HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC & CÔNG NGHỆ TRẺ BÁCH KHOA 2023
SVPFIEV-2023-KTGT-03
Numerical investigation of electrospray cone-
jet mode characteristic dependence on
electrode configuration
Nguyen Vu Nhat Minh, Chau Thien Thuan, Nguyen Thi Khanh Ly, Dang Anh Phuong, and Ngo
Khanh Hieu
Abstract—Electrospray, also known
Electrohydrodynamic Atomization (EHDA), is a
process where aerosols are generated by applying a
high voltage to a liquid. The process involves the
deformation of the liquid's surface into a cone shape
when exposed to a strong electric field, resulting in
the formation of a jet that breaks up into charged
droplets of micro or nanoscale. This complex
physical process has diverse applications, including
drug delivery, 3-D printing, and the design of space
thrusters, due to its affordability, high efficiency, and
controllability over other methods.
electrospray's operational regime is adjustable
through various parameters like voltage, flow rate of
the liquid, and the distance of spraying, with the
single cone-jet mode being preferred for its stability,
manageability, and superior production rate. The
study presented in the article examines the dynamics
of the cone-jet mode in two distinct setups through
numerical analysis with OpenFOAM. It employs a
solver derived from the Taylor-Melcher leaky-
dielectric model, which is integrated with the VOF
technique for tracking interfaces, to conduct the
simulations. The research reveals that the design of
the electrode configurations influences the
enhancement of the electric field and the pattern of
liquid deposition.
Keywords: Electrospray, electrode configurations,
CFD, OpenFOAM, cone-jet.
I. INTRODUCTION
E LECTROSPRAY is a method that employs
electrohydrodynamic principles, where an
electric field influences the movement of fluids.
This technique involves applying a high voltage to
a liquid that is emitted through a narrow tube. By
manipulating the liquid's surface, it can be finely
stretched until it separates into tiny droplets, much
smaller than the nozzle's opening. Electrospray
operates in various modes such as micro-dripping,
spindle, cone-jet, and multi-jet. Operating modes
are determined by several factors including the
voltage level, flow rate, configuration of
electrodes, and the liquid's properties.
1
as Cone-jet mode is an operational mode in
electrospray. When a small volume of electrically
conductive liquid is exposed to an electric field,
the shape of liquid starts to deform. When this
effect of the electric field begins to exert a force on
the droplet is identical to the surface tension does,
a cone shape begins to form with convex sides and
a rounded tip. This approaches the shape of a cone
with a whole angle (width) of 98.6° [1]. For the
formation of a consistent cone-jet, it is necessary
The
to utilize a voltage that is marginally above the
minimum required level. The rate at which the
liquid is fed into the system for a consistent cone-
jet is determined by the electrode’s configurations,
interelectrode distance and the liquid’s properties.
Electrospray techniques often prefer the cone-jet
mode because it produces droplets of uniform size
reliably and steadily. Owing to these qualities, the
cone-jet mode finds utility in a range of
applications, including mass spectrometry for the
study of biological molecules, targeted drug
delivery systems for conditions like asthma and
cancer, colloid thrusters that generate propulsion
by the electrostatic acceleration of charged liquid
droplets, and electronic jet printing technologies
[2,3,4].
The phenomenon of electrospray was first noted
by William Gilbert in the 17th century [5].
Subsequent in-depth investigations have been
documented, notably in Rayleigh's paper [6],
Zeleny's research [7], and Taylor and Melcher's
work [1,8], which detailed the
electrohydrodynamic event's essential
experimental and theoretical characteristics. Taylor
and Melcher also proposed the leaky-dielectric
mathematical model to elucidate the connection
between the physical elements involved and to
estimate the force impacting the liquid's surface.
Hayati et al. [9] outlined the various spraying
methods, while Jaworek [10] categorized them.
HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC & CÔNG NGHỆ TRẺ BÁCH KHOA 2023 2
The cone-jet mode was initially identified by Sir conservation of mass and the laws of motion:
Geoffrey Ingram Taylor in 1964 [1]. Experiments 
by Cloupeau and Prunet-Foch [11] established + .(  u) = 0, (1)
electrical and fluidic parameters needed for
t
 u 
consistent cone-jet formation in specific liquids. In
  + (u.)u  = −p +  2u + f + fe +  g,
1999, Noymer and Garel [12] examined the  t 
stability and atomization qualities of cone-jets, (2)
while Hartman [13] focused on the break-up
where ρ is fluid density, t is time, u the fluid
patterns of jets within the cone-jet electrospray
velocity, p is the pressure, μ is the fluid viscosity,
mode. Gañán-Calvo [14] introduced a scaling law
for electrosprays in 2004. More recently, and g is the gravitational acceleration, fσ is the
computational studies have preferred using surface tension force, and fe is the electrostatic
COMSOL Multiphysics and OpenFOAM for force. The last two terms are added to represent the
electrohydrodynamic effect on our model.
simulations of cone-jet electrosprays, with Singh
The surface tension force is calculated per unit
and Subramanian [15] developing a model to
volume by utilizing the continuum surface model
predict the ejection behavior of micro/nano jets (CSF) [17],
from small-scale nozzles. Their research also
delved into how voltage, flow rate, and fluid
f =  , (3)
characteristics affect jet dynamics and Luan et al. where σ is the surface tension, κ is the mean
[16] developed an OpenFoam solver to investigate curvature of the free surface, and γ is the phase
liquid wetting and corona discharge effects. fraction of liquid. The mean curvature of free
Research on electrode configuration's impact on surface is obtained by,
cone-jet formation remains sparse, but current   
findings suggest that optimal nanoscale printing  = −.   , (4)
involves a highly conductive fluid, low flow rates,   
small nozzles, and high voltage application. Fluid density and viscosity are calculated based on
The objective of this study is to conduct a phase fraction value using the following equation,
numerical analysis of two distinct electrode  = l + a (1 −  ), (5)
arrangements: point-to-plane and point-to-ring,
using OpenFoam software. The research utilizes a  = l + a (1 −  ), (6)
solver derived from the Taylor-Melcher leaky- ρl is the fluid density of fluid, ρa is the fluid
dielectric model, in conjunction with the Volume density of air, μl is the viscosity of liquid, μa is the
of Fluid (VOF) technique for monitoring the viscosity of air.
interface. The findings demonstrate a strong The electrostatic force fe is calculated using the
agreement between the simulation outcomes and governing equation in electrostatic regime. The
the pre-existing scaling laws, indicating the first that will be used is the Gauss’s Law,
significant role of electrode configuration on the .( E) =  e , (7)
electric field's behavior.
with the Eq. (7) become Poisson’s
II. GOVERNING EQUATION equation for electrostatics,
e
The electrospray technique is based on  2 ( ) = − , (8)
electrostatic and fluid dynamic theories. This study 
utilizes the Taylor-Melcher leaky-dielectric model with ε is permittivity of the fluids, ϕ is the electric
to explore how different electrode arrangements potential and ρe is the charge density. The
influence the cone-jet formation in electrospray. conversation of charge equation is accounted for,
Within this model, the liquid is treated as a e
+ .J = 0, (9)
dielectric material, and the movement of free
t
electrons to the boundary between the liquid and
where is current density, which is a combination
air generates electrical tension. This tension is
of ohmic charge conduction and charge convection
counteracted by the forces due to the liquid's due to fluid flow,
viscosity, which also alters the interface's
e
configuration. The equations that describe the + .( eu) + . ( e E ) = 0, (10)
movement of the fluid in this model are those of t
HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC & CÔNG NGHỆ TRẺ BÁCH KHOA 2023 3
with κe is the electric conductivity of the fluid, the
electrical conductivity and the electrical
permittivity are defined by harmonic averages
throughout the computational region,
1  1− 
= + , (11)
 l a
1  1− 
= + , (12)
e e e l a

electrostatic force for incompressible fluid can be

derived from thermodynamic considerations
provided by Melcher [18],
1 2
fe = e E − E  , (13)
2
the first term on the right hand side is Coulomb Figure 1. Flow chart of the numerical solver
force, the second term is the polarization force This research studies two distinct electrode
arise from force exerted by an electric field on a configurations to examine their impact on the cone
non-homogeneous dielectric fluid or the jet's behavior. The first configuration is a nozzle-
polarization charge at the interface between fluid to-plane setup, delineated in Figure 2, where a 1.3
phases with different dielectric properties [19, 20], mm gap separates the nozzle and the plane
0 (outside the liquid) electrode. Here, the nozzle acts as the anode with a

F ( x, y, z, t ) = 1 (inside the liquid) , designated potential , while the ring electrode is
 0,  1 ground electrode. The second configuration is a
 (on the interface) nozzle-to-ring configuration, which incorporates a
(14) ring as the counter electrode and is dimensionally
The volume of fluid (VOF) method is used to track akin to the former setup. Both cases utilize an
the fluid-air interface. This model used a volume axisymmetric 2D model to simplify the result and
fraction function F which is defined as follow, reduce computational resources.
To represent the kinematic condition at the liquid-
air interface, the equation governed the volume
fraction function F is,
dF
+ .( Fu) = 0, (15)
dt

III. NUMERICAL METHOD

This study employs the interFoam solver to
examine the dynamics of the cone-jet mode when
subjected to various electrode arrangements.
interFoam is a part of the OpenFoam open-source
software package, widely used for simulating and
analyzing complex fluid flow and heat transfer
problems. interFoam is specifically designed for
the simulation of two non-mixing fluids, such as
air and water and oil or gas. The solver utilizes the
Volume-of-Fluid (VOF) approach for accurately
tracking the interface of the two distinct fluids.
Additionally, it integrates an electrostatic solver
that works in tandem with the interFoam solver,
sequentially addressing each time step. The
procedural methodology of the solver is depicted
in the flow chart provided as Figure 1.
Figure 2. Schematic of the nozzle-to-plane
model used in this simulation.
HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC & CÔNG NGHỆ TRẺ BÁCH KHOA 2023 4
Properties Air Ethanol
Density ρ
1.225 800
(kg/m3)
Dynamic
viscosity μ 1.813x10-5 0.0011
(Pa.s)
Surface
tension σ NAN 0.022
(N/m)
Dielectric
1 23
constant εr
Conductivity
1x10-12 5.1x10-6
κe (S/m)
Figure 3. Meshing description of nozzle-to-plane
simulation Table. 2. Properties of Air and Ethanol
The electrodes are wall-type, which are
surrounded by atmospheric boundaries, with IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
specific conditions outlined in Table 1. Table 2 Various parameters are found to affect the
presents the physical attributes of air and ethanol behavior of the electrospray's cone-jet mode, such
employed in the simulations. Notably, the flow's as the voltage applied, the rate of fluid flow, the
Reynolds number within the nozzle is well below gap between electrodes, the dimensions of the
the threshold for transitional flow, so we nozzle, and the configurations of the electrodes.
exclusively used the laminar flow model. For The focus of this research is to explore how the
efficiency in computational resource, it's presumed configuration of electrodes impacts the cone-jet
that the fluid interface adopts a pre-formed curved formation in an electrospray system. Specifically,
configuration upon voltage initiation. the study examines the effects of using a flat
Electro- electrode versus a ring-shaped electrode.
Boundary Fluid flow static In the case of the ring electrode, a voltage of 2.8
field kilovolts is applied at the nozzle, with a flow rate
that can be adjusted between 1 and 5 milliliters per
hour. For the plane electrode, the voltage at the
Inlet nozzle is higher, set at 4 kilovolts, and the flow
rate is set to a lower range, from 0.75 to 2
milliliters per hour. These specific settings were
Outlet selected as they fall within the functional range for
the cone-jet mode operation.
Nozzle's
wall
Electrode
Atmospheric
Table. 1. Boundary condition

Figure 4. Comparison of jet diameter variation

with flow rate between electrode configurations
HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC & CÔNG NGHỆ TRẺ BÁCH KHOA 2023 5
Upon examining the point-to-plane and point-
to-ring electrode configurations, several distinct
differences are evident. The electrical potential
difference is notably higher in the point-to-plane
configuration compared to the point-to-ring
configuration. Additionally, the flow rates that the
plane electrode can accommodate are less
extensive than those of the ring electrode.
However, despite these variations in electrical
potential and flow rate capabilities, the cone-jet
patterns produced in simulations are quite similar
for both configurations. It's likely that the edge of
7 ms 8 ms 9 ms
the ring electrode enhances the electric field
strength in the vicinity of the Taylor cone. This
Figure 5. 3D simulation depicting cone-jet intensified electric field could potentially lower the
formation in ring electrode configuration, at a flow voltage difference needed to achieve the cone-jet
rate of 3 milliliters per hour, captured at various mode. Moreover, the amplified electric field might
time intervals. also support a broader and more intense range of
flow rates.
Figure 6 clearly shows that when the flow rate is
at its highest for both electrode setups, the
resulting jet diameters are considerably more
unstable during the simulation period than those
observed at lower flow rates, as depicted in Figure
5. Moreover, there's a steep increase in the jet
diameter at this maximum flow rate, which is a
stark contrast to the more moderate increase shown
in Figure 4, indicative of a pulsating operational
state. This pulsating behavior is linked to the
increased flow rate under constant voltage, which
7 ms 8 ms 9 ms
pushes the cone-jet into a pulsating state. In
electrospray, the pulsating state emerges when the
Figure 6. 3D simulation depicting cone-jet flow rate surpasses a specific threshold, leading to
formation in ring electrode configuration, at a flow the disappearance of the droplets' regular spherical
rate of 5 milliliters per hour, captured at various form at the capillary's exit, replaced by large,
time intervals. spindle-shaped liquid fragments stretched by
electrical forces, as referenced in [10]. In this
phase, the shape of the meniscus oscillates
between a rounded hemisphere and a pointed
Taylor cone shape, driven by the interplay between
surface tension and electrical forces on the ions.
The ions' electrostatic forces shape the meniscus
into a cone, which then ejects a stream, dispersing
many of the ions from the vicinity of the surface.
As a result, the electrical forces diminish, and the
surface tension restores the meniscus to its
rounded state. Subsequently, ions accumulate at
the meniscus once more, leading to the
7 ms 8 ms 9 ms reformation of the cone shape, and this cycle
continues. This pulsating state is also known as the
spindle mode, as cited in [21], and is clearly
Figure 7. 3D simulation depicting cone-jet visible in Figure 6.
formation in plane electrode configuration, at a
flow rate of 1.5 milliliters per hour, captured at
V. CONCLUSION
various time intervals.
This study explored how varying electrode designs
impact the Taylor cone-jet formation using a
HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC & CÔNG NGHỆ TRẺ BÁCH KHOA 2023 6
computational approach. Numerical analyses were [9] I. Hayati, A. I. Bailey, and T. F. Tadros, "Mechanism of
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT of electrohydrodynamic jetting for printing nano-to-
microscopic constructs,” RSC Advances, vol. 10, no. 42, 2020,
This research is funded by Ho Chi Minh City pp. 25022–25028.
University of Technology (HCMUT), VNU-HCM [16] Luan Ngoc Mai, Trung Hieu Vu, Thien Xuan Dinh, Hoai
under grant number SVPFIEV-2023-KTGT-03. Duc Vu, Canh-Dung Tran, Van Thanh Dau, and Hieu Khanh
Ngo, “Numerical study of electrohydrodynamic atomization
We are deeply thankful to Mr. Mai Ngoc Luan for considering liquid wetting and corona discharge effects,”
his invaluable assistance in conducting the Physics of Fluids, vol. 35, no. 6, 2023.
simulations for our research. We acknowledge the [17] E. Berberović, N. P. van Hinsberg, S. Jakirlić, I. V.
support of time and facilities from HCMUT, Roisman, and C. Tropea, “Drop impact onto a liquid layer of
finite thickness: Dynamics of the cavity evolution,” Physical
VNU-HCM for this study. Review E, vol. 79, no. 3, 2009.
[18] J. R. Melcher, Continuum Electromechanics. MIT Press
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HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC & CÔNG NGHỆ TRẺ BÁCH KHOA 2023 7

SVPFIEV-2023-KTGT-03

Khảo sát sự ảnh hưởng của cấu hình phun

lên đặc tính hoạt động của công nghệ phun
tĩnh điện bằng phương pháp số
Nguyễn Vũ Nhật Minh, Châu Thiên Thuận, Nguyễn Thị Khánh Ly, Đặng Anh Phương, Ngô
Khánh Hiếu
Tóm tắt: Phun tĩnh điện, hay còn gọi là Phân tử hóa thủy điện động, là một quá trình mà các hạt sương được tạo
ra khi một hiệu điện thế được áp vào một chất lỏng. Quá trình làm biến dạng bề mặt chất lỏng thành hình nón khi tiếp
xúc với điện trường mạnh, dẫn đến sự hình thành của một tia chất lỏng và vỡ thành các giọt chất lỏng tích điện có
kích thước micro hoặc nano. Quá trình vật lý này có nhiều ứng dụng đa dạng, bao gồm phân phối thuốc, in 3-D và
thiết kế máy đẩy không gian, nhờ chi phí rẻ, hiệu quả cao và khả năng kiểm soát tốt so với các phương pháp khác.
Các chế độ hoạt động của phun tĩnh điện có thể điều chỉnh được thông qua nhiều thông số khác nhau như điện áp, tốc
độ dòng chảy của chất lỏng và khoảng cách phun, với chế độ phun tia hình nón đơn được ưu tiên hơn vì tính ổn định,
khả năng kiểm soát và tốc độ sản xuất vượt trội. Bài viết này xem xét đặc tính động lực học của chế độ phun tia hình
nón trong hai cấu hình riêng biệt thông qua phân tích số với phần mềm OpenFOAM. Nó sử dụng một bộ giải có
nguồn gốc từ mô hình điện môi rò rỉ Taylor-Melcher, được tích hợp với kỹ thuật VOF để theo dõi các giao diện, và
thực hiện mô phỏng. Nghiên cứu cho thấy rằng thiết kế cấu hình điện cực ảnh hưởng đến việc tăng cường điện trường
và mô hình lắng đọng chất lỏng.
Từ khóa: Phun tĩnh điện, cấu hình điện cực, CFD, OpenFoam, tia phản lực hình nón