MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) Dr. Sangita Yadav Department of Mathematics BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan

MATH F342 (Differential Geometry)
Dr. Sangita Yadav

Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan
Lecture 12
February 05, 2024
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) February 5, 2024 2 / 42
Section 1.13
Tangent Surfaces, Involutes and
Evolutes
Tangent Surface to a Curve
Definition
The tangent surface the curve ⃗r is the union of all
tangent lines to ⃗r(s) at all its points (also called tangent
developable).
Definition
developable).
Definition
developable).
Tangent line at ⃗r(s) is

⃗
R(u, s) = ⃗r(s) + u⃗r ′ (s).
As u and s both vary, we get the
tangent surface. The image of
the curve u = u(s) in us-plane
gives a curve
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + u(s)⃗r ′ (s).
Involute
Definition
An involute of ⃗r is a curve on the tangent surface of ⃗r
which meets all generating lines orthogonally (at the
corresponding points).
Theorem
If ⃗r1 (s) denotes the position vector on the involute C1 of
a curve C corresponding to its point ⃗r(s), then
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + (c − s)⃗t(s) for a constant c (Here s is an
arc length parameter of ⃗r(s)).
Applications of Involute
Gear industries – To make teeth for two revolving

machines and gears.
Scroll compressing and Gas Compressing – These
are made in this shape to reduce noise and to make
them efficient.
Curvature and Torsion of an Involute
Theorem
For an involute ⃗c(s) for a regular path ⃗r(s) of class
m ⩾ 2,
√
τ 2 + κ2 κτ ′ − κ′ τ
κ⃗c = , τ⃗c = .
κ|c − s| κ(c − s)(τ 2 + κ2 )
Curvature and Torsion of an Involute
Theorem
For an involute ⃗c(s) for a regular path ⃗r(s) of class
m ⩾ 2,
√
τ 2 + κ2 κτ ′ − κ′ τ
κ⃗c = , τ⃗c = .
κ|c − s| κ(c − s)(τ 2 + κ2 )
Involute of a circular helix is a plane curve.

If the involute of a curve is a plane curve then the
curve is a general helix.
Involute of a cycloid is a cycloid.
Evolute
Definition
If C̃ is an involute of C then C is called evolute of C̃.
Evolute
Definition
If C̃ is an involute of C then C is called evolute of C̃.
Theorem
Let ⃗r(s) be a regular curve of class m ⩾ 2 with an arc
length parameter s and non-vanishing curvature. Then
its evolute is given by
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + ρ(s)⃗n(s) + ρ(s) cot(ψ(s) + c)⃗b(s),

R
where c is constant and ψ(s) = τ (s) ds.
Lecture 13
February 06, 2024
Remarks
⃗r(s) has infinitely many evolutes, as c is an arbitrary

constant.
For a plane curve, τ = 0, hence choosing c′ = 0,
tan(ψ + c′ ) = 0. Thus for a plane curve, one of the
evolutes is the locus of the centers of the curvatures.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/7/7f/Cycloid_osculating_circle_
evolute_2.gif
Example
Find involutes and evolutes of ⃗r(t) = (3t, 3t2 , 2t3 ).
Ans. Involute:
⃗ 2 3 c − (3t + 2t3 )
R(t) = (3t, 3t , 2t ) + 2
(1, 2t, 2t2 ).
1 + 2t
Evolute:
⃗ 2 3 3(1 + 2t2 )2 1
R1 (t) =(3t, 3t , 2t ) + 2
(−2t, 1 − 2t2 , 2t)
2 1 + 2t
3(1 + 2t ) 2 2 √ −1
√
+ 2
cot( 2 tan ( 2t) + c)(2t2 , −2t, 1).
2(1 + 2t )
Corollary
The tangents to two different evolutes corresponding to
two constants c1 and c2 drawn from the same point of
the given curve are inclined to each other at a constant
angle c1 − c2 .
Hint.
r⃗1 = ⃗r + ρ⃗n + ρ cot(ψ + c)⃗b.
Z
and ψ = τ ds ⇒ ψ ′ = τ. We shall find unit tangents
vectors ⃗t1c1 and ⃗tc12 corresponding to two constants c1 and
c2 on the evolute and then find the angle between them
using ⃗tc11 · ⃗tc12 = cos θ.
Chapter 2
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic
Properties of a Surface
Surface in R3
Definition (Implicit form)
A surface is defined as set of all solutions of F (x, y, z) = 0.
S = {(x, y, z)R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
Surface in R3
S = {(x, y, z)R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

To study S near a point P , we consider the solutions in some
neighbourhood of P ).
Surface in R3
S = {(x, y, z)R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

To study S near a point P , we consider the solutions in some
neighbourhood of P ).
Definition (Parametric form)

For (independent) parameters u, v with (u, v) varying over a domain
D ⊂ R2 , a surface can be parametrically defined by
x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v), z = h(u, v) for some continuous real
valued functions f, g, h defined on D.
S = {(f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)) : (u, v) ∈ D}.
Remarks
We say S is of class m if f, g, h are of class m i.e.
have continuous partials of order upto m.
Remarks
Parameters u, v are called the curvilinear
coordinates or a parametric representation of the
corresponding point on S.
Remarks
Parameters u, v are called the curvilinear
coordinates or a parametric representation of the
corresponding point on S.
A surface may not have unique parametric
equations.
From a parametric equation, by eliminating
parameters, we may get an implicit equation, but it
may give more points than the parametric surface.
For example S : x = u cosh v, y = u sinh v, z = u2 .
On elimination u, v, we get x2 − y 2 − z = 0 which
may contain points with z < 0.
Parametric transformation
Suppose u, v and ũ, ṽ are two parametric representations
of the same surface. The transformation ũ = ϕ(u, v),
ṽ = ψ(u, v) is called a parametric transformation.
Definition: A parametric transformation is called proper
if (i) ϕ, ψ are single valued, and (ii) The jacobian
determinant ∂(ϕ,ψ)
∂(u,v) ̸= 0 in some domain D.
Remark The condition (i) ensures that there is a well
defined way to go from (u, v) to (ũ, ṽ). The inverse
function theorem of 2 variables ensures the map (ϕ, ψ) is
locally invertible, by (ii).
Remark The condition (i) ensures that there is a well
defined way to go from (u, v) to (ũ, ṽ). The inverse
function theorem of 2 variables ensures the map (ϕ, ψ) is
locally invertible, by (ii).
Example: (u, v) → (eu cos v, eu sin v) is a proper
parametric transformation of the (u, v)-plane, but not
invertible.
Ordinary vs. singular points
Assume, for a position vector ⃗r = (x, y, z) of a point on
S, we have parameterization x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v),
z = h(u, v) where f, g, h have continuous partials of
required order. Write
⃗r(u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)),
⃗r1 = (fu , gu , hu ), r2 = (fv , gv , hv ),
⃗r11 = (fuu , guu , huu ), ⃗r12 = (fuv , guv , huv ),
⃗r21 = (fvu , gvu , hvu ), ⃗r22 = (fvv , gvv , hvv ).
Ordinary vs. singular points
Assume, for a position vector ⃗r = (x, y, z) of a point on
S, we have parameterization x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v),
z = h(u, v) where f, g, h have continuous partials of
required order. Write
⃗r(u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)),
⃗r1 = (fu , gu , hu ), r2 = (fv , gv , hv ),
⃗r11 = (fuu , guu , huu ), ⃗r12 = (fuv , guv , huv ),
⃗r21 = (fvu , gvu , hvu ), ⃗r22 = (fvv , gvv , hvv ).
Alternately we write ⃗r1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), ⃗r2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )
etc.
Definition: If ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ̸= 0 at a point P of S then P is
called an ordinary point of S, otherwise P is called a
singularity of S.
Alternate significance of ordinary point
î ĵ k̂ î ĵ k̂
⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = fu gu hu = x1 y1 z1 .
fv gv hv x2 y2 z2
Thus ⃗r(u0 , v0 ) is ordinary ifand only if some 2 × 2 minor
x y z
of J (x, y, z) = 1 1 1 at (u0 , v0 ) is nonzero i.e. if
x2 y2 z2
and only if J (x, y, z) at (u0 , v0 ) has rank 2.
⃗r(u0 , v0 ) is singular if and only if J (x, y, z) at (u0 , v0 )
has rank 0 or 1.
Example of Singularity
Cone: ⃗r(u, v) = (u sin α cos v, u sin α sin v, u cos α),

−∞ < u < ∞, −∞ < v < ∞.
⃗r1 (u, v) = (sin α cos v, sin α sin v, cos α)

⃗r2 (u, v) = (−u sin α sin v, u sin α cos v, 0).
⃗r2 (0, 0) = ⃗0, hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 vanishes at (0, 0), thus
⃗r(0, 0) is a singularity.
Another Example
Consider ⃗r = (u2 , u3 , v), (u, v) ∈ R2 .
⃗r1 =(2u, 3u2 , 0)

⃗r2 =(0, 0, 1).
Hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (3u2 , −2u, 0). Thus the singularities are
all points ⃗r(0, v).
Invariance
Theorem
A proper parametric transformation carries an ordinary
point to an ordinary point.
Example
In the previous theorem, proper parametric
transformation is essential as indicated in the following
example. Consider (ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) = (r cos θ, r sin θ) be
a parametric transformation for the parametric surface
⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0), −∞ < u < ∞, −∞ < v < ∞.
Here ⃗r1 = (1, 0, 0), ⃗r2 = (0, 1, 0),
∴ ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (0, 0, 1) ̸= 0. Thus all points of this surface
are ordinary. Now
⃗r ∗ S(r, θ) = ⃗r(ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) = (r cos θ, r sin θ, 0).
So ⃗r1∗ = (cos θ, sin θ, 0), ⃗r2∗ = (−r sin θ, r cos θ, 0). Since
⃗r2∗ (0, θ) = ⃗0, hence ⃗r ∗ (0, θ) is singular for all θ.
(ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) is not a proper parametric transformation.
Surfaces covered by several parameterizations
Not all surfaces are covered by a single transformation.

Single parametrization is enough to cover the surface
near its point, but to study the whole surface, we may
require to consider several parametrization, union of
whose images is the surface S.
Definition
A representation of a surface S of class m in R3 is a
collection {Sj } of parts of S such that each Sj is given
by a single parametrization and on the overlap Si ∩ Sj ,
where both the parametrization work, the parametric
transformation is proper of class m.
m-equivalence of representations.
Let R = {Si }, R′ = {Si′ } be two representations of a
surface S of class m. We say that R is m-equivalent to
R′ if whenever Si ∩ Sj′ ̸= ϕ, parametric transformation is
proper of class m.
proper of class m.
Definition: A surface S of class m is a m-equivalence
class of representations of class m.
proper of class m.
Definition: A surface S of class m is a m-equivalence
class of representations of class m.
Remark: To study properties of a surface, we can use a
suitable representation in that m-equivalence class (we
are interested in properties shared by m-equivalent
representations). To study the surface near a point, only
one parameterization whose image contains that point is
enough.
Example
Consider two representations S, S ′ of the xy-plane where

S is a parameterization ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0) ∀ (u, v) and
S ′ is a parameterization
⃗r1 (r, θ) = (r cos θ, r sin θ, 0) ∀ (r, θ). These are not
1-equivalent,
√ as for the parametric transformation,
2 2
r = u + v not of class 1.
Curves on a surface
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the equation of a surface of class m

where u, v vary over a domain in the uv-plane. Let
u = u(t) and v = v(t) be a curve of class n lying in the
domain D of the uv-plane.
Curves on a surface
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the equation of a surface of class m

where u, v vary over a domain in the uv-plane. Let
u = u(t) and v = v(t) be a curve of class n lying in the
domain D of the uv-plane. Now consider
⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)). Then ⃗r gives the position vector of a
point in terms of a single parameter t so that
⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) is a curve lying on a surface with class
equal to smaller of m and n. The equation u = u(t) and
v = v(t) are called curvilinear equations of the curve on
the surface.
Remark
As a consequence of inverse function theorem, it can be

shown that near a regular point, any curve ⃗γ (t) whose
image lies in the image of ⃗r(u, v) can be represented as
⃗r(u(t), v(t)) for suitable functions u(t), v(t) of the same
class m.
Parametric Curves
Definition
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the given surface of class m. Let
v = c where c is an arbitrary constant. Then the position
vector ⃗r = ⃗r(u, c) is a function of a single parameter u
and hence ⃗r = ⃗r(u, c) represents a curve lying on the
surface ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v). This curve is called the parametric
curve v = constant. Simlarly, we get another family of
parametric curve, when u = constant.
Properties of parametric curves
Through every point of the surface, there passes
one and only one parametric curve of each system.
No two curves of the same system intersect.
The curves of the systeem u = u0 and v = v0
intersect once but not more than once if
(u0 , v0 ) ∈ D.
The curves of the systeem u = u0 and v = v0
intersect once but not more than once if
(u0 , v0 ) ∈ D.
The parametric curves of the system u = c1 and
v = c2 cannot touch each other.
Tangent to the curve v = c in the direction of u
∂⃗r
increasing is ⃗r1 = ∂u .
Tangent to the curve u = c in the direction of v
∂⃗r
increasing is ⃗r2 = ∂v .
Q. 3, Page - 158
Show that on the surface
⃗r(u, v) = (a(u + v), b(u − v), uv), parametric curves are
straight lines. (ab ̸= 0 is required).
Q. 3, Page - 158
Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R
Q. 3, Page - 158
Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R is a line

passing through ⃗r(0, c) = (ac, −bc, 0) with direction
ratios (a, b, c).
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
Similarly ⃗r(c, v) = (a(c + v), b(c − v), cv), v ∈ R
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
Similarly ⃗r(c, v) = (a(c + v), b(c − v), cv), v ∈ R is a line
passing through ⃗r(c, 0) = (ac, bc, 0) with direction ratios
(a, −b, c).
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
Similarly ⃗r(c, v) = (a(c + v), b(c − v), cv), v ∈ R is a line
passing through ⃗r(c, 0) = (ac, bc, 0) with direction ratios
(a, −b, c).
The surface
is
hyperbolic paraboloid (Horse saddle)
1 x2 y2
z = 4 a2 − b2 . It can be made by putting together
straight sticks (such surfaces are called ruled surfaces).
Example 1(ii) Pg. 143
The hyperboloid of one sheet can be represented as

(u − v) (1 + uv) (uv − 1)
⃗r(u, v) = a ,b ,c .
u+v u+v u+v
Find the curves u = constant and v = constant.
Example 1(ii) Pg. 143
The hyperboloid of one sheet can be represented as

(u − v) (1 + uv) (uv − 1)
⃗r(u, v) = a ,b ,c .
u+v u+v u+v
Find the curves u = constant and v = constant.
Sol. . It has parametric curves as a straight line. It is

2 2 2
also a level surface xa2 + yb2 − zc2 = 1.
Hyperboloid of one sheet
Definition
Let u = c1 and v = c2 . When the constants c1 and c2
vary, the whole surface is covered with a net of
parametric curves, two of which pass through every
point, (u, v) are called the curvilinear coordinates of P .
The parametric curves are called coordinate curves.
Definition
Let u = c1 and v = c2 . When the constants c1 and c2
vary, the whole surface is covered with a net of
parametric curves, two of which pass through every
point, (u, v) are called the curvilinear coordinates of P .
The parametric curves are called coordinate curves.
Definition
Two parametric curves through a point P are said to be
orthogonal if ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = 0 at P. If this condition is satisfied
at every point (u, v) of the domain, than the two system
of parametric curves are orthogonal.
Tangent Plane
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) be a general curve lying on the
surface passing through (u(t), v(t)). Then the tangent
to the curve at any point P on the surface is
d⃗r ∂⃗r du ∂⃗r dv du dv
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
dt ∂u dt ∂v dt dt dt
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
Tangent to any curve drawn on a surface is called a
tangent line to the surface.
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
tangent line to the surface.The tangents to different
curves through P on a surface lie in a plane containing
two independent vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . This plane is called
tangent plane at P .
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
tangent line to the surface.The tangents to different
curves through P on a surface lie in a plane containing
two independent vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . This plane is called
tangent plane at P .
Tangent plane to a regular surface
Theorem
The equation of a tangent plane at P on a surface with position
vector ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) is either
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
where a and b are parameters.
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
Proof. Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the position vector of a point P on the
surface. The tangent plane at P passes through ⃗r and contains the
⃗ is the position vector of any point on the
vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . So if R
tangent plane at P , thenR ⃗ − ⃗r, ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 are coplanar. Hence we
have R⃗ − ⃗r = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 where a and b are arbitrary constants.
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
Proof. Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the position vector of a point P on the
surface. The tangent plane at P passes through ⃗r and contains the
vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . So if R⃗ is the position vector of any point on the
tangent plane at P , thenR ⃗ − ⃗r, ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 are coplanar. Hence we
have R ⃗ − ⃗r = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 where a and b are arbitrary constants.
⃗r1 × ⃗r2 is perpendicular to the tangent plane at P . Hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 is
perpendicular to R ⃗ − ⃗r lying in the tangent plane so that
⃗ − ⃗r) · ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = 0 is another form of the equation of the tangent
(R
plane at P .
Normal to the Surface
Definition
The normal to the surface at P is a line through P and
perpendicular to the tangent plane at P .
Since ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 lie in the tangent plane at P and pass
through P , the normal is perpendicular to both ⃗r1 , and
⃗r2 and it is parallel to ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 . The normal at P is fixed
by the following convention. If N ⃗ denotes the unit
normal at P , then ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 and N ⃗ in this order should form
a right handed system. Using this convention we have
N⃗ = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 , where H = |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |.

|⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | H
Equation of the Normal on the Surface
Theorem
The equation of the normal N ⃗ at a point P on the
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
surface ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) is R
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Remark: Normal line is invariant under proper
parametric transformation.
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Is unit normal vector invariant?
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Is unit normal vector invariant?
Theorem
A proper parametric transformation either leaves every
normal unchanged or reverses the direction of the normal.
Proof
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the given surface and let the
parametric transformation be
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
Since the parametric transformation is proper,
′ ′
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸= 0.
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
′ ′
Using H and H in the above step, ′ ⃗ = ∂(u , v ) H ′ N
HN ⃗ ′.
∂(u, v)
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
′ ′
Using H and H in the above step, ′
HN⃗ = ∂(u , v ) H ′ N
⃗ ′.
∂(u, v)
Since H and H ′ are always positive, N and N are of the ⃗ ⃗′
same sign if J > 0 and are of opposite sign if J < 0.
Since J is a continuous function of the parameter u, v
in the whole domain and J does not vanish in D, J
retains the same sign in D. This proves that N⃗ and N
⃗′
have the same sign.
Example 1, Page 111
Obtain the surface equation of sphere and find the
singularities, parametric curves, tangent plane at a point
and the surface normal.
Example 1, Page 111
Obtain the surface equation of sphere and find the
singularities, parametric curves, tangent plane at a point
and the surface normal.
Sol. Use relation between Cartesian and spherical

coordinates : x = ρ sin ϕ cos θ, y = ρ sin ϕ sin θ,
z = ρ cos ϕ. Unit sphere is ρ = 1. Hence using u, v
instead of ϕ, θ and ρ = a, we get
⃗r = (a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a cos u),
where u, v are parameters and 0 ⩽ u ⩽ π, 0 ⩽ v ⩽ 2π.


MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) Dr. Sangita Yadav Department of Mathematics BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan

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MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) Dr. Sangita Yadav Department of Mathematics BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan

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MATH F342 (Differential Geometry)

Dr. Sangita Yadav

Tangent line at ⃗r(s) is

Gear industries – To make teeth for two revolving

Involute of a circular helix is a plane curve.

⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + ρ(s)⃗n(s) + ρ(s) cot(ψ(s) + c)⃗b(s),

⃗r(s) has infinitely many evolutes, as c is an arbitrary

(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

Definition (Parametric form)

Cone: ⃗r(u, v) = (u sin α cos v, u sin α sin v, u cos α),

⃗r1 (u, v) = (sin α cos v, sin α sin v, cos α)

Consider ⃗r = (u2 , u3 , v), (u, v) ∈ R2 .

⃗r1 =(2u, 3u2 , 0)

Not all surfaces are covered by a single transformation.

Consider two representations S, S ′ of the xy-plane where

Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the equation of a surface of class m

Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the equation of a surface of class m

As a consequence of inverse function theorem, it can be

Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R

Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R is a line

Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R is a line

Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R is a line

Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R is a line

The hyperboloid of one sheet can be represented as

The hyperboloid of one sheet can be represented as

Sol. . It has parametric curves as a straight line. It is

N⃗ = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 , where H = |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |.

Sol. Use relation between Cartesian and spherical

⃗r = (a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a cos u),

where u, v are parameters and 0 ⩽ u ⩽ π, 0 ⩽ v ⩽ 2π.

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