbols,
including letters and numbers. Egocentrism
is also evident. Conservation marks the
end of the preoperational stage and the
beginning of concrete operations.
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONS (Age: 7-11)
The child demonstrates conservation,
reversibility, serial ordering, and a mature
understanding of cause-and-effect
relationship. Thinking at this stage is still
concrete.
4. FORMAL OPERATIONS (Age: 12+)
The individual demonstrates abstract
thinking at this stage is still concrete.
HARTER’S SELF-DEVELOPMENT
CONCEPT
Psychologist, author, and professor, Dr.
Susan Harter (1999) detailed the
emergence of self0concept and asserted
that the broad developmental changes
observed across early childhood, later
childhood, and adolescence could be
interpreted within a Piagetian framework.
Additionally, Harter expanded her self-
development concept until adulthood. The
development of self-concept according to
Harter is as follows:
1. Early childhood - the child describes
the “self” in terms of concrete,
observable characteristics, such as
physical attributes (“I’m
pretty/ugly/strong”), material
possessions (“I have lots of toys”), and
preferences (“I like candies”).
2. Middle to later childhood - the self is
described in terms of traitlike
constructs (e.g., smart, honest, friendly,
shy) that would require the type of
hierarchical organizational skills
characteristic of logical thought
development.
3. Adolescence - According to Harter, this
is the emergence of more abstract self-
definitions, such as inner thoughts,
emotions, attitudes, and motives. The
use of the abstract words sensitive,
outgoing, cheerful, and anxious as self-
portrait is consistent with Piaget’s
findings on the adolescent’s ability to
construct higher-order abstractions
and the capacity for introspection.
Example:
One 15-year-old girl in a study on self-
conceptions described herself as follows:
“What am I like as a person? Complicated!
I’m sensitive, friendly, outgoing, popular,
and tolerant though I can be shy, self-
conscious, even obnoxious.
4. Emerging adults - the marked
characteristics of “self” for emerging
adults is having a vision of a “possible
self.” It is the “age of possibilities.” In
one Australian study, early emerging
adulthood (ages 17-22) was found to
be a time of “grand dreams,” of being
wealthy and having a glamorous
occupation, but beyond emerging
adulthood (ages 28-33) the vision of a
possible-self became more realistic, if
still optimistic.
WILLIAM HAMES AND THE ME-SELF;
I-SELF
“The art of being wise is knowing what to
overlook,” cited by William James in the
groundbreaking masterpiece, The Principles
of Psychology, written in 1890. A figure
commonly known as “the father of
American psychology,” philosopher,
psychologist, and university professor,
William James gave one of the earliest self-
theory psychological analyses. According to
James (1950), the “self” has two elements:
the I-self and the Me-self.
I-self is the pure ego. It is the subjective self.
It is the “self” that is aware of its own
actions. The I-self characteristically has four
features. These are:
1. A sense of being the agent or initiator
of behavior - I believe my actions have
an impact; that I cause an effect in my
environment.
2. A sense of being unique - This is how I
am different from everything in my
environment; I perceive there is only
Me.
3. A sense of continuity - I am the same
person from day to day.
4. A sense of awareness about being
aware - I understand what is going on
in me and around me; and I know I
understand it.
The me-self is the self that is the object. It is
the “self” that you can describe, such as
your physical characteristics, personalities,
social role, or relationships, thoughts,
feelings. James called it in the empirical self.
Empirical is defined as “based on,
concerned with, or verifiable by
observation or experience rather than
theory or pure logic”.
The dimensions of the me-self include:
1. Material - physical appearance and
extensions of it such as clothing,
immediate family, and home.
2. Social - social skills and significant
interpersonal relationships.
3. Spiritual - personality, character,
defining values.
REAL AND IDEAL SELF-CONCEPTS
IDEAL SELF VS. REAL SELF
Rogers further divided the self into two
categories: the ideal self and the real self.
The ideal self is the person that you would
like yourself to be; it is your concept of the
“best me” who is worthy of admiration. It is
an idealized image of self that the
individual has developed based on what
you have learned and experienced. For
example, your parents are medical doctors
who are respected and admired in your
community. Observing your parents, you
conclude that to be happy, you need to be
smart and have a high-paying job. Your
ideal self may be someone who excels in
science subjects, spends a lot of time
studying, and does not get queasy easily.
The ideal self could include:
1. Notions influenced by your parents;
2. What you admire in others;
3. What the society sees as acceptable;
4. What you think is in your best interest.
The real self is the person you actually are.
It is how you behave right at the moment of
a situation. It is who you are in reality - how
you think, feel, or act at present.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ALIGNMENT
Rogers accentuated the need to achieve
consistency between the ideal self and the
real self. According to Rogers, “If the way
that I am (the real self) is aligned with the
way that I want to be (the ideal self), then I
will feel a sense of mental well-being or
peace of mind. In other words, when your
real self and ideal self are very similar you
experience congruence. High congruence
leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a
healthy, productive life”.
When there is a great inconsistency
between your ideal and real selves or if the
way you are is not aligned with what you
want to be, then you experience a state
Rogers called incongruence. He added that
congruence could lead to maladjustment.
Maladjustment is defined as the inability to
react successfully and satisfactorily to the
demands of one’s environment.
MULTIPLE VS UNIFIED SELVES
William James (1890) said, “Properly
speaking, a mani has as many social selves
as there are individuals who recognize him
and carry an image of him in their head.”
On the other hand, social psychologist Roy
Baumeister (2010) said, “But the concept of
the self loses its meaning if a person has
multiple selves… the essence of self
involves integration of diverse experiences
into a unity. In short, unity is one of the
defining features of selfhood and identity.”
These two statements represent one of the
oldest puzzles for psychologist in their
study of the “self.” The question is not just
“What is a “self”? but “Is there just one self
or there are many selves?” Most likely you
would say “of course there’s just one self.
There’s just me. I’m the one reading this
book.” True. This observation is justified
since there is only one physical body
reading the text. However, let us reflect
deeper. When you talk about “self” you are
not just talking about your physical body.
There is something in you that cannot be
reduced to biology, chemistry, or physical
body. Thus, the question “Who am I
(really)?” remains relevant then and now.
THE UNITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS
The human experience sis always that of
unity. For example, you dropped a hot pot
because you forgot to use a potholder. The
experience of feeling pain and dropping the
pot displays striking unity. It was you who
experienced both the pain and the act,
rather than a string of consciousness when
one part felt the pain and the other
dropped the pot. It was experienced by
“you” - a single, distinct, conscious entity in
the situation.
The unity of consciousness was a central
topic for classical modern philosophers
(from 1600s to 1900s). This idea was
pushed by Descartes, Kant, and James to
name a few. According to Rene Descartes,
the mind (that is the thinking, experiencing
being) is not made up of parts; thus, it
cannot be a physical substance because
anything material has parts. Descartes
claimes that this “being” is of unified
consciousness and not composed of
merged fragments.
There is also Immanuel Kant’s “unity of
consciousness” that can be described as “I
am conscious not only of single experiences
but of a great many experiences at the
same time. The same is true of actions; I
can do and be conscious of doing a number
of actions at the same time.
ONE SELF OR MANY SELVES
Contemporary psychological studies
challenged the notion of a single, distinct,
“only one” notion of self. Several major
personality theorists proposed that the
mind is made up of several sub-selves.
ALLPORT’S PERSONALITY THEORY
Psychologist Gordon Allport (1961)
proposed his “personality trait” theory
asserting that every person possesses
“traits.” According to Allport, a “trait” is
your essential characteristic that never,
ever changes and sticks with you all your
life. Moreover, these traits shape who you
are (how you think, feel, or behave, etc.) in
any given day.
THE EGO STATES
In 1960 psychiatrist Eric Berne began to
develop his transactional analysis model as
basis for understanding behavior.
Transactional analysis is anchored on two
notions:
1. Every person has three parts “ego
states” in his or her personality.
2. People communicate with one another
assuming roles of any of these ego
states.
Berne presented the ego states as:
1. Parent
2. Adult
3. Child
The parent ego state is the voice of
authority. It could be a comforting
“nurturing parent” voice or a
“controlling/critical parent” voice that tells
what you should or should not do.
The Adult ego state is the rational person. It
is the voice that speaks reasonably and
knows how to assert himself or herself.
There are three child ego states:
1. Natural child - who loves to play but is
sensitive and vulnerable.
2. Little professor - the curious child who
wants to try everything.
3. Adaptive child - the one who reacts to
the world. He or she could be trying to
fit in or is rebelling against authority.
DOMAINS OF THE SELF
University professor and author Gregg
Henriques proposed that the human self
has three related, but separable, domains.
These domains are:
1. Experientail self
2. Private self-conscious
3. Public self/persona
Henriques (2014) described the
“experiential self” as the theater of
consciousness because it is the first to
experience its beingness (the state or fact
of existing). he added that the experiential
self is closely tied to memory. The “private
self-conscious” can be described as the
narrator or interpreter. It is the self that
narrates the unfolding events and at the
same time tries to make sense of the
experience. The “public self or persona” is
the image you project to the public. This is
the image that interacts with others and
will influence how others see you.
TRUE VS FALSE SELVES
Imagine that people are like onions. The
center of the onion needs to be protected
by layers to be able to survive. At the
center of the onion lies our true self,
surrounded by layers we have developed
through our lives as protection. These
layers are our false self. Most of us need
our false selves as protection to survive
childhood, and we carry these layers with
us through our adult lives because these
protective layers help us endure.
In 1960, an English pediatrician and
psychoanalyst, D.W. Winnicott introduced
his concept of “false self” and “true self.”
According to Winnicott the “self” is simply
“the person who is me.” Winnicott also
proposed that the healthy core of a healthy
person’s self is hidden from the outside
world, uninfluenced by external (harsh)
realities. The false self is put up to defend
the core from these realities and prevent it
from any changes.
FALSE SELF
Winnicott expressed that the false self is
the product of early experience. It is a
defensive organization formed by the infant
because of inadequate mothering or
failures in empathy. He added that the false
self is developed as the infant is repeatedly
subjected to maternal care that introduces
upon, rejects, or abandons his or her
experience. The self is also based on being
completely obedient to the parent’s wishes.
Winnicott asserted that when the child is
constantly expected to follow rules, a false
self develops. The false self is a mask or a
persona. It is a form of defense that
constantly seeks to anticipate others
demands and complying with them, as a
way of protecting the true self from a world
that is felt to be unsafe.
However, when the person has false self
but still can function both as an individual
and in the society, then he or she has a
healthy false self. The healthy false self
feels that it is still connected with the true
self. Thus, it can be complaint without
feeling guilty that it abandoned and its true
self.
On the other hand, there is also the
unhealthy false self. An individual who may
seem happy and comfortable in his or her
environment but actually feels forced to fit
in and constantly needs to adjust his or her
behavior to adapt to the social situation is
said to have an unhealthy false self.
 TRUE SELF
The self flourishes in infancy if the mother
is positively responsive to the child’s
spontaneous expressions. Winnicott
described true self as a sense of “self” base
on “spontaneous authentic experience.” It
is an awareness that bodily functions are
working, such as the heart pumping, as well
as simply breathing. Moreover, true self,
according to Winnicott (1960), is part of the
infant that feels creative, spontaneous, and
real. It has a sense of integrity, of
connected wholeness. True self is a sens of
being alive and real in one’s mind and body,
having feelings that are spontaneous and
unforced. This experience of aliveness is
what allows people to be genuinely close to
others and to be creative.
Winnicott believed that people
unconsciously repeat early relationships
(particularly the mother-infant relationship)
in one form or another. A child whose
mother is positively responsive and
supportive the child’s natural process of
individuation will grow up as an adult with
a stable self-image; views other people
realistically; and accepts both the positive
and negative side of every person including
himself/herself.
THE SELF IN THE
EASTERN/WESTERN
PERSPECTIVE
Richard Shweder: “Cultural traditions and
social practices regulate, express, and
transform the human psyche, resulting less
psychic unity for humankind.”
THE DOMAINS OF THE WESTERN AND
EASTERN THOUGHTS AFFECTING THE SELF
Western Concept of The Self
− Anchored on ancient philosophers’
beliefs that the body constitutes
individuality
− Epitome of the Western idea of self
came from Rene Descartes’ famous
line “I think, therefore I am”
− Western tradition is generally
acknowledged to be “imbued” with a
style of thinking based on dichotomy
and binary opposition.
− Westerners often think that they can
separate from reality based on their
decisions and choices in life.
− There are 4 categories on how the
term “self” is used in contemporary
Western discussion according to Frank
Johnson:
1. Analytical – the “self” is an observer
separate and distinct from external
objects
2. Monotheistic – involved the tendency
toward unitary explanations of
phenomena and a closed system view
of “self”
3. Individualistic – Westerners prioritize
self-expression, establishing who one
is, self-actualization, and finding
satisfaction in the world
4. Materialistic/Rationalistic-
Westerners discredit explanations that
do not use analytic-deductive modes
of thinking. They always use logic to
explain things more than believing on
divinity or fantasy
Eastern Concept of The Self
− focuses to see the " self" as a dynamic
process. It is interdependent with a lot
of factors and dimensions and it is
everchanging
− rooted in various spiritual practices
such as Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, Taoism, and Islam
HINDUISM
− Vedas – the earliest religious writings
in the East; formed the Hindu
Philosophy and dharma – the principle
of cosmic order
Illustrate the eastern mindset of a
nondual universe but rather a
creation that is completely unified
with the creator, with no distinction.
− The Self or “Brahman” is the divine
universal consciousness encompassing
the universe.
− “Change your perception of the world
to perceive the Brahman in oneself
and in others.”BUDDHISM
− Taught by Buddha
− “self” is a dynamic process; it is
interdependent and ever-changing.
− Anatta – doctrine of Buddha, defined
as “no self or no-soul”; conceptualize
that the idea that the self is “eternal”
and “permanent” is false and an
illusion.
− Because of the tendency for human
beings to “stay the same” and
attached themselves to what they
can’t control, it causes one’s suffering
because the self is constantly changing
and we let the outside forces have an
effect on us.
CONFUCIANISM
− “self” is similar to psychology’s
personality – or the qualities that
make up one’s being.
− the self or the person’s character are
not something that exists inherently
but rather it is formed through
upbringing and the environment.
− Four beginnings (leads to full
potential):
Jen – heart of compassion
Yi – heart of righteousness
Li – heart of propriety
Chih – heart of wisdom
When all of the four beginnings reach full
potential, one achieves a state of moral
excellence.
TAOISM
− stems from Chuang Tzu which rejected
the views that self is part of a hierarchy
− Chuang-Tzu said “the perfect man has
no self; the spiritual man has no
achievement; the true sage has no
name”
− his principle is focused on selflessness
− selfhood entails conscious self-
transformation leading to the
attributes of a balanced life in
harmony with both nature and society
ISLAM
− Qur’an – the bible of Islam people
− Nafs – the term for the “self”; pertains
to the psyche (the totality of the
conscious and unconscious human
mind) or the soul.
− The Qur’an does not define any
property of it as goodness or evil.
− The Naf is something that needs to
nurtured and balanced so that it can
progress into becoming good or evil
through its thoughts and actions.
− self in the Islam sense is used in both
individualistic and collective.
Individualistic Self and Collectivistic Self
− are two dominant self-concepts that is
highly formed by culture.
Culture plays a very significant role
in the development of the self-
concept. It embodies specific values,
thoughts, or ideas that play a
central role in determining a
person’s sense of “self”
Individualistic Self
• Individualism – the extent that you value
independence and personal uniqueness
• Individualistic people – value personal
freedom, selfsufficiency, control over their
own lives, and appreciation of the unique
qualities that distinguish them from others
• Dominant in cultures in the USA,
Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the
Netherlands, and New Zealand.
• These cultures emphasize the moral
worth of the individual.
• highly value independence and self-
reliance
• value personal goals over group interest
most of the time

Collectivistic Self
• Collectivism – the extent that we value
our duty to groups to which we belong, and
to group harmony
• Collectivist people – define themselves
by their group membership and value
harmonious relationships within those
groups
• Eastern culture practiced by countries in
Asia base their values and self-concept in a
collectivist view
• emphasize interdependence and
harmonious relatedness with one another
• it is of utmost importance to be part of
and maintain social networks, maintain
good relationships, and fulfill obligations
PATRICIA LICAUCAN - Filipino psychologist
and educator
− determined that one of the strengths
of the Filipino character is our deep
love and concern for the family – not
just your immediate family but
extending to your extended family
such as you grandparents, uncles,
aunts, cousins, etc. (collectivist culture)
Individualistic Vs. Collective Self
− In a collectivist culture, the person
would present “the collective self”
more and is thus more inclined to
behave according to rules, norms, and
customs expected of him/her.The Self
as embedded in Relationships and
through Spiritual Development in
Confucian Thought
− Confucian tradition - way of thinking
and lifestyle as inspiration to many
East Asian Societies.
− The Confucian concept of Li - “proper
conduct” or “propriety”; originally
denoted as court rites or rituals
performed to sustain social and cosmic
order
− Confucian sense: Self-development is a
lifelong commitment to learning.
However, it is not only about reading
books or taking exams, it is also about
ritual practice. It involves practicing
discipline for the mind and body to
love life not as an isolated individual
but as an active participant in the living
community.
− Most important concept of the self in
Confucian thought: the “self” is the
center of relationships.

ROY BAUMEISTER - proposed that self-

concept could be organized in three
aspects:
1. Private – refers to the mental processes
that perceive one’s own traits or behaviors
2. Public – refers to the generalized view of
the self, such as the perception of how
others view you
3. Collective – refers to the view of self in a
collective concept

− It is assumed that these three aspects

exist in every person. However, a
dominant aspect would probably
present itself depending on one’s
culture.
− In an individualistic culture, the
person would predominantly show the
private self and will have according to
personal beliefs, feelings, philosophy,
etc.