Advanced Robust Nonlinear Control

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Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 384

Moussa Labbadi
Yassine Boukal
Mohamed Cherkaoui

Advanced Robust
Nonlinear Control
Approaches
for Quadrotor
Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle
Roadmap to Improve Tracking-Trajectory
Performance in the Presence of External
Disturbances
Studies in Systems, Decision and Control

Volume 384

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland
The series “Studies in Systems, Decision and Control” (SSDC) covers both new
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Moussa Labbadi · Yassine Boukal ·
Mohamed Cherkaoui

Advanced Robust Nonlinear

Control Approaches
for Quadrotor Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle
Roadmap to Improve Tracking-Trajectory
Performance in the Presence of External
Disturbances
Moussa Labbadi Yassine Boukal
Engineering for Smart and Sustainable Department of Aeronautics, Space
Systems Research Center, Mohammadia and Defense
School of Engineers Capgemini Engineering
Mohammed V University in Rabat Toulouse, France
Rabat, Morocco

Mohamed Cherkaoui
Engineering for Smart and Sustainable
Systems Research Center, Mohammadia
School of Engineers
Mohammed V University in Rabat
Rabat, Morocco

ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic)

Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
ISBN 978-3-030-81013-9 ISBN 978-3-030-81014-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81014-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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This work is dedicated to
My brother Mohamed LABBADI, deceased in
the prime of his life. May Allah, the Almighty,
have him in his holy mercy!
—Moussa Labbadi

My father Larbi BOUKAL, who passed away

too early, and who always pushed and
motivated me in my studies. May God, the
Almighty, have him in his holy mercy!
—Yassine Boukal
Preface

The present book aims to develop and design some robust nonlinear flight control
strategies for the quadrotor UAV (QUAV) system in the presence of external distur-
bances, and the system uncertainties. This book presents new control approaches to
synthesize the nonlinear control of the trajectory of the QUAV. Despite a rich litera-
ture, the problem has not yet been adequately addressed and it is difficult to provide
high-precision flight path following in the presence of these disturbances. This work
proposed robust control techniques to achieve adequate set-point tracking of different
complex trajectories of QUAV and unknown disturbance rejection with smoother
control action. Based on sliding mode control (SMC) theory, backstepping technique,
fractional-order calculus, and adaptive laws, tracking methods are presented for the
QUAV. The main motivations of this book are given by the following points:
1. Designing a control strategy for QUAV to meet certain requirements (precision,
minimum energy consumption, and simple structure) poses an additional chal-
lenge. Also, the design of flight controllers for these multi-rotor drones presents
three important challenges: (i) the vehicle dynamics are multi-input, multi-output
(MIMO) and strongly nonlinear coupled; (ii) the dynamics of the quadrotor
involve various sources of uncertainties, including parametric uncertainties,
unmodeled uncertainties, and external disturbances; (iii) there are multiple states
varying over time and entry delays into control systems. So, this book proposes
robust flight control schemes against these perturbations.
2. In the presence of external disturbances, the trajectory following performance
of the QUAV may be degraded, and its dynamic systems may also lead to insta-
bility. The coupling between the position and attitude of the QUAV increases the
stability problem with satisfied performance. Hence, disturbances that affected
the QUAV system should be considered in the design of the flight controller to
enhance the QUAV control performance. The high-order SMC is usually applied
to nonlinear complex systems under disturbances. The super-twisting and its
version controls are successfully adapted to nonlinear systems.
3. It is generally known that the SMC technique applied for QUAV is robust control,
but does not guarantee finite time convergence. Also, the system uncertainties can

vii
viii Preface

degrade the control performance. As a result, the nonlinear sliding mode variables
are designed and parametric uncertainties are rejected to enhanced the perfor-
mance of the closed-loop system. In addition, some control laws are developed
to guarantee the sliding mode of the QUAV states in the initial time. Therefore,
the development of hybrid finite-time control and global SMC is significant for
the control of QUAV systems with perturbations.
4. Design adaptive laws with finite-time control of the errors to zero of the QUAV
in the presence of disturbances and uncertainties are a challenging problem for
this type system. Therefore, considering these control problems and guaranteeing
the finite-time stability as well as specific criteria such as perturbation rejec-
tion and robustness to the parametric uncertainties of the system are very signif-
icant for the QUAV. Also, the upper bound of these perturbations is assumed
to be known in advance: in reality, this limit is unknown and difficult to deter-
mine. Moreover, it is a challenging problem to develop the control laws for
addressing these perturbations and guarantee the finite-time stability. Therefore,
time-varying SMC, terminal SMC, and nonsingular terminal SMC schemes with
adaptive laws need to be further studied for QUAV systems in the presence of
external wind disturbances and parametric uncertainties.
5. The design of robust nonlinear controls with the fractional-order dynamics
such as high-order SMC, TSMC, nonsingular TSMC, backstepping techniques,
the path following of the QUAV is realized and better robustness can be
obtained against parametric uncertainties and perturbations. These flight control
methods are important when the QUAV is affected by unknown complex distur-
bances during flight missions. The control performance of these fractional-order
controllers may be better than integer controllers. Therefore, it is important to
study these control schemes for the QUAV. The control performance including the
transient and steady states of the tracking errors should be enhanced for the QUAV
in the presence of unknown disturbances to minimize the consummation error
energy. The study uses robust nonlinear controllers including fractional dynamics
of these actions. Using these, the above performance can be improved under the
effect of disturbances.
The main contributions of the research work carried out in this book are shown
as follows:
Firstly, on the basic of the result research on the high-order SMC for the QUAV,
a combination of the integral SMC with the super-twisting algorithm to eliminate
the reticence phenomenon is presented. This control method is proposed to stabilize
the QUAV to follow a path in the presence of perturbations. Vehicle state variables
converge to their desired values in a short time at a specified time. In order to increase
the robustness of the control system, a new optimization is used to adjust the proposed
controller parameters. In addition, a novel modified super-twisting is combined with
the nonlinear sliding mode controller to improve the stabilization of this vehicle under
time-varying disturbances. Using nonlinear sliding mode variables, fast convergence
of position/attitude outputs is established. This control technique offers some perfor-
mance such as rejection of disturbances and reduction of chattering phenomenon.
Preface ix

The proposed control methods utilize the Lyapunov theory to prove the stability of
the system. To demonstrate the effectiveness of these control approaches, numerical
simulations are given.
Secondly, for the path following of the QUAV under unknown disturbances, a
hybrid finite-time control technique is proposed, which combines by three control
algorithms including integral terminal sliding mode control for attitude subsystem,
adaptive backstepping for altitude channel, and backstepping for horizontal position.
To eliminate the reaching phase and ensure sliding mode of the state variables of the
QUAV, a robust controller is designed which tacking account the initial time. Also, the
upper bound of these perturbations is addressed using the proposed control approach.
The obtained results in the presence of disturbances demonstrate the robustness of
the proposed controllers. Also, these obtained results are compared with nonlinear
controllers.
Thirdly, a robust approach to controlling the QUAV has been proposed. The control
technique is designed on the basis of on-line estimators of the dynamic parameters.
These adaptation methods make it possible to improve the control performance of
this system, and to compensate for the parametric errors due to the coupling of the
position with the orientation of the QUAV. The suggested control method is based on
the backstepping fast terminal SMC and a new version of the adaptive backstepping.
The on-line rules are presented to estimate exactly some unknown parameters caused
by wind gust and other factors. To assess/emphasize the efficacy of the proposed
control methods for the QUAV, various simulations under various scenarios in terms
of external perturbations and parametric uncertainties are performed. A compar-
ison analysis clearly demonstrates that the proposed control schemes outperform the
competition.
Fourthly, it should be noted that all research works have focused on adaptive
upper bound uncertainty estimation using terminal SMC and fast terminal SMC
techniques. In this view, a second control approach is proposed using a new adap-
tive nonsingular fast terminal SMC controller (ANFTSMC) for the QUAV under
complex perturbations. The main advantage ANFTSM control is the avoidance of
singularity, the rapidity when states are far from the origin, and the high robustness
against system uncertainty and external disturbances. Also, this controller ensures
fast convergence, avoids singularities, resolves the reticence effect, and offers robust-
ness against unknown external perturbations and uncertainties. In addition, the
upper limit of uncertainty and unknown external perturbations of the system are
covered by the proposed control approach. On-line estimation of these upper limits
is introduced only by velocity and position measurements. Various simulations under
different scenarios in terms of external perturbations and parametric uncertainties are
performed to assess/emphasize the effectiveness of the proposed control methods for
the QUAV. A comparative study clearly shows the outperformance of the proposed
control schemes.
Fifthly, the aerodynamics disturbances, parametric uncertainties, and noise
measurements are considered for the design of adaptive global time-varying SMC
(RAGTVSMC) for the trajectory tracking of the QUAV under the random distur-
bances/uncertainties. The problem of initial control effort and reaching phase is
x Preface

addressed by the proposed controller. Designing time-varying sliding manifolds for

the QUAV system meet the impact time and given the convergence in a specific time
of the state variables in the presence of disturbances. In addition, the upper bound of
these perturbations is addressed by designing the adaptive laws using only velocity
and position of the tracking errors. To demonstrate the effeteness of the RAGTVSMC
method, simulations are conducted.
Sixthly, an improved FO control is proposed for the QUAV to solve the problems
in the control of this vehicle including disturbances, uncertainties, and the variations
of the drag coefficients. The FO control method uses super-twisting based on FO
integral sliding mode variables to improve the tracking performance. Also, a generic
switching law with FO dynamic is designed for the QUAV to address the distur-
bances. The corresponding controllers with fractional calculus ensure high precision,
fast convergence, and good robustness against perturbations. Good scenarios under
different situations in the flight are proposed to evaluate the efficiency of the FO
control method, and its numerical results show better performance compared with
other control strategies.
Seventhly, motivated by the advantage of the finite-time stability in the control
theory and fractional calculus, a FO global SMC approach is proposed for the control
problem of the uncertain QUAV under complex disturbances. This presented method
uses the specific sliding manifolds to ensure faster convergence speed and weakening
error. The global stabilization with a specific time of the QUAV under disturbances is
guaranteed based on Lyapunov theory. Finally, simulations included a good compar-
ison with robust controllers are performed to check the correctness of theoretical
analysis.
The nonlinear SMC such nonsingular fast TSMC with FO operators enhances
the tracking performance of the QUAV against random disturbances/uncertainties
and other perturbations. Also, adaptive control law is developed to augment the
robustness of the proposed FO control method in the presence of disturbances. The
designed control technique ensures high accuracy and fast speed for the QUAV.
Using FO nonsingular fast terminal sliding manifolds, a finite-time convergence of
the tracking errors is achieved.
The present book intends to provide the readers an excellent understanding on
how to obtain the robust controller path following approaches for the QUAV system
in the presence of known or unknown uncertainties, disturbances, and other problems
of the control. The designed control methods in this book can be applied for nonlinear
systems under complex disturbances in various fields in engineering. The book can
be used as a reference for the academic research on the control theory, drones, and
terminal sliding mode control, and related to this or used in Ph.D. study of control
theory and their application in field engineering.

Rabat, Morocco Moussa Labbadi

Toulouse, France Yassine Boukal
Rabat, Morocco Mohamed Cherkaoui
May 2021
Acknowledgements

This book is based on a series of articles and conference proceedings that we have
been published during my Ph.D. study.
Our great thanks go to Profs. Abdellah Benzaouia, Mohamed Djemai, and
Maarouf Saad who worked with us on this subject of advanced controllers for
Quadrotor system and Fractional order control.
I would also like to thank all my colleagues from the E.3S-EREE&C research
center, Department of Electrical Engineering, Mohammadia School of Engineers,
E.3S-EREE&C research center that I had the pleasure to work with during my thesis.
I address all my gratitude to my friends Mr. Chakib Chatri, Mr. Kamal Elyaalaoui,
and Mr. Ali Agga, for his indirect help while wishing them a very good courage.
A special thought goes to Mrs. Karima Boudaraia, and Miss. Imane Hammou Ou
Ali for their indirect help.
Finally, my special thanks go to my mother Fatima and my father M’hamed, my
brothers Abdalghani, Redouan, Yassine, Mehdi, and Abderahmane for their moral,
encouragement, and sacrifices.

Moussa Labbadi

xi
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Significance and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Guidance, Navigation, and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1 Guidance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Navigation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Flight Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Advanced Flight Control Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Flight Control Methods Based on FO Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Structure of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 QUAV Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Review of Multirotors Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Preliminaries and Frame Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.1 Flight Modeling of the Quadrotor
with Newton-Euler’s Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.2 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments Applied
to the Quadrotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.3 Full Multi-rotor Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.4 Rotor Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Model of the Vehicle Flying in a Gust of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5.1 Modeling of Wind Gusts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5.2 Additional Applied Forces and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5.3 Dynamic Model of Multi-rotor Under the Effect
of the Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6 Technical Simplifications for Implementation Purposes . . . . . . . . 37
2.6.1 Simplified Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6.2 Control Oriented Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6.3 Control Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

xiii
xiv Contents

2.6.4 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.7 Formulation of the Integral and Derivative Operators
of Non-integer Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.7.1 Useful Functions in Fractional Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.7.2 Integration of Non-integer Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.7.3 Differentiation of Non-integer Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.7.4 Approximation of Non-integer Order Systems . . . . . . . . 44
2.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3 Stabilization of QUAV Under External Disturbances Using
Modified Novel ST Based on Finite-Time SMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1 Premolars of the Sliding Mode Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.1 Sliding Mode Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.2 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.3 Synthesis of the Sliding Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.4 Design of the Control Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Quadrotor Control by First Order Integral Sliding Mode . . . . . . . 54
3.3 Quadrotor Control by Higher Order PID Sliding Modes . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.1 Principle of the Second Order Sliding Mode
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.2 Super-Twisting Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.3 Application of the Higher Order SM-PID Control
to Quadrotor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Simulation Results with Controller Gains Optimization . . . . . . . . 61
3.4.1 Scenario 1: Robustness Analysis (constant
Disturbances) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.4.2 Scenario 2: Robustness Analysis (Time-Varying
Disturbances) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6 Novel Terminal Sliding Mode Control for the Position
and Attitude of a Quadrotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7 Modified Super-Twisting NSMC for the Quadrotor System . . . . . 72
3.8 Simulation Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4 Control of the QUAV by a Hybrid Finite-Time Tracking
Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2 Hybrid Finite-Time Trajectory Tracking Technique
for Quadrotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.1 Control of the Altitude Subsystem by Adaptive
Backstepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.2 Control by Backstepping Technique
for the Horizontal Position Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Contents xv

4.2.3 Attitude Control Using the Full Terminal Sliding

Mode Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3 Analysis of the Simulation Results by the Hybrid Control . . . . . . 85
4.4 Adaptive Global Nonlinear SMC for a Quadrotor [1] . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4.1 Stability Analysis of the Proposed Controller . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5 Robust Nonlinear Backstepping SMC for QUAV Subjected
to External Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2 Finite-Time Adaptive Flight Control of a Quadrotor . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.1 Quadrotor Position Control by a New Adaptive
Backstepping Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.2 Attitude Control of a Quadrotor Using
the Adaptive Fast Terminal Sliding Mode
Technique with the Backstepping Approach . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3.1 Scenario 1: Without Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3.2 Scenario 2: In the Presence of Parametric
Uncertainty and Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6 Robust Nonsingular Fast Terminal SMC for Unceratin QUAV
Subjected to External Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.2 Design Methodology of a New Controller for the Quadrotor
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.2.1 Design of a Trajectory Tracking Controller
for the Quadrotor Position Based on the NFTSMC
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.2.2 Design of the Trajectory Tracking
Controller for the Quadrotor Position
Based on the RANFTSMC Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.2.3 Design of a Trajectory Tracking Controller
for Quadrotor Attitude Based on the RANFTSMC
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.3 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.3.1 Scenario 1: Nominal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3.2 Scenario 2: Constant Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3.3 Scenario 3: Time Variation of the Wind
Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.3.4 Scenario 4: Noise from Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.3.5 Scenario 5: Parametric Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
xvi Contents

6.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7 Robust Adaptive Global Time-Varying SMC for QUAV
Subjected to Gaussian Random Uncertainties/Disturbances . . . . . . . 149
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.2 Controller Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.2.1 Design Controller Based on a Global
Time-Varying SMC for the QUAV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.2.2 Design Controller Based on an Adaptive
Time-Varying SMC for the QUAV System . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.3 Simulation Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8 High Order Fractional Controller Based on PID-SMC
for the QUAV Under Uncertainties and Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.2 Fractional-Order Controllers Design and Stability Analysis
for the QUAV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.2.1 Position Controller Design Based
on FO-ST-PID-SMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.2.2 Attitude Control Method Design Based
on FO-ST-PID-SMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.3 Simulation Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.3.1 Simulation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.3.2 Simulation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.3.3 Simulation 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.3.4 Comparisons Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9 Global Fractional Controller Based on SMC for the QUAV
Under Uncertainties and Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.2 Design of Fractional Sliding Manifold for Quadrotor
System Without Disturbances and Modeling Uncertainties . . . . . 191
9.3 Design of Fractional Sliding Manifold for the QUAV
System in the Presence of Modeling Uncertainties
and Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
9.4.1 Simulation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
9.4.2 Simulation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
9.4.3 Simulation 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Contents xvii

10 Robust FO Adaptive Nonsingular FTSMC for Uncertain

QUAV Under Random Gaussian Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.2 Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.2.1 Translational Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.2.2 Stability Analysis for the Translational Loop . . . . . . . . . . 215
10.2.3 Rotational Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10.3 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
10.3.1 With Drag Coefficients Uncertainties
and Stochastic Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
10.3.2 With Drag Coefficients Uncertainties and Random
Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.3.3 With Random Uncertainties (Random Uncertainty
30% Added in Mass and Rotary Inertia)
and External Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
10.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
11 Summary and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
11.1 Summary of Full Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
11.2 Future Research Prospect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Appendix A: Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Appendix B: Simulations of Non-integer Systems and Stability
in the Lyapunov Sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Acronyms

tw Blade torsion angle (deg)

0 Angle of attack of the blade root profile (rad)
λ Entry rate (−)
μ Advance ratio (−)
ρ Density of the air (kg/m3 )
σ Rotor strength ratio (−)
ui Rotor torque (N.m)
(t), (t), (t) Angles of the quadrotor (rad)
ω Angular speed of the rotor (rad/s)
r Angular speed of the propeller (rad/s)

Ensembles

R, C The set of real (resp. complex) numbers

R+ The set of non-negative real numbers R+ = [0, ∞)
Rn , Rn Real (resp. complex) Euclidean space of dimension n
Rn×m , Cn×m Set of real (resp. complex) matrices of dimension n × m
u, v, w Wind speeds in relation to the earth and within the body
(m/s)
Vx , Vy , Vz , u , u , u Control inputs (N; N.m)
x(t), y(t), z(t) Position of the quadrotor in the earth frame (m)
e(t) Trajectory tracking error (−)
s(t) Sliding Mode Monifold (−)
dx (t), dy (t), dz (t) Calculated disturbance for the quadrotor in the body frame
(−)
d (t), d (t), d (t) Computed disturbance for the quadrotor around the attitude
(−)

xix
xx Acronyms

g The acceleration of gravity (m/s2 )

I Matrix of inertia of the quadrotor (kg.m2 )
irot Current in the electrical circuit of the rotor (A)
Ixx , Iyy , Izz Inertia of the quadrotor (kg.m2 )
l Quadrotor arm length (m)
Jrot Moment of inertia of the rotor (kg.m2 )
m Mass of the quadrotor (kg)
p(t), q(t), r(t) Angular speeds of the quadrotor (rad/s)
R Rotation matrix (−)
R Rotor radius (m)
Rrot Internal resistance of the rotor (Ohm)
u(t), v(t), w(t) Linear speeds of the quadrotor in the body frame (m/s)
uj , vj , wj Linear speeds of each rotor in the body frame (m/s)
AB Adaptive Backstepping
AB-ABFTSMC Adaptive Backstepping Fast Terminal Sliding Mode control
AHRS Attitude and Heading Reference System
ANFTSMC Adaptive Nonsingular Fast Terminal Sliding Mode
Controller
B-ITSMC Backstepping-Integral Terminal Sliding Mode Controller
ENU East-North-Up
FANFTSMC Fractional Adaptive Nonsingular Fast Terminal Sliding
Mode Controller
FL Feedback Linearization
FO Fractional-order
FO-BSMC Fractional Order Backstepping Sliding Mode Control
FOGSM Fractional Order Global Sliding Mode
GNSMC Global Nonlinear Sliding Mode Control
GPS Global Positioning System
HTOL Horizontal Take-Off and Landing
IAE Integral Absolute Error
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
INS Inertial Navigation System
ISE Integral Squared Error
ITSMC Integral Terminal Sliding Mode Controller
LQR Linear-Quadratic Regulator
MAVs Micro or Miniature Air Vehicles
NAVs Nano Air Vehicles
NED North-East-Down
NLIMC Nonlinear Internal Model Control
PID Proportional–Integral–Derivative
QUAV Quadrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
RL, C Riemann-Liouville, Caputo
SMC Sliding Mode Control
Acronyms xxi

STA Super-Twisting Algorithm

STC Super-Twisting Control
TSMC Terminal Sliding Mode Control
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
VTOL Vertical Take-Off and Landing
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Introduction

This chapter illustrates some general knowledge about the control of multi-rotor
systems, in particular the quadrotor. The research work has been carried out over
three diverse and complementary studies: the design of a set of sliding mode control
laws based on the super-twisting algorithm and a finite time hybrid control with
respect to perturbations, the design of non-integer order sliding mode controllers in
the presence of parametric uncertainty and exogenous perturbations, and the design
of adaptive finite time control laws for the perturbed uncertain quadrotor, based on
on-line estimators of the dynamic parameters. This research work is at the intersection
of the robustness themes of the multi-rotor control system in a complex environment,
and the design of robust controllers; more precisely, it deals with improved sliding
mode control, improved fractional order sliding mode, and adaptive non-singular
fast terminal sliding mode for the multi-rotor system while taking into account the
constraints generated by endogenous and exogenous perturbations.

1.2 Significance and Purpose

Beyond our motivations, the object of this book is the design of control systems for
autonomous aerial vehicles, in particular multirotors (mainly quadrotors) flying in
disturbed areological conditions. Consequently, these problems treated in this book
are complex problems touching several domains. The other difficulty is that these
problems are treated in different ways by the many researchers who are interested
in this topic according to their disciplines and the community to which they belong.
Therefore, this research work is part of a multidisciplinary framework combining
aerodynamics, control theory and estimation theory.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

M. Labbadi et al., Advanced Robust Nonlinear Control Approaches for Quadrotor
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81014-6_1
2 1 Introduction

The problems presented in the previous section are poorly addressed by existing
techniques to satisfy a good compromise between the level of robustness and control
performance. In this context, the present work provides controllers to the QUAV sys-
tem in order to compensate the effect of external perturbations, based on the modified
super-twisting algorithm and a hybrid control. Most of the control approaches pro-
posed in the literature for these vehicles are whole-order control methods, the present
work proposes fractional-order controllers to deal with perturbations and variation of
the QUAV parameters. However, we are interested in the design of adaptive controls
whose robustness properties to parametric uncertainties and perturbations have been
demonstrated. In addition, the objective is to guarantee the stability as well as specific
criteria such as the rejection of perturbations and the robustness to the parametric
uncertainties of the system. The upper limit of these perturbations is supposed to
be known in advance, in reality this limit is unknown and difficult to determine. In
order to circumvent this constraint, we propose an adaptive estimator that allows to
estimate the upper limit of these perturbations in finite time using only the tracking
error and its speed as measures.
In addition, a low-cost, real-time QUAV test bench is proposed to verify the 4
DOF flight controller of the multi-rotors.

1.3 Guidance, Navigation, and Control

During the last 20 years, several research works have been carried out on the guid-
ance, navigation and control (GNC) of the QUAV, resulting in various techniques.
Some researchers have tried to examine different CNG systems and subsets of CNG.
In addition, the authors of [1] have recently completed a comprehensive and orga-
nized survey report on the wide variety of CNG methods. They gave an overview of
CNG systems to increase the autonomous capabilities of drones. More details about
GNC systems can be found in [1]. Subsequently, the different parts of the GNC
system are presented. CNG consists essentially of three parts: the guidance module,
the navigation module and the control module [2]. The rotors receive the appropriate
control signals from the control module in which the QUAV variables and their ref-
erence trajectories are taken into account to generate the appropriate control signals.
The reference trajectories are managed by the guidance system where the system
states are provided by the navigation system. The outputs, generated by these last
two modules, are based on the behavior of the multi-rotor, which can be expressed
by sensor measurements. The Fig. 1.1 shows the main architecture of the multi-rotor
vehicle.
1.3 Guidance, Navigation, and Control 3

Fig. 1.1 Global CNG architecture

1.3.1 Guidance System

The guidance system can be defined as the “driver” of a QUAV that performs plan-
ning and decision-making functions to achieve missions or objectives. The role of a
guidance system for QUAV is to replace the cognitive processes of a human pilot and
operator. It uses signals from the navigation system as inputs. Then, it takes the appro-
priate decisions, selects the appropriate maneuvers and manages the corresponding
reference trajectories such as angles, positions, speeds, etc. desired. These trajecto-
ries are directed to the flight control system that allows the multi-rotor to reach the
desired configuration. It includes various functions that promote autonomy, including
trajectory management, trajectory planning, mission planning, high-level reasoning
and decision making. The main tasks performed by the guidance system are:
• Mission planning: Mission planning involves the process of managing flight
paths, coordinating itinerary and tactical objectives, synchronizing the vehicle,
in advance or in real time, by a human pilot or by the on-board software system
centrally or distributed. It also has to manage the flight modes (flight based on
vision, flight based on GPS, target tracking mode, landing, hovering, tracking,
etc.). These different modes are either selected by the human pilot via the GCS
interface, or by the integrated security system which contains additional func-
tionalities for security purposes such as: emergency landing in the event of an
unintentional emergency, return home if the onboard energy is not sufficient, etc.
4 1 Introduction

Each flight mode has predefined conditions to be respected to minimize errors and
risks, otherwise the task will be rejected.
• Path planning: Path planning is a process of using the accumulated navigation data
and a priori information to allow the vehicle to find the best and safest way to reach
a specific position/configuration goal or task. Dynamic trajectory planning refers
to onboard trajectory planning in real time. Thus, by respecting these thresholds, a
basic level of performance is guaranteed in terms of accuracy and without excessive
delays.
• Generation of trajectories: The role of trajectory generation is to compute and
provide time-trended parametric reference trajectories for the flight control system,
taking into account the vehicle dynamics, physical constraints (maximum speed
and acceleration, etc.) the flight path, the flight mode and other specifications such
as: smooth trajectories, optimality, etc. The reference trajectories can be ready
loaded, programmed or managed in real time.

1.3.2 Navigation System

The design of an autonomous QUAV with higher levels of autonomy requires an

appropriate navigation system for detection, state estimation, environmental percep-
tion and situational awareness. It can be defined as the process of data acquisition,
data analysis and information extraction about the vehicle’s state and its environment.
This information is then exploited by the flight control system for motion control
and by the guidance system for mission accomplishment. The navigation system can
be divided into conventional navigation systems as shown in Fig. 1.2.
• Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU): By definition, an IMU is mainly composed of
three accelerometers and three gyroscopes to measure the specific acceleration of
a vehicle as well as its rotational speed.
• Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS): An AHRS designed to provide
attitude (roll and pitch) and heading estimates in addition to raw acceleration and
angular velocity information. It contains gyroscopes, accelerometers and magne-
tometers.
• AHRS assisted by GPS, GPS/Inertial Navigation System (INS): INS is an integra-
tion (AHRS and GPS, GPS and INS) that corrects the accumulated error of a pure
system (AHRS or INS), and provides the complete navigation solution (position,
speed, attitude and heading). In addition, advanced navigation systems such as
optical flow, visual odometer, etc., using additional sensors, which are required
for specific missions (mapping, localization, etc.) or to bring some autonomy to
the system.
1.3 Guidance, Navigation, and Control 5

Fig. 1.2 Categories of

inertial systems

1.3.3 Flight Control System

The flight control system generates the moments and forces necessary to stabilize the
vehicle, compensate for internal and external disturbances, follow the desired trajec-
tory or perform a given navigation task. Due to the remarkable properties of multi-
rotor dynamics (multi-variable, highly coupled, hierarchical and under-actuated non-
linear system), an enormous amount of traditional and advanced control strategies,
such as PID control, sliding mode control, backstepping, fuzzy logic, etc., have been
proposed. In fact, the flight control domain is well developed and can offer many
solutions. Many efforts have been made to control multi-rotors and several strategies
have been developed to solve the trajectory tracking problem for this type of system.
There is a rich literature describing different control techniques. Recent investigations
by [3–5] compare some control techniques applied to VTOL vehicles and discuss
the advantages of each approach. Thereafter, different flight modes will be detailed
in the following section.

Flight Modes

The multirotor has six DOF (three translations χ (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) and three
rotations η(t) = ((t), (t), (t)) and four entres which are the global thrust u m
and the torques (u  , u  , u  ). Indeed, only four outputs are selected among the six
degrees of freedom. According to the principle of multi-rotor flight, the pairs (x(t),
(t)) and (y(t), (t)) cannot be considered as independent exits. In other words,
the (x(t), (t)) =⇒ (xd (t), d (t)) or (y(t), (t)) =⇒ (yd (t), d (t)) control types
are prohibited. Depending on the set of states, we can distinguish the following
possible combinations: (x(t), z(t), (t), (t)): Longitudinal movement (y(t), z(t),
(t), (t)): Lateral movement (z(t), (t), (t), (t)): Teoperated mode or radio
control (requires human assistance) (x(t), y(t), z(t), (t)): Autonomous UAV. The
dfi is then to deal with the last case where the vehicle can rotate around the three
axes and can reach a given configuration in space (x(t), y(t), z(t), (t)) in order to
accomplish the mission. We present below some basic control flight modes [2].
6 1 Introduction

• Control the hovering flight: This is the most basic maneuver whose objective is to
keep the vehicle stationary at the desired altitude by maintaining a given yaw angle
or yaw rate. Most dynamic models are derived by assuming hovering conditions
or slow speeds to approximate hovering flight.
• Yaw or heading control: The yaw dynamics are totally decoupled during hovering
flight, whereas in translational flight a change of heading directly affects the lateral-
longitudinal dynamics.
• Attitude or orientation control: This is the stabilization of the multi-rotor orienta-
tion sub-system (roll, pitch and yaw).
• Altitude control: During the flight, altitude control is used to ensure that the vehicle
reaches the desired height. This is achieved by simultaneously increasing the speed
of the rotors. In general, the altitude is coupled with attitude dynamics.
• Position control: The goal is to bring the multirotor to a particular point in space.
To follow a desired trajectory, one can use a combination of all the controls and
teeth. This control can be realized by using two loops. The outer loop of the control
loop determines the necessary orientation, taking into account the desired position,
while the inner loop of the control loop determines the necessary control inputs.
• Speed control: Speed control is taken into account when the multi-rotor has to
ensure a given speed. This control is used in parallel with the heading control to
mimic fixed-wing vehicles.

1.4 Advanced Flight Control Methods

This section presents a remarkable literature on non-linear control techniques with

the context of multi-rotor flight control design. Non-linear control methods that
have been studied and applied to the QUAV autopilot system include feedback
linearization, sliding mode and predictive model control. In addition to conven-
tional non-linear approaches, augmented studies include adaptation and observation-
based approaches that are mainly presented. Coupled nonlinear dynamics, paramet-
ric uncertainties, input time delay problems, convergence rates, optimal operating
regime, stability problems, etc., are addressed.
Generally, the most common structures for tracking multi-rotors are cascade con-
trol strategies, which use an internal control loop for the rotation subsystem, or in
some cases for activated degrees of freedom, combined with an external loop to con-
trol the translation movements. Reference [3] provides a brief overview of control
architectures for this vehicle. Control systems using this strategy can be found in [6].
Although several control strategies have been tested on multirotors, most of them do
not take into account external perturbations over the six degrees of freedom, unmod-
elled dynamics and parametric uncertainty over the whole model. For example, in
[7, 8].
However, in recent years, researchers have begun to take these effects into account
at the design stage of the control law for the QUAV. When designing flight controls
for these types of air vehicles, there are three important challenges [9, 10]: First,
1.4 Advanced Flight Control Methods 7

the vehicle dynamics is multiple input multiple output (MIMO) and highly non-
linear and coupled; second, the dynamics of the QUAV involves various sources
of uncertainties, including parametric uncertainties, unmodelled uncertainties and
external perturbations; and third, there are multiple state delays and time-varying
input delays in the control systems.
Numerous studies have been performed over the years on the problem of con-
trolling aerial vehicles for systems involving non-linearity and coupling dynamics.
In order to compensate for external disturbances and improve the trajectory fol-
lowing performance of the QUAV, many robust nonlinear control approaches have
been designed for the aforementioned problems, such as controller based on the
assignment-passivity of damping and an interconnection strategy [11], backstepping
controller with sliding mode [12, 13], disturbance observer [14], control strategies
for continuous sliding modes [15], adaptive monitoring of the sliding mode with dis-
turbance algorithms [16], robust adaptive control with input saturation [17], robust
observer with linear variation of parameters [18], adaptive sliding mode [19], model
predictive control [20], adaptive nonlinear estimation techniques [21], robust non-
linear PID combined with H∞ [22], sliding hierarchical adaptive robust nonlinear
mode [23], control methods LQR [24], and non-linear PID type controller [25].
In [26], a new adaptive sliding controller is proposed to control the QUAV. This
controller uses Lyapunov analysis to ensure system stability. Fuzzy logic is used
to determine the best coefficients for this controller. In [27], a nonlinear control
strategy is developed by combining integral backstepping with sliding mode control
to stabilize the attitude of the quadrotor and follow the desired trajectory.
Likewise, in [28], a robust controller is designed to stabilize a quadrotor attitude.
This controller consists of a nominal controller and a robust signal-based compen-
sator. The proposed control method parameters have been tuned to increase system
performance. In [29], a robust structured control system design for attitude and
position tracking of the quadrotor is developed. In [30], an integral action predic-
tive control strategy is developed to follow the position path and the H∞ control is
designed to stabilize the orientation of the quadrotor. The work developed in [31] has
dealt with the problem of trajectory tracking under aerodynamic moments and forces
using the integral and nonlinear backstepping H∞ . In the case of the variation of the
payload of the quadrotor, a hierarchical nonlinear control, based on the thrust alloca-
tion algorithm and the Lyapunov technique, is developed in [32]. In [33], the authors
propose a robust control method to improve the position following performance of
the quadrotor, which is based on a second order sliding mode approach. In [34], the
quadcopter drone trajectory following problem was studied by designing a combi-
nation between hybrid model predictive controllers and fuzzy logic controllers. The
external disturbances and the unknown states of the quadrotor are estimated using
an observer in [35]. In order to estimate disturbances and control the quadrotor, an
active disturbance rejection control based on virtual variables is designed in the Ref.
[36].
In [37], robust nonlinear controllers are proposed to control the quadrotor sub-
jected to uncertainties, noise and disturbances. In [38], a geometric control theory
addressed the problem of designing a controller for the quadrotor system with actu-
8 1 Introduction

ation constraints. In [39], three control methods are designed for MAV quadcopter
based on linear and nonlinear optimal control theory. The reference [40] presents
an observer of the pitch/roll angles of the quadrotor subjected to complex distur-
bances, which is based on algorithms in sliding mode. The reference [41] proposes
a controller based on the passivity damping for a quadrotor system. In [42], a visual
mechanism control based on artificial neural networks to control the attitude and
position of the quadrotor is designed. A finite-time hybrid control technique is pre-
sented in [43], which is based on adaptive integral sliding mode, backstepping, and
non-singular terminal MG approaches to solve quadrotor path following problems
with dynamics and disturbances.
In [44], a cascade control is proposed using a PID control and Lyapunov analysis
to stabilize the quadcopter. The reference [45] proposes a robust hierarchical con-
trol technique based on neural networks and SMC to deal with quadcopter control
under parametric uncertainty and disturbances. In [46], a robust nonlinear control
strategy based on a modified active perturbation rejection technique is suggested for
the dynamic model of quadrotor position and attitude. This control technique con-
sists of three parts: a nonlinear proportional derivative, a tracking deferential and an
extended state observer/predictor. In order to compensate for external disturbances
and parameter uncertainties, a robust adaptive control approach to monitoring quad-
copter AVMs is presented in Ref. [47]. In [48], a new controller based on continuous
control in sliding mode is proposed to solve the problem of the pursuit trajectory of
a group of quadcopters in the presence of disturbances. In [49], a model predictive
controller for the problem of following the trajectory of both translational and attitude
movements of the quadrotor, a time-varying subject of disturbances is presented. The
works presented by the authors in [50] propose an adaptive super-twisting sliding
mode algorithm to control a biotechnological process under uncertainties and distur-
bances. In [51], a new adaptive control strategy for robust backstepping is presented.
This technique makes it possible to control the dynamic model in the presence of
unknown payloads and wind disturbances which vary with time. The authors of [52]
introduce a nonlinear controller approach to follow the uncertain quadcopter posi-
tion trajectory with perturbations. A disturbance observer is proposed to estimate the
state variables of this vehicle. The authors of [53] propose an adaptive super-twisting
sliding mode control approach for the quadcopter. In [54], an internal model control
approach was proposed to stabilize the quadrotor. The wind gust disturbances affect-
ing the vehicle were overcome in the presence of the sensor fault and uncertainties.
In [55], a new control procedure for fourth order systems is developed based on
adaptive super torsion and terminal sliding mode control approaches. These control
techniques reduce the reluctance problem, establish finite-time convergence of the
system, and provide a law of parameter adjustment to eliminate external disturbances.
In [56], a new fast specification finite-time non-singular terminal slip mode control
scheme is proposed for robotic airship trajectory tracking. In order to achieve finite-
time convergence and to guarantee the stability of third-order nonlinear systems, a
new range law based on the control of the terminal sliding mode has been designed
[57]. In [58], backstepping with finite-time convergence techniques is used to gen-
erate a control law to stabilize a mini-rotorcraft. In [59], an adaptation mechanism
1.4 Advanced Flight Control Methods 9

and the Nussbaum gain technique are used to control the attitude and position of the
rotorcraft. These techniques attenuate immeasurable disturbances, compensate for
the parametric uncertainties of the system and compensate for actuation faults.
In [60], a hybrid controller is designed for full system path following and closed
loop stability is provided using Lyapunov analysis. In [61], a sliding mode terminal
controller is developed to control second order nonlinear systems in the presence of
perturbations. In order to face the perturbations, non-linearities and uncertainties of
nonlinear systems, a new global adaptive approach to terminal sliding mode control is
proposed in [62]. In [63], a nano quadrotor is used for the development of autonomous
flight controls in environments without a global positioning system. A nonlinear flight
controller is designed to keep the quadrotor in the desired flight path position and to
ensure attitude stability. In [12], a mathematical model of a quadrotor is presented
and a robust nonlinear controller, which combines the sliding mode control technique
and the backstepping control technique. A sliding mode controller is designed for
the attitude subsystem and the rollback technique is applied to the position loop. An
adaptive observer is considered for the take-off mode, this observer is based on a
fault estimate.
In [64], an adaptive controller is presented to provide increased robustness to
parametric uncertainties and to effectively mitigate the effects of a loss of thrust
anomaly. In [65], an omnidirectional multirotor vehicle was designed, modeled and
tested. This controller makes it possible to simultaneously follow the desired posi-
tion and attitude of the trajectory of the vehicle. The proposed control is based on
multiple cascade control loops, where internal control loops can arbitrarily follow
input commands and each control loop is designed through feedback linearization.
In [66], a control algorithm is proposed for the visual target tracking system which
consists of a fixed-wing drone. Seven fuzzy controllers are used to stabilize the
QUAV and to compensate for external disturbances, the information obtained from
the images are used to generate the roll command. These proposed algorithms are
capable of accomplishing a moving target. Based on the backward sliding mode
control approach, the authors of [67] propose an adaptive fuzzy control technique
for stratospheric satellites subject to uncertainty and input constraints.
In [68], a nonlinear controller combines a non-singular modified super-twisting
controller with a high-order sliding mode observer to allow a quadrotor to follow a
desired trajectory in the presence of unmodeled dynamics and external disturbances.
In addition, two points deserve to be pointed out. On the one hand, most control appli-
cations assume that calculated control actions will never reach actuator saturation
limits, although in practice this is possible. For example, when the drone is far from
its destination, the generated control signals are normally higher than the allowable
values. In addition, vehicles are made up of mechanical and electrical parts, also sub-
ject to physical constraints. In this book, the problem of following the trajectory of a
quadrotor will be addressed, where the main objective is to improve the robustness of
control strategies when the vehicle is flying in the presence of external disturbances,
non-moving dynamics and uncertainties. parametric, and unknown inputs.
10 1 Introduction

1.5 Flight Control Methods Based on FO Control

Fractional-order (FO) control techniques are recognized as an effective tool to

improve the structure for designing control schemes for nonlinear systems, in recent
years. These controllers can be applied in various complex systems. A FO-PID con-
troller is used [69], FO combined with sliding mode control in the Ref. [70], in [71,
72], an adaptive FO nonsingular fast terminal SMC is proposed. The authors of [73]
proposed an adaptive FO-ST nonsingular terminal SMC, and FO-SMC is presented
in [74, 75]. Combined the SMC and the FO theory to control the QUAV in the
presence of external disturbances, drag coefficients, moment of inertia, and the time-
varying load. A nonlinear FO P I λ D α is proposed for controlling attitude/position of
the QUAV in [76]. To select their FO parameters, the Black-Nichols method is used.
In order to guarantee an exponential tracking of attitude dynamics, the authors of
[77] combine the SMC and FO calculus. In this view, the authors of [78] presented
an adaptive FOSMC strategy to address the varying load. Further works have been
conducted for controlling QUAV in the presence of uncertainties and disturbances
that uses continuous-time FO and the proportional-derivative (PD) in [79].
However, in most of the existing publications on the quadrotor drone, research
efforts on control techniques have mainly focused on whole order controllers and
not on fractional order controllers. In order to perform attitude control and position
tracking of a quadrotor, fractional sliding mode and fractional fast terminal sliding
mode control techniques have been investigated in [80, 81].
Other studies consider the FO operators in the design of the flight controllers. For
example, in [82], an original FO controller, which is based on backstepping SMC
method for QUAV. Similarly, in [88], a robust FO-SMC method is proposed for the
QUAV. On the other hand, the work in [83] presented a FO-PID controller based on
a neural network method. Therefore, the FO controllers can be used to compensate
the effect of the uncertainties/disturbances affecting the rotational and translational
subsystems. The SMC is one on best suitable robust controller for the QUAV. The
tracking performance can be increased combining the SMC and FO theory [84].
Design the sliding mode variables with FO operators, two degrees of freedom are
added to allow the structure of the adopted control more flexible. The work devel-
oped in [85] proposed a FO-SMC based on backstepping to address the problem
of wind disturbance and effects of variations in load momentums of inertia. Some
studies including [86] proposed another type of FO-SMC for the tracking problem of
uncertain QUAV under time-varying state constraints. In [88], FO attitude-reactive
controller is suggested to control the QUAV. A continuous high order SMC and FO
control law are proposed by the authors of [89] to address the tracking problem of
the QUAV under complex disturbances. Also, they can further benefit implement-
ing the FO-SMC based on backstepping to attenuate wind disturbance and effects
of variations in load momentums of inertia in [85]. The authors of [87] presented
a robust FO for position/yaw tracking of QUAV. Although the above studies have
addressed the design techniques and applications of FO-SM controllers, flight control
schemes based on FO adaptive NFTSM controllers have not been fully investigated
1.5 Flight Control Methods Based on FO Control 11

so far. Therefore, for the QUAV system with unknown disturbances, FO finite-time
techniques based on TSMC control methods can be further investigated.

1.6 Structure of the Book

In this book, the QUAV dynamics model, the high order sliding mode control, ter-
minal SMC, global SMC, backstepping technique, time-varying SMC, backstep-
ping fast TSMC, NFTSMC, FO-super twisting PID SMC, FO-global SMC, FO-
NFTSMC, external disturbances, parametric uncertainties, random noise, random
disturbances/uncertainties will be studied. The relations among chapters are shown
in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 A block diagram of this book

12 1 Introduction

The rest of this book is organized as follows:

To validate the efficiency of the different control laws in order to stabilize the
QUAV in a wind field, an accurate modeling is important taking into account the wind
speed and the external disturbances acting on the vehicle. In Chap. 2, we present a
generic dynamic model for any wind-driven multi-rotor vehicle. In addition, general
notions of certain mathematical formulae, such as the definitions of fractional order
differentiation, approaches to approximation and simulation of a fractional drifter,
stability conditions in the sense of Lyapunov are presented.
In Chap. 3, two control strategies to solve the tracking problem of the QUAV
subjected to finite energy perturbations, are proposed. These proposed control laws
must minimize the effect of these perturbations on the tracking error. Next, the
controllers proposed in this chapter must ensure the convergence of the tracking errors
towards zero. Subsequently, each controller was compared with existing controllers
in the literature to show the effectiveness of these approaches. According to supper-
twisting algorithm (STA), a combination of PID-SMC and modified STA with an
optimization method are designed. The design of this controller is based on Lyapunov
theory, which ensures the stability of the system. Based on the research in the first
part, a modified STA and nonsingular terminal SMC are proposed for the QUAV
under external disturbances in the second part of this chapter. Finally, the results are
presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the high order SMC schemes.
In the Chap. 4, a hybrid finite-time control scheme is proposed for both attitude and
position subsystems. The attitude subsystem is commanded by integral-type terminal
SMC to obtain finite stability of the attitude tracking errors under the influence of
disturbances. an adaptive backstepping method is designed for the altitude channel,
which gives an adaptive law to estimate exactly the disturbances. The horizontal posi-
tion is commanded by a simple backstepping to generate the desired tilting angles.
Secondly, adaptive global SMC is designed for the QUAV under perturbations. The
main objective of this control method is the elimination of the reaching phase by
forcing the state variables of the QUAV in the sliding mode in the initial time. the
stability of these control schemes proposed in this chapter is guaranteed according
the Lyapunov theory. Also, in order to show the effectiveness of the proposed control
methods, various simulations with comparison are given.
The Chap.5 offers several controllers with estimators of dynamic system param-
eters. Three adaptive control schemes for estimating time-varying parameters are
presented, compared and finally merged. In this context, the interest of these algo-
rithms is important. First of all, the need for an accurate estimation of the upper
bound of these perturbations is essential to improve the flight safety of the QUAV in
a perturbing environment. In addition, these control algorithms have a strong robust-
ness against time-varying uncertainties, non-linearities and external perturbations,
and have features such as simplicity and continuous control signals. Each approach
proposed in this chapter is compared with robust controllers to show the superi-
ority of these proposed techniques. Finally, an on-line estimation is performed for
the upper limits of uncertainties and perturbations of the QUAV. Finally, simulation
results show the validity of adaptive nonlinear SMC control scheme.
1.6 Structure of the Book 13

In Chap. 6, the problem of the elimination of the reaching phase and reduction of
the control effort in the initial time are addressed. In addition, under the aerodynam-
ics perturbations, noise measurements, and uncertainties, the design of the control
method becomes more difficult for QUAV to satisfied these performances. In this
view, global time-varying SMC with an online estimator are designed for the QUAV.
Using the proposed sliding manifolds, the initial control efforts of the QUAV inputs
are eliminated. Also, the stability of the tracking errors is obtained with specific time.
Finally, the effectiveness of the adaptive global time varying SMC is demonstrated
by simulation results.
According to the research in Chap. 3, a robust control scheme is proposed for the
QUAV. The Chap. 7 presents a combination of the STA, FO switching law, and FO-
PID-SMC techniques to solve the path following problem in the presence of complex
disturbances. The problems of time-varying loading and changes in drag coefficients
are addressed in this chapter. The FO switching control law is designed against the
disturbances, STA is given to compensate the unknown complex disturbances caused
by wing gust. Various numerical simulations are conducted to validate the tracking
performance of this FO control scheme.
In Chap. 8, FO global SMC (FOGSMC) control scheme is suggested, a designed
FOGSMC and the prescribed performance control for the QUAV with system uncer-
tainties and external disturbance. Firstly, the global sliding mode manifolds are
designed for the position and attitude of the QUAV. The use of these sliding mode
manifolds fast tracking performance and high accuracy of attitude and position track-
ing are provided. A generic FO switching control law is proposed to compensate the
negative influence of parametric uncertainties and disturbance on the QUAV control
performance. The Lyapunov theory is used to prove the stability of the proposed
control method. Finally, under the complex flight trajectories, multiple simulation
results are given to validate the theorical performance.
Based on the research in Chaps. 5, 7, and 8, the Chap. 9 proposes an adaptive
FO nonsingular fast terminal sliding mode (AFONFTSM) control scheme for the
QUAV under Random disturbances/parametric uncertainties. The designed sliding
mode variables are based on FO operators to achieve high accuracy and fast speed
of the QUAV under the influence of the perturbations. The tracking errors of the
translational and rotational subsystems are converged in the finite-time using the
AFONFTSM method. In addition, based on velocity and position the tracking errors,
an adaptive law is designed to reject the upper bound of disturbances/uncertainties.
Finally, the effectiveness of the AFONFTSMC is shown under different situations
by simulation results.
The Chap. 10 proposes the design and construction of a test bench to set up and
check the 4 DOF flight controller. This test bench is used to evaluate altitude and
attitude stability (roll, pitch and yaw angles). It is based on a dual-core F28379D DSP
microcontroller via serial communication with a host computer. Some experimental
results are given in this chapter.
In Chap. 11, several future research directions are predicated.
14 1 Introduction

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Chapter 2
QUAV Modeling

2.1 Introduction

To validate and test the efficiency of the different control laws in order to stabilize the
quadrotor in a wind field, accurate modeling is important, taking into account the wind
speed and the external disturbances acting on the vehicle. For this reason, this chapter
deals with the modeling of the elements constituting the dynamics of the quadrotor.
In addition, a reminder of some mathematical formulas, such as the definitions of
non-integer order differentiation, approaches to approximation and simulation of a
fractional drifter, stability conditions using the Lyapunov theory. It is organized as
follows: In the Sect. 2.2, a brief review is presented showing the progress of the mod-
eling. Some important preliminaries are presented in the Sect. 2.3. The forces and
moments applied to multi-rotor systems are detailed in Sect. 2.4. Wind generation
and its interaction with the vehicle cell are modeled and presented in Sect. 2.5. Some
technical simplifications for implementation are presented in Sect. 2.6. The formu-
lation of the integral and non-integer derivative operators is presented in Sect. 2.7.
Finally, some concluding remarks are made in Sect. 2.8.

2.2 Review of Multirotors Modeling

The quadrotors are highly non-linear and coupled systems. In addition, uncertain-
ties, caused by the environment and induced by aerodynamic phenomena and dis-
turbances, make the modeling task more difficult. However, simplified models can
be used to approximate the vehicle dynamics requiring effective control strategies.
In fact, many models have been proposed in the literature, with varying levels of
complexity and completeness. Based on different works in the literature, different
hypotheses are considered in the modeling of a quadrotor, [1–3]. Drone modeling
based on the Lagrange-Euler and Newton-Euler formalisms is presented in [4]. The

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 19

M. Labbadi et al., Advanced Robust Nonlinear Control Approaches for Quadrotor
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81014-6_2
20 2 QUAV Modeling

basic concepts of helicopter aerodynamics are illustrated in [4]. The authors of [5],
treat the aerodynamic coefficients of the rotating blades in hovering flight, the thrust
and drag are assumed to be proportional to the square of the rotation speed of the
propellers in [5]. Due to the low translation and angular velocities, friction forces
and moments are neglected in [6]. A model considering the aerodynamic coefficients
in forward and vertical flight is presented in [7] at higher speeds. The majority of
the works assume that the origin of the coordinate system coincides with the center
of mass of the vehicle as [8]. The authors of [9] have derived a dynamic model for
a small quadrotor called Mesicopter. This model was developed as one of the first
proposed models used for hovering. The model was created assuming that the dynam-
ics are decoupled along the two planes of symmetry. It was called a 2-D dynamic
model. However, the authors explicitly gave the expression of some aerodynamic
forces (mainly thrust and hub). In [10], a dynamic model for the quadrotor in X con-
figuration has been proposed. It was a simplified model where the attitude dynamics
is modeled by dual integrators. The representation of the Euler angles was chosen to
describe the rotations by considering the East-North-Up (ENU) frame standard. The
reference [11] proposes a compact model based on Newton’s equations for the motion
of a rigid object where several aerodynamic forces and moments are neglected as the
drag force. The authors considered the North-East-Down (NED) convention. The ref-
erence [12] presents the dynamic model of a crossed quadrotor, including the blade
flapping effect in addition to most of those mentioned above, which used Euler-
Lagrange’s formalism as well as Newton-Euler’s approach to derive the dynamic
model and which is closest to the real vehicle. However, the various effects are not
well defined in the appropriate frameworks. In addition, the authors considered only
the roll and pitch flapping moment assuming that the thrust forces are collinear with
the bz axis of the vehicle. A rich literature shows considerable progress in modeling
dealing with other aspects such as the non-rigidity of the propellers [13], the ground
effect [14], etc. For a more in-depth knowledge, the reader can refer to [15] for
example and the references it contains. Despite the interest shown by the community
for modeling, few articles describe the interaction of wind with a quadrotor even
though many wind models exist. It is generally considered as an unknown limited
disturbance or a constant component, which is handled by a robust controller. Then,
a dynamic model, describing the quadrotor flying under the effect of the wind, is pro-
posed. This model is a generic representation for all existing multirotor typologies
[16]. It is selected in order to better represent the dynamic behavior of quadrotors
in the presence of wind disturbances. The modeling given in this book is based
on different research work [16, 17]. Moreover, the modeling part is very important
for quadrotors. However, the same established models are valid for other forms of
multirotors. For external flight, this modeling is important to validate the control
algorithms. In the design of these controllers, some works use simplified models in
order to obtain simple control laws. To approach the reality, a quadrotor model in
the presence of perturbations and parametric uncertainties will be presented in this
chapter.
2.3 Preliminaries and Frame Representation 21

2.3 Preliminaries and Frame Representation

Modeling the quadrotor system requires knowledge of the aerodynamics, mechanical

characteristics and dynamics of the actuators. Then, the modeling step contains differ-
ent levels, including vehicle motion, propeller aerodynamics and actuator dynamics.
In the first part, the equations of motion of an air vehicle are presented, and can be
divided into the following two sets:
• Kinematic equations: give the position and orientation of the vehicle in relation to
the frame fixed to the ground.
• Dynamic equations: connect  the external forces F ext affecting the vehicle to the
translational accelerationa ( Fext = ma) and the external moments M ext at
rotational accelerations ( mathcal Mext = I dot ) where m is the mass and I
is the inertia of the vehicle.
The drone used in this work is a nano quadrotor shown in Fig. 2.1. This machine is
a rigid body equipped with four rotors. The movement of the quadrotor is controlled
by adjusting the speed of the rotors. The yawing motion is obtained by creating a
difference in speed between two rotors in the opposite direction. In fact, between
the rotors (2, 4) and (1, 3). The vertical movement of the quadrotor is obtained
by decreasing or increasing the total speeds of the rotors. The forward movement
is obtained by modifying the speed of rotation of the propeller (1 and 3). Lateral
movement is obtained by modifying the speed of rotation of the propeller (2 and 4).
This vehicle operates in two coordinate frames: the inertial reference frame linked to
the earth E(Oe , ex , e y , ez ) and the frame linked to the quadrotor B(Ob , bx , b y , bz )
(as shown in Fig. 2.1). E is considered to be an inertial frame of reference, in which
Newton’s and Lagrange’s laws are valid (the rotation speed of the earth is neglected.)
and B is fixed to the vehicle and constrained to move with it when the vehicle is
considered to be a rigid body. Consequently, the body is intrinsically unstable; its

Fig. 2.1 Quadcopter

configuration with earth and
body frames
22 2 QUAV Modeling

mechanical system is strongly coupled and under-actuated. Moreover, in this thesis,

the dynamic model of the quadrotor is obtained using the following assumptions:
Assumption 2.1 The structure and the propellers are rigid and perfectly symmetri-
cal.
Assumption 2.2 The dynamics of the rotors is relatively fast and will be neglected.
Assumption 2.3 The influence of the soil is neglected.
Assumption 2.4 Torque (u  , u (t) , u  ) and thrust u m , produced by the rotor speeds,
are proportional to the square of the rotor speeds.
The bx axis is directed towards the front of the quadrotor, the z axes are chosen
to be directed upwards, the y axes are directed to the left (see Fig. 2.1). Thus, the
East-North-Up standard is adopted. The origin of the O B frame attached to the body
is an invariant point and belongs to the vehicle structure. To simplify, it is chosen to
be the center of gravity (CoG) of the vehicle. Note that Tait-Bryan angles (also called
gimbal angles or nautical angles.) are adopted. Thus, roll is chosen to be around the
bx axis, pitch is chosen to be around b y and finally yaw is chosen to be around the bz
axis. The roll, pitch and yaw angles ((t), (t), (t)) are commonly called Euler
angles. Since the different coordinate frames are defined, the relationship between
them, i.e. the coordinate transformation, must be found. Starting from the fixed frame
of the body to the fixed frame of the earth, the sequence of rotations chosen is: the
sequence x(t) −→ y(t) −→ z(t), which means that the attitude is obtained first by
the roll angle “(t) , then by the pitch angle “(t) and finally by the yaw “  .
Therefore, the rotation matrix R((t), (t), (t)) is given by

R((t), (t), (t)) = R(z(t), (t))R(y(t), (t))R(x(t), (t)) (2.1a)

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
C(t) −S(t) 0 C(t) 0 S(t) 1 0 0
= ⎣ S(t) C(t) 0⎦ ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣0 C(t) −S(t) ⎦ (2.1b)
0 0 1 −S(t) 0 C(t) 0 S(t) C(t)
⎡ ⎤
C(t) C(t) S(t) S(t) C(t) − C(t) S(t) C(t) S(t) C(t) + S(t) S(t)
= ⎣ C(t) S(t) S(t) S(t) S(t) + C(t) S(t) C(t) S(t) S(t) − S(t) C(t) ⎦
−S(t) S(t) C(t) C(t) C(t)
(2.1c)

R is an orthonormal matrix, so that R ∈ S O(3) = [R ∈ R3×3 |RT R=I3×3 , det

(R) = 1]. The index 3 × 3 means that the dimension of the matrix is 3 × 3 and I3×3
is the identity matrix of dimension 3. s(.) and c(.) are the abbreviations of sin(.) and
cos(.) respectively. Conversely, to go in the opposite direction, i.e. from the land frame
to the body frame, you have to follow the sequence yaw, pitch and roll. All orientations
of the vehicle can be achieved using the three elementary rotations (x yx, x zx, yzy,
etc.). We note that there is a very useful mathematical tool to represent this rotation,
it has great advantages over the representation of Euler angles more commonly used
because of, for example, the absence of singularities and the mathematical simplicity
2.3 Preliminaries and Frame Representation 23

[16]. Based on the previous description, the transformation between the earth bound
and the vehicle body bound benchmark can be expressed explicitly using the rotation
matrix R. Thus, the velocity vector VB (t) = (u(t), v(t), w(t))T ∈ R3 of the vehicle,
expressed in a fixed frame of the body, can be rotated in the fixed frame of the earth
as follows

χ̇ (t) = R((t), (t), (t))VB (2.2)

where χ̇ (t) = (ẋ(t), ẏ(t), ż(t))T ∈ R3 is the velocity vector of the quadrotor in E. A
rotation sequence x(t) −→ y(t) −→ z(t) is selected for the Euler angles. This means
that the frame attached to the body is first rotated around the x(t) axis. Therefore, the
angular velocity (t)˙ is the same as the angular velocity p(t) of the vehicle around
˙
bx . The angular velocity (t) on the y(t) axis is influenced by the first step of rotation
around the x(t) axis. Therefore, this speed must be multiplied by the rotation matrix
R.(x, ). Finally, the rotation (t)˙ around the z axis must be multiplied by the two
rotation matrices R(x(t), (t)) and R(y(t), (t)). Therefore, the angular velocities
( p(t), q(t), r (t)) in the fixed frame of the body can be written according to Euler’s
law of angular velocities as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
p(t) ˙
(t)
−1
⎣ q(t) ⎦ = W ⎣(t) ˙ ⎦ (2.3a)
r (t) ˙
(t)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
˙
(t) 0 0
= ⎣ 0 ⎦ + RT (x(t), (t)) ⎣(t)
˙ ⎦ + RT (x(t), (t))RT (y(t), (t)) ⎣ 0 ⎦ (2.3b)
0 0 ˙
(t)
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
˙
(t) 1 0 −S(t)
˙ ⎦ ⎣0 C(t) S(t) C(t) ⎦
= ⎣(t) (2.3c)
˙
(t) 0 −S(t) C(t) C(t)

The relation between the angular velocities  = ( p(t), q(t), r (t))T ∈ R3 of the
˙
quadrotor in the fixed frame and the angular velocities η̇(t) = ((t), ˙
(t), ˙
(t)) T
∈
R3 in the frame fixed to earth is presented as follows:
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
˙
(t) p 1 S(t) tan(t) C(t) tan(t) p(t)
˙ ⎦ = W ⎣ q ⎦ = ⎣0
⎣(t) C(t) −S(t) ⎦ ⎣ q(t) ⎦ (2.4)
˙
(t) r 0 S(t) sec(t) C(t) sec(t) r (t)

Obviously, the representation of Tait Bryan’s angles suffers from certain peculiarities:
(t) = ±π and (t) = ±π . In practice, this limitation does not affect the quadrotor
in normal flight mode. The Eqs. (2.2) and 2.3 represent the kinematic model of the
quadrotor.
24 2 QUAV Modeling

2.4 Mathematical Modeling

In this section, the differential equations, which link the output of the system (position
and orientation) to its input (forces and torques), are derived. The dynamics of the
quadrotor can be formulated by the Newton-Euler and Lagrange-Euler methods.
Based on the work developed in Refs. [9, 16, 18, 19], the dynamics of the quadrotor
is obtained. In the first part, the Newton-Euler equations for a rigid body system
are established. Then, the different forces and moments applied to the vehicle are
presented.

2.4.1 Flight Modeling of the Quadrotor with Newton-Euler’s

Formalism

The rigid body has six degrees of freedom, it has a mass m and an inertia I ∈
R3×3 around the center of gravity. Let VB (t) = (u(t), v(t), w(t))T ∈ R 3 represent
the linear velocity of the center of gravity and as defined in the previous section
(t) = ( p(t), q(t), r (t)) ∈ R 3 is its angular velocity expressed in the fixed frame of
the body, η(t) = ((t), (t), (t))T ∈ R 3 its orientation (Roll, Pitch, Yaw) and let
χ (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t))T ∈ R 3 its absolute position with respect to E. The relation
between velocities and external forces F B = (FxB , FyB , FzB )T ∈ R3 and the moments
M B = (MxB , M yB , MzB )T ∈ R3 , applied to CoG, expressed in the frame B, can be
written using the Newton-Euler formalism as:

      
m I3×3 O3×3 V̇B  × mVB FB
O3×3 I ˙ +  × I  = MB

(2.5)

where O3×3 is a zero matrix of dimension 3 × 3 and × designates the cross product.
On the basis of the symmetry property claimed by assumption 1 and with the appro-
priate choice of the fixed frame of the body as represented in Fig. 2.1, the inertia
matrix becomes the diagonal I = diag(Ix x , I yy , Izz ). Explicitly, in terms of transla-
tional and angular acceleration, the system (2.5) is written for a multi-rotor vehicle
as:
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ B⎤
u̇(t) r (t)v(t) − q(t)v(t) Fx
⎣ v̇(t) ⎦ = 1 ⎣ p(t)w(t) − r (t)u(t)⎦ + 1 ⎣F yB ⎦ (2.6)
m q(t)u(t) − p(t)v(t) m
ẇ(t) FzB

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ B⎤
Ix x ṗ(t) (I yy − Izz )q(t)r (t) Mx
⎣ I yy q̇(t) ⎦ = ⎣ (Izz − Ix x ) p(t)r (t) ⎦ + ⎣M yB ⎦ (2.7)
Izz ṙ (t) (Ix x − I yy ) p(t)q(t) MzB
2.4 Mathematical Modeling 25

The next step is to determine the forces F and moments M.

2.4.2 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments Applied

to the Quadrotor

The movement of multirotors is subject to various forces and moments from different
sources. Here we provide a global and generic model for a large class of multirotors.
All the recurrent parameters used in this sub-section are given in Table 2.1 where the
explicit formulations of the aerodynamic coefficients Ci |i=T,H,Q,B are given in [18].
In the previous part, the Newton-Euler equations (2.5) for a rigid body system
were presented, which are suitable to describe any system with several rotors. The
main difference lies essentially in the various aerodynamic forces and moments
which are defined as a function of the rotor speeds by the shape of the vehicle
and its number of rotors. Before presenting the main external forces and moments,
an overall description of the multi-rotor vehicles considered was given. Multirotor
vehicles have practically the same principle of flight. They differ by the location
and size of the arms and the number of rotors. Let  O = {r oi , i = 1, . . . , 2Nr } the
set of rotors where Nr ∈ N is the number of pairs of rotors (propellers) with 2Nr 4
i.e. the multirotors considered are those with an even number of rotors. Each rotor
r oi |i=1,...,2Nr located at oi |i=1,...,2Nr in the same plane as the CoG, is supported by an
arm of length li |i=,...,2Nr and rotates around an axis, which is parallel to the axis bz
(the rotors are not tilted).
Thus, a rotor r oi is defined by the polar coordinates oi (li , α) ∈ R × [0, 2π ] where
αi designates the angle between its arm and the axis bx , the speed of rotation i and
the direction of rotation where Nr rotors rotate clockwise (S p = 1) while the others
rotate counterclockwise (S p = −1) (see the representation of a rotor on Fig. 2.2.
For reasons of symmetry, each pair of rotors is placed on two opposite sides of
the cell αi+Nr = αi + π |i=1,...,Nr ) with the same arm length (li = Nr + i|i=1,...,Nr ) .
This description is valid for a large class of multi-rotor vehicles. It provides a global
expression of the aerodynamic forces and moments as a function of the rotors speeds.

Table 2.1 Modeling of recurring parameters

Parameter Description Parameter Description
A Effective area of the Rr Propeller radius
propeller disc
ρ Air Density Ci |i=T,H,Q,B Aerodynamic
coefficients
Jr Rotor inertia  Rotor rotation speed
26 2 QUAV Modeling

Fig. 2.2 Description of the

rotor

Table 2.2 External forces applied on a multi-rotor

Force − Direction
Thrust Ti According to the axis bz
Hub forces Hi In the plan bx , b y , According
to the direction of the linear
speed
Aerodynamic forces Fd In the space bx , b y , bz ,
Depending on the direction of
the linear speeds
Gravity g According to the axis ez

Forces

Using the theory of blade elements, the expressions for the aerodynamic forces are
deduced. Also, neglecting the ground effects, four main forces acting on the quadrotor
are considered. These expressions are used in modeling. The three forces mentioned
in this subsection and their directions are shown in the Table 2.2. All forces are
expressed as part of the body.
The first is the force of gravity:

G = −mg (2.8)

It is along the ez axis in the negative direction where m is the mass of a quadrotor,
g is the gravity coefficient. In addition, each rotor r oi produces thrust and hub forces,
which depend on its angular velocity . The thrust force Ti is along the axis bz in the
positive direction while the hub force Hi is in the plane bx b y in the negative direction
of the horizontal speed Vh (the projection of the forward speed V f in the plane bx b y ).
Thus, the hub force can be broken down into two components Hxi on the bx axis and
Hyi on the b y axis in the bx b y plane in the frame attached to the body.
Another random document with
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 Reviewed by Lyman Abbott

Outlook 125:124 My 19 ’20 750w

“It is sound common sense doctrine that he preaches, and for that
reason it will be popular with but few people in these days of
emotional ‘thinking.’”

+ Review 2:234 Mr 6 ’20 750w

R of Rs 61:447 Ap ’20 40w

“Professor Leacock’s book is an appeal to pure reason; it is

argumentative, but not quarrelsome; it is progressive in its aims, but
it is not revolutionary. His picture may be overdrawn and too highly
coloured, but it substantially represents what many thoughtful and
clear-sighted men see today when gazing upon the eastern and
western worlds.”

+ − Sat R 129:501 My 29 ’20 950w

“There is much good sense in this attractive book.”

+ Spec 124:526 Ap 17 ’20 250w

“His solution may seem to be inadequate; but without doubt Mr

Leacock has written a valuable popular analysis and has stated sane
and forward-looking remedies.”

+ − Springf’d Republican p10 F 19 ’20 180w

 “Mr Leacock’s treatment of the problem is not intentionally
humorous or flippant, but it is surprisingly superficial. As soon as he
comes to a discussion of the social thought that governs the demands
of large masses at the present time, he becomes positively absurd. Mr
Leacock is most successful where he pricks current misconceptions.”
B. L.

− + Survey 43:782 Mr 20 ’20 220w

“He does not overload his subject with the useless ballast of
philosophic jargon, or obscure a poverty of thought by abundance of
words. His book is short, lucid, always to the point, and sometimes
witty.”

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p175 Mr 11

’20 350w

LEACOCK, STEPHEN BUTLER. Winsome

Winnie, and other new nonsense novels. *$1.50 Lane
817

20–21990

This is a sequel to “Nonsense novels,” published in 1911. Again the

author parodies the style of various popular types of fiction. Among
the numbers in this second series are Winsome Winnie: or, Trial and
temptation, narrated after the best models of 1875; The split in the
cabinet: or, The fate of England, a political novel of the days that
were; Who do you think did it? or, The mixed-up murder mystery;
Broken barriers, or Red love on a blue island; and Buggam Grange, a
good old ghost story. The stories have appeared in Harper’s
Magazine.

“While this later volume lacks to a slight degree the fresh

spontaneity of Mr Leacock’s older books, there are plenty of sincere
laughs left.” S. M. R.

+ Bookm 52:371 D ’20 140w

“The great majority of readers will find ‘Winsome Winnie’ almost

as good as the author’s best books. In other words: the work of a man
who, in the silence of Mr Dooley, is the most amusing writer in North
America.” E. L. P.

+ Boston Transcript p4 D 24 ’20 490w

“Despite his delicious drolleries, Mr Leacock’s book of verbal

cartoons contains an amazing amount of truthful criticism—doubly
effective because its form and oblique method of delivery rob it of all
malice.”

+ N Y Times p11 D 19 ’20 670w

“A book of parodies which is as amusing as the first series.

‘Winsome Winnie’ and ‘Who do you think did it?’ are as good as any
of the sketches which Professor Leacock has ever written.” E. L.
Pearson

+ Review 3:558 D 8 ’20 540w

 “It will be a very superior person who does not laugh the first time
he reads Mr Leacock’s version of these jocular subjects. But as the
laugh comes from the verbal surprise or from the technical
improvement in an established joke, it is not likely to be repeated.”

+ − The Times [London] Lit Sup p795 D 2

’20 600w

LEADBITTER, ERIC. Rain before seven. *$2

(2c) Jacobs

20–9473

Michael Lawson was an awkward, shy and colorless youth, the

fourth and youngest in a family of waning fortunes. As a gawky boy
of fifteen he falls in love with the daughter of his tutor, Vicar
Hargrieves. Some years later, Isobel’s heartless flirtations give him
his first deep emotional experience. At school he discovers his love
and talent for music and finds a patron who finances his musical
education. But funds fail before he has launched upon a career, and
he is reduced to playing in a picture-drome. He meets with a
succession of failures and becomes a tramp. As such he is discovered
by his sister Rosie—his family having been ignorant of his
whereabouts for years. His brother, a successful scientist and
inventor, takes him on in business. Michael makes good, drops music
altogether, achieves tranquillity of heart and wins the love of a dear
quiet girl, who had adored him even as a child.

“The first novel of a very grave and very garrulous young

Englishman who has not yet discovered how many things have been
said before. The trail of his story is lost under an underbrush of
truisms, though through the brambles one catches glimpses of
landscape not unlike some of Mr Mackenzie’s milder panoramas.”

− + Dial 69:211 Ag ’20 100w

“It is rather more than a good example of the usual thing.” H. W.

Boynton

+ Review 3:561 D 8 ’20 270w

LEARY, JOHN J., Jr. Talks with T. R. il *$3.50

(4c) Houghton

20–11574

Extracts from the diaries of a veteran newspaper man who had

been for many years in the habit of recording carefully his
conversations with Theodore Roosevelt. These are now arranged
under appropriate headings, some few of which are: Roosevelt and
1920; Dewey and Fighting Bob; The break with Taft; The attempt on
his life; Clashes with the Kaiser; On election eve, 1916; Senator
Lodge’s fist fight; Roosevelt’s one talk with Mr Wilson; Roosevelt on
labor; Loyalty; Germans in America; Colonel Roosevelt on boys;
Pershing and Wood. There are a number of illustrations.

“The picture is less attractive than that of the writer of the letters
to his children, or of the state papers that have been included in Mr
Bishop’s selection, but it seems to present with fidelity one of the
poses of the most versatile statesmen of our day. The absence of an
index makes the book more difficult to use than it need have been.”
F: L. Paxson
 + − Am Hist R 26:149 O ’20 400w

“A wonderful readable book about a wonderful personality.” E. J.

C.

+ Boston Transcript p8 Je 12 ’20 450w

“The volume is a racy, authentic, well-considered work, but instead

of revealing the inner springs of motive, instead of a transvaluation
of strenuous values, it merely adds to the sum total of current
impressions.” L. B.

+ Freeman 2:118 O 13 ’20 280w

“Better than any photograph or any biography I know, they give

you the feeling of having talked with the man in the flesh.”

+ Ind 104:242 N 13 ’20 110w

“It is in all respects one of the best Roosevelt books we have ever
seen, and in some respects the best.”

+ N Y Times p19 Ag 15 ’20 1700w

“It is all vastly entertaining, though one wonders whether the

obligation of discretion which private conversation implies has not in
certain cases been prematurely sacrificed in the interest of impartial
history.”

+ Outlook 126:292 O 13 ’20 580w

 “‘Talks with T. R.’ is an unusually interesting book. It is a really
valuable book. It is certain to be read; it deserves to be read. The
author of the book had done well to omit certain virulent assaults on
living Americans, notably President Wilson.”

+ − Review 2:656 Je 23 ’20 350w

+ R of Rs 62:111 Jl ’20 100w

“It is a readable and informing book. The principal criticism that

may be made concerns the typography and make-up of the volume. It
could be condensed nearly fifty per cent without detracting from its
readableness.”

+ − Springf’d Republican p8 Je 24 ’20 550w

LEBLANC, MAURICE. Secret of Sarek. il *$1.75

Macaulay co.

20–5586

“To put into his narrative the right degree of thrill, the correct dose
of horror, M. Leblanc takes us to the gloomy island of Sarek, off the
coast of Brittany, which has the cheerful nickname of ‘Island of the
coffins,’ and there plunges his characters into a welter of murder,
mystery and terror that has few parallels in this kind of fiction.
Strange figures robed in white, flitting in and out of the woods on the
island, make one suspect that the ghosts of the druids of ancient
times, or else descendants of theirs dwelling in caves beneath the
island, have got on the rampage in the modern world. Arsène Lupin,
the peerless solver of mysteries, arrives on the island in his little
private submarine. He takes the situation in hand with his usual
combination of ability, bravery and luck. Things move fast from the
moment that he sets foot on the old stamping ground of the druids. It
would be unfair to tell the series of strokes of genius, combined with
strokes of the incredible luck, whereby Arsène Lupin circumvents the
atrocious Vorski and makes it possible for ‘The secret of Sarek’ to
have a happy ending.”—N Y Times

Ath p495 Ap 9 ’20 100w

Reviewed by H. W. Boynton

+ Bookman 51:584 Jl ’20 230w

“Suffice it to say that it is an enthralling story, carried forward

breathlessly amid a whirl of shooting, stabbing, crucifying and
general bloodshed, cleverly raised above most of its kind by a really
baffling atmosphere of mystery, a genuine thriller among thrillers.”

+ N Y Times 25:199 Ap 18 ’20 700w

Reviewed by E. C. Webb

Pub W 97:996 Mr 20 ’20 250w

“The book is full of eerie mysteries and disasters violent enough to

merit honourable mention in a competition with Greek tragedies and
tinged with a suggestion of archaic survivals and black magic which
will pleasantly thrill even a jaded reader.”
 + The Times [London] Lit Sup p242 Ap
15 ’20 180w

LEDWIDGE, FRANCIS. Complete poems of

Francis Ledwidge. *$2.50 Brentano’s 821

20–2931

Francis Ledwidge, the young Irish poet, lost his life in the war. His
poems are brought together in this volume, with an introduction by
Lord Dunsany. “Readers familiar with his work will find all of the
favorites in this volume—June, To my best friend, Desire in spring,
and others. They will find also his poems written during the great
war. It is interesting to note that he did not write much of battle and
all that went with it, but made his songs out of memories or out of
new glimpses of beauty.” (N Y Times)

“His scope was limited. Trees, flowers and the recurring seasons
were his theme. But he evidently believed in these things, and did not
write of nature because since Wordsworth’s day, it is the correct
thing to do. Ledwidge was a countryman and loved the country; the
desire to express himself came, and he moulded into what are often
exquisite forms, the simple country thoughts which were natural in
him.”

+ Ath p1255 N 28 ’19 340w

+ Booklist 16:234 Ap ’20
 “A book which many lovers of modern Irish poetry will rejoice to
possess. In many of the poems there is evidence of a delicate and
fragrant talent, but one refuses to speak, as the editor so confidently
does, of Ledwidge’s genius.” H: A. Lappin

+ − Bookm 51:215 Ap ’20 160w

“It is difficult to predict what his future development might have

been, but at least there is nothing in this collection to justify the
editor in speaking so confidently of his protégé as a genius. Although
there is here a great deal of fragrant and delicate imagination, and
much keen and intimate observation of sky and tree and field and
bird, there is nothing quite so full of Irish reality as any one of a
dozen lyrics one might mention by Joseph Campbell or Padraic
Colum, for example.”

+ − Cath World 110:827 Mr ’20 260w

“There is little in the slight evidence before us to indicate that he

would have made his place by sheer power; his success, had he lived,
and had he obtained it, would have been of the idiosyncratic sort.
And success of this sort he would, I think, no doubt have obtained.
For through all his work runs a strain of lyric magic.” Conrad Aiken

+ − Dial 68:376 Mr ’20 1900w

“Francis Ledwidge was an honest songster, a poet of the blackbird

in a time of hawks and vultures. He was in no sense an important
poet, it must be said.” Mark Van Doren

+ − Nation 111:sup415 O 13 ’20 60w

 “When it is said that he is somewhat unvarying and that he is
sometimes immature it remains to be said that in everything Francis
Ledwidge wrote there is the shapely and the imaginative phrase.”
Padraic Colum

+ − New Repub 22:190 Ap 7 ’20 680w

“He knew the simplicities and austerities of wild life in fields and
woods so well that he could borrow from them a little sternness to go
with the sweetness of his song.”

+ N Y Times 25:27 Ja 18 ’20 500w

“It is simple, sincere, beautiful. Yet it is always quiet and restful. It

is not emotional, it soothes. The pictures are gems.”

+ Springf’d Republican p10 Ap 27 ’20

900w

“It is true that he is ‘the poet of the blackbird,’ that his ‘small circle
of readers’ will turn to his work for its mildness, sweetness, and
serenity, ‘as to a very still lake ... on a very cloudless evening.’ But
that small circle must not be disappointed to discover that his
limpidity and naturalness are often blurred with the derivative, that
his taste is uncertain, ... that his imagination is less active than his
fancy. Complete poems, unflawed by inequalities of tone and
workmanship are therefore rare.”

+ − The Times [London] Lit Sup p607 O 30

’19 1700w
 “It is impossible to read these again without realizing that
Ledwidge is Ireland’s foremost poet of landscape, a poet who will
undoubtedly win lasting recognition.” N. J. O’Conor

+ Yale R n s 10:207 O ’20 130w

LEE, GERALD STANLEY. Ghost in the White

House. *$2 Dutton 342.7

20–8716

“‘The White House is haunted by a vague helpless abstraction,—by

a kind of ghost of the nation, called the People.’ Gerald Stanley Lee
gives expression to what he regards as the common aspiration of the
people—a yearning to emerge from the ghost stage and to take on
tangible shape and substance through which to give expression and
to render service. This transformation must be wrought through the
organization of the people—the consumers—into a large club or
league with branches and chapters. Thus organized, the individual
would have a channel for the expression and application of their
constructive thought. On the individual is the responsibility of
arming himself with knowledge adequate for good judgment, with
perspective for sound progress, with vision for comprehensive
planning. Then shall the President be simply the chief of a practical
religion.”—Survey.

“Mr Lee writes for the most part in words of one syllable, a style
admirably suited to reflect his own mental processes.” H. K.

− Freeman 2:333 D 15. ’20 190w

 Ind 103:292 S 4 ’20 80w

“The author has thought, or mused, a lot, but he has hardly studied
the problems at all. He fancies that economics is a very simple
science—and so it is, his economics. He has not the faintest
conception of the real forces that are now reshaping the industrial
world.”

− Nation 111:276 S 4 ’20 430w

“Mr Lee’s book is thought provoking, stimulating, and much of it is

true. It will provoke thought in persons who do not habitually think.
One is not quite sure whether a good book like this helps or hinders
one.” M. F. Egan

+ − N Y Times 25:5 Jl 4 ’20 3000w

“It is a remarkably successful attempt to formulate the definite,

practical desires of the plain people.”

+ R of Rs 42:109 Jl ’20 120w

+ Springf’d Republican p6 O 4 ’20 670w

“It deserves to be widely read. It deals in a fascinating way with a

common experience and a serious problem. While it does not solve
this old problem, it serves a good purpose by stimulating new
interest and new thought.” A. J. Lien

+ Survey 44:591 Ag 2 ’20 200w

 LEE, HARRY SHERIDAN. High company.
*$1.50 Stokes 811

20–16183

A collection of war poems under the subtitle “sketches of courage

and comradeship,” mostly hospital scenes full of pathos and touches
of humor. Contents: The upper room; The pipe and the fire;
Angeline; April hearts; The hidden wound; Trees; Baldur the bright
god; Winged heels; Ninette and Rintintin; Deferred payment;
“Soldiers three”; Biddle’s kid; The good brown earth; The roll of
honour; Pudgyfist visits the hospital; Lights out; The pie lady; “Every
dog has his day”; “All in the blue unclouded weather”; Buddies; The
shadow of the cloud; “Men of good will.”

+ Cath World 112:402 D ’20 170w

“The wounded doughboys are depicted with humor, sympathy, and

originality, but the free verse form often degenerates into literal and
banal prose.”

+ − N Y Evening Post p13 N 6 ’ 20 90w

“The tribute is beautiful in spirit, beautiful in expression.”

+ N Y Times p24 D 19 ’20 380w

 LEE, JAMES MELVIN, ed. Business writing.
(Language for men of affairs) il $4 Ronald 808

20–9490

This volume has been prepared by a number of writers connected

with the business department of colleges, and with business
periodicals and is intended to help business men to write reports,
articles for trade papers, make effective speeches at dinners,
conventions or clubs, and to instruct advertising writers. The seven
divisions of the book are headed: Essentials of writing; The
reinforcement of reading; Letter for men of affairs; Report-writing;
Advertising copy; The journalism of business; Mechanical and
incidental. The appendices consist of bibliographies for both volumes
and there is an index. The companion volume on “Talking business”
is by John Mantle Clapp.

Booklist 16:334 Jl ’20

+ R of Rs 62:672 D ’20 70w
+ School R 28:636 O ’20 130w

LEE, JENNETTE BARBOUR (PERRY) (MRS

GERALD STANLEY LEE). Chinese coat. *$1.75
(6c) Scribner

20–14288
 To Eleanor More and her husband, Richard, a blue Chinese coat
that she could not afford to buy became a kind of a symbol. The
desire to give it to her stayed with her husband all thru their early
married life—while their family was growing up and even after the
children were men and women. Their pilgrimage to a far country to
at last gain possession of the coat is the climax of a story which is
part allegory and part romance.

“A quiet tale of married life told with a charming simplicity and a

touch of symbolism.”

+ Booklist 17:71 N ’20

“Companionable, sweet and comfortable, filling the mind with

dreams of times when, unwillingly and under pressure, we were
forced to let the great desire go.”

+ Bookm 52:175 O ’20 60w

“A sweet little story, charmingly told, and illustrating the lovable

qualities of husband and wife.”

+ Cath World 112:271 N ’20 60w

“A story that is remarkably compact and sustained in interest

throughout. Throughout it is woven the glimmering web of poetry,
and this is due partly to the theme itself and partly to the simplicity
of the prose. One feels upon reading the story that Mrs Lee possesses
unsuspected talents. The idealism and symbolic qualities of ‘The
Chinese coat’ are never in doubt. It is a book to be read.”
 + N Y Times p23 S 26 ’20 480w

“A charmingly simple story that has just enough of a plot to hold it

together.”

+ Springf’d Republican p11a S 26 ’20

230w
Wis Lib Bul 16:194 N ’20 80w

LEE, VERNON, pseud. (VIOLET PAGET).

Satan the waster. *$2.50 Lane 822

20–16301

Vernon Lee’s satirical allegory, “The ballet of the nations,” was

published in 1915 and was reviewed in the Book Review Digest at
that time. It is now reprinted here, with prologue and epilogue which
take account of the deeper causes leading to the war and of the chaos
that has followed it. In the trilogy thus completed Satan appears as
“the waster of human virtues.” And since the greater and more
useless the waste, the greater his delight, he finds his chief joy in self-
sacrifice which is vain, and the author, who in the furnace of the war
has come to doubt and question all accepted values, suggests that
what the world needs in place of self-sacrifice is that altruism “which
is respect for the other rather than renunciation of the self.” This and
other philosophical aspects of the war are discussed in the
Introduction and in the notes which follow the play.
 Ath p846 Je 25 ’20 190w

“We are casting about for a reason why a book so honest,

intelligent, well-written, clever, should not stimulate but depress,
should be a tiresome book. We may mention that the masque, ‘Satan
the waster,’ occupies 110 pages out of about 340; the remainder
consists of introduction and notes. That is a damning—or at least a
damnable—fact.” F. W. S.

+ − Ath p299 S 3 ’20 640w

Booklist 17:106 D ’20

“It is an interesting discussion of our international imbecilities and

sets forth with pomp those precise opinions whose less elegant
expression recently sent several hundred Americans to jail.”

+ Dial 70:232 F ’21 70w

“Enormously stimulating and quickening book. It ought to be one

of the real factors in that spiritual re-adjustment which is now a
major democratic necessity.” F. H.

+ New Repub 24:244 N 3 ’20 3650w

“Her satire fails because never from beginning to end can the
reader believe in it. It is merely an expression of her opinions in a
very artificial form; and, whether or no we agree with them, we
would rather have them expressed in the natural form of argument.”
 − The Times [London] Lit Sup p389 Je
24 ’20 3200w

“It embodies the reaction to the world war of one of the sanest
minds and most finished stylists of her day. One who compares
Romain Rolland’s dramatic satire ‘Liluli’ with this work, is struck
with the similarity in purpose, in point of view, in fundamental
concept, and even in their common form of cosmic burlesque.
Neither the great Frenchman nor the great Englishwoman has
written a ‘play’ in the ordinary sense, but each has made an
uncommon contribution to literature.”

+ Theatre Arts Magazine 5:85 Ja ’21 320w

LEES, GEORGE ROBINSON. Life of Christ. il

*$5 Dodd 232

20–18310

Considering it of supreme importance to be able to visualize the

scenery amid which the life of Christ was laid, the writer of this
volume spent six years in Palestine during which he learned “how
real was the life of Christ in the scenes depicted in the records of the
Evangelist.” Thus with much local and historic coloring the life of
Jesus is reinterpreted from the accounts of the apostles which are
closely followed. The book is indexed and has one hundred and
twenty-five full page illustrations.

“Inevitably it provokes comparison with Renan in point of literary

style, if not in actual treatment, for Mr Lees is a convinced believer.
His style fails badly by the test. Though a book of this kind is not
greatly to our taste, we cannot but acknowledge the author’s
devotion.”

− + Ath p868 D 24 ’20 90w

“His narrative is plain, simple, understandable, but not marked by

either remarkable scholarship or remarkable insight.”

+ − Outlook 126:767 D 29 ’20 100w

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p687 O 21
’20 90w

LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD. Junk-man, and

other poems. *$1.75 Doubleday 811

20–17992

With a wealth of imagery and a poet’s wisdom all life is mirrored in

these poems in the time-honored garb of rhyme and metre. The first
line of the poem “On re-reading Le morte d’Arthur,” “Here learn who
will the art of noble words” can be applied to this collection, the
author’s first since the war.

+ Booklist 17:105 D ’20