MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) Dr. Sangita Yadav Department of Mathematics BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan

MATH F342 (Differential Geometry)
Dr. Sangita Yadav

Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan
Lecture 12
February 05, 2024
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) February 10, 2024 2 / 28
Section 1.13
Tangent Surfaces, Involutes and
Evolutes
Tangent Surface to a Curve
Definition
The tangent surface the curve ⃗r is the union of all
tangent lines to ⃗r(s) at all its points (also called tangent
developable).
Definition
developable).
Definition
developable).
Tangent line at ⃗r(s) is

⃗
R(u, s) = ⃗r(s) + u⃗r ′ (s).
As u and s both vary, we get the
tangent surface. The image of
the curve u = u(s) in us-plane
gives a curve
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + u(s)⃗r ′ (s).
Involute
Definition
An involute of ⃗r is a curve on the tangent surface of ⃗r
which meets all generating lines orthogonally (at the
corresponding points).
Theorem
If ⃗r1 (s) denotes the position vector on the involute C1 of
a curve C corresponding to its point ⃗r(s), then
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + (c − s)⃗t(s) for a constant c (Here s is an
arc length parameter of ⃗r(s)).
Applications of Involute
Gear industries – To make teeth for two revolving

machines and gears.
Scroll compressing and Gas Compressing – These
are made in this shape to reduce noise and to make
them efficient.
Curvature and Torsion of an Involute
Theorem
For an involute ⃗c(s) for a regular path ⃗r(s) of class
m ⩾ 2,
√
τ 2 + κ2 κτ ′ − κ′ τ
κ⃗c = , τ⃗c = .
κ|c − s| κ(c − s)(τ 2 + κ2 )
Curvature and Torsion of an Involute
Theorem
For an involute ⃗c(s) for a regular path ⃗r(s) of class
m ⩾ 2,
√
τ 2 + κ2 κτ ′ − κ′ τ
κ⃗c = , τ⃗c = .
κ|c − s| κ(c − s)(τ 2 + κ2 )
Involute of a circular helix is a plane curve.

If the involute of a curve is a plane curve then the
curve is a general helix.
Involute of a cycloid is a cycloid.
Evolute
Definition
If C̃ is an involute of C then C is called evolute of C̃.
Evolute
Definition
If C̃ is an involute of C then C is called evolute of C̃.
Theorem
Let ⃗r(s) be a regular curve of class m ⩾ 2 with an arc
length parameter s and non-vanishing curvature. Then
its evolute is given by
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + ρ(s)⃗n(s) + ρ(s) cot(ψ(s) + c)⃗b(s),

R
where c is constant and ψ(s) = τ (s) ds.
Lecture 13
February 08, 2024
Remarks
⃗r(s) has infinitely many evolutes, as c is an arbitrary

constant.
For a plane curve, τ = 0, hence choosing c′ = 0,
tan(ψ + c′ ) = 0. Thus for a plane curve, one of the
evolutes is the locus of the centers of the curvatures.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/7/7f/Cycloid_osculating_circle_
evolute_2.gif
Example
Find involutes and evolutes of ⃗r(t) = (3t, 3t2 , 2t3 ).
Ans. Involute:
⃗ 2 3 c − (3t + 2t3 )
R(t) = (3t, 3t , 2t ) + 2
(1, 2t, 2t2 ).
1 + 2t
Evolute:
⃗ 2 3 3(1 + 2t2 )2 1
R1 (t) =(3t, 3t , 2t ) + 2
(−2t, 1 − 2t2 , 2t)
2 1 + 2t
3(1 + 2t ) 2 2 √ −1
√
+ 2
cot( 2 tan ( 2t) + c)(2t2 , −2t, 1).
2(1 + 2t )
Corollary
The tangents to two different evolutes corresponding to
two constants c1 and c2 drawn from the same point of
the given curve are inclined to each other at a constant
angle c1 − c2 .
Hint.
r⃗1 = ⃗r + ρ⃗n + ρ cot(ψ + c)⃗b.
Z
and ψ = τ ds ⇒ ψ ′ = τ. We shall find unit tangents
vectors ⃗t1c1 and ⃗tc12 corresponding to two constants c1 and
c2 on the evolute and then find the angle between them
using ⃗tc11 · ⃗tc12 = cos θ.
Chapter 2
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic
Properties of a Surface
Section 2.2
Definition of a Surface
Surface in R3
Definition (Implicit form)
A surface is defined as set of all solutions of F (x, y, z) = 0.
S = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
Surface in R3
S = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

To study S near a point P , we consider the solutions in some
neighbourhood of P ).
Surface in R3
S = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

To study S near a point P , we consider the solutions in some
neighbourhood of P ).
Definition (Parametric form)

For (independent) parameters u, v with (u, v) varying over a domain
D ⊂ R2 , a surface can be parametrically defined by
x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v), z = h(u, v) for some continuous real
valued functions f, g, h defined on D.
S = {(f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)) : (u, v) ∈ D}.
Remarks
We say S is of class m if f, g, h are of class m i.e.
have continuous partials of order upto m.
Remarks
Parameters u, v are called the curvilinear
coordinates or a parametric representation of the
corresponding point on S.
Remarks
Parameters u, v are called the curvilinear
coordinates or a parametric representation of the
corresponding point on S.
A surface may not have unique parametric
equations.
From a parametric equation, by eliminating
parameters, we may get an implicit equation, but it
may give more points than the parametric surface.
For example S : x = u cosh v, y = u sinh v, z = u2 .
On elimination u, v, we get x2 − y 2 − z = 0 which
may contain points with z < 0.
Lecture 14
February 10, 2024
Parametric transformation
Suppose u, v and ũ, ṽ are two parametric representations
of the same surface. The transformation ũ = ϕ(u, v),
ṽ = ψ(u, v) is called a parametric transformation.
Definition: A parametric transformation is called proper
if (i) ϕ, ψ are single valued, and (ii) The jacobian
determinant ∂(ϕ,ψ)
∂(u,v) ̸= 0 in some domain D.
Remark The condition (i) ensures that there is a well
defined way to go from (u, v) to (ũ, ṽ). The inverse
function theorem of 2 variables ensures the map (ϕ, ψ) is
locally invertible, by (ii).
Remark The condition (i) ensures that there is a well
defined way to go from (u, v) to (ũ, ṽ). The inverse
function theorem of 2 variables ensures the map (ϕ, ψ) is
locally invertible, by (ii).
Example: (u, v) → (eu cos v, eu sin v) is a proper
parametric transformation of the (u, v)-plane, but not
invertible.
Section 2.3
Nature of Points on a Surface
Ordinary vs. singular points
Assume, for a position vector ⃗r = (x, y, z) of a point on
S, we have parameterization x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v),
z = h(u, v) where f, g, h have continuous partials of
required order. Write
⃗r(u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)),
⃗r1 = (fu , gu , hu ), r2 = (fv , gv , hv ),
⃗r11 = (fuu , guu , huu ), ⃗r12 = (fuv , guv , huv ),
⃗r21 = (fvu , gvu , hvu ), ⃗r22 = (fvv , gvv , hvv ).
Ordinary vs. singular points
Assume, for a position vector ⃗r = (x, y, z) of a point on
S, we have parameterization x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v),
z = h(u, v) where f, g, h have continuous partials of
required order. Write
⃗r(u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)),
⃗r1 = (fu , gu , hu ), r2 = (fv , gv , hv ),
⃗r11 = (fuu , guu , huu ), ⃗r12 = (fuv , guv , huv ),
⃗r21 = (fvu , gvu , hvu ), ⃗r22 = (fvv , gvv , hvv ).
Alternately we write ⃗r1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), ⃗r2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )
etc.
Definition: If ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ̸= 0 at a point P of S then P is
called an ordinary point of S, otherwise P is called a
singularity of S.
Alternate significance of ordinary point
î ĵ k̂ î ĵ k̂
⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = fu gu hu = x1 y1 z1 .
fv gv hv x2 y2 z2
Thus ⃗r(u0 , v0 ) is ordinary ifand only if some 2 × 2 minor
x y z
of J (x, y, z) = 1 1 1 at (u0 , v0 ) is nonzero i.e. if
x2 y2 z2
and only if J (x, y, z) at (u0 , v0 ) has rank 2.
⃗r(u0 , v0 ) is singular if and only if J (x, y, z) at (u0 , v0 )
has rank 0 or 1.
Example of Singularity
Cone: ⃗r(u, v) = (u sin α cos v, u sin α sin v, u cos α),

−∞ < u < ∞, −∞ < v < ∞.
⃗r1 (u, v) = (sin α cos v, sin α sin v, cos α)

⃗r2 (u, v) = (−u sin α sin v, u sin α cos v, 0).
⃗r2 (0, 0) = ⃗0, hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 vanishes at (0, 0), thus
⃗r(0, 0) is a singularity.
Another Example
Consider ⃗r = (u2 , u3 , v), (u, v) ∈ R2 .
⃗r1 =(2u, 3u2 , 0)

⃗r2 =(0, 0, 1).
Hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (3u2 , −2u, 0). Thus the singularities are
all points ⃗r(0, v).
Invariance
Theorem
A proper parametric transformation carries an ordinary
point to an ordinary point.
Example
In the previous theorem, proper parametric
transformation is essential as indicated in the following
example. Consider (ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) = (r cos θ, r sin θ) be
a parametric transformation for the parametric surface
⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0), −∞ < u < ∞, −∞ < v < ∞.
Here ⃗r1 = (1, 0, 0), ⃗r2 = (0, 1, 0),
∴ ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (0, 0, 1) ̸= 0. Thus all points of this surface
are ordinary. Now
⃗r ∗ (r, θ) = ⃗r(ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) = (r cos θ, r sin θ, 0).
So ⃗r1∗ = (cos θ, sin θ, 0), ⃗r2∗ = (−r sin θ, r cos θ, 0). Since
⃗r2∗ (0, θ) = ⃗0, hence ⃗r ∗ (0, θ) is singular for all θ.
(ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) is not a proper parametric transformation.
Thanks for your
attention!

MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) Dr. Sangita Yadav Department of Mathematics BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan

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MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) Dr. Sangita Yadav Department of Mathematics BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan

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MATH F342 (Differential Geometry)

Dr. Sangita Yadav

Tangent line at ⃗r(s) is

Gear industries – To make teeth for two revolving

Involute of a circular helix is a plane curve.

⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + ρ(s)⃗n(s) + ρ(s) cot(ψ(s) + c)⃗b(s),

⃗r(s) has infinitely many evolutes, as c is an arbitrary

(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

Definition (Parametric form)

Cone: ⃗r(u, v) = (u sin α cos v, u sin α sin v, u cos α),

⃗r1 (u, v) = (sin α cos v, sin α sin v, cos α)

Consider ⃗r = (u2 , u3 , v), (u, v) ∈ R2 .

⃗r1 =(2u, 3u2 , 0)

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