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MATH F342 (Differential Geometry)
Prof. Sangita Yadav

Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan
Course Structure
Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) January 16, 2024 2 / 51
Course Structure
Instructor-Incharge: Prof. Sangita Yadav
Course Structure
Text Book: Somasundaram, D., Differential Geometry A
First Course, Narosa Publishing House (2005).
Course Structure
Text Book: Somasundaram, D., Differential Geometry A
First Course, Narosa Publishing House (2005).
Objectives: To study the geometry of curves and
surfaces in 3-dimensional space.
Expected outcomes:
To understand how Calculus is useful in formulating
and further studying the geometric concepts
To set a background for geometric concepts in
higher dimensions and more abstract settings
The glimpse of applications of geometry to map
making etc.
Books
Reference Books:
1 Pressley, A – Elementary Differential Geometry, 2nd
Edition(Corrected Print), Springer (2012)
2 Gray A, Abbena E, and Salamon S – Modern
differential geometry of curves and surfaces with
MATHEMATICA, 3rd Edition, CRC Press (2006)
3 Oprea, J – Differential Geometry and Its
Applications, Mathematical Association of
America(2007)
4 Bär, Christian - Elementary Differential Geometry,
1st South Asian edition, Cambridge University Press
(2011)
Topics to be Covered
Plane and space curves,

Serret-Frenet frame,
Curvature and torsion of curves,
Global properties of curves,
First, second and third fundamental forms of
surfaces,
Normal, principal and Gaussian curvatures of
surfaces,
Gauss’ Theorema Egregium and geodesics on
surfaces.
Curves-The Beginning
Familiar Curves
The Straight line
Familiar Curves
The Straight line Slope and intercept form
y = mx + c.
Familiar Curves
y = mx + c.
Slope Point Form
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ).
Familiar Curves
y = mx + c.
Slope Point Form
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ).
Two Point Form
y − y2 = xy22 −y
−x1 (x − x2 )
1
provided x1 ̸= x2 .
Familiar Curves
y = mx + c.
Slope Point Form
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ).
Two Point Form
y − y2 = xy22 −y
−x1 (x − x2 )
1
Intercept Form
x y
a + b = 1, a ̸= 0, b ̸= 0.
Familiar Curves
y = mx + c.
Slope Point Form
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ).
Two Point Form
y − y2 = xy22 −y
−x1 (x − x2 )
1
Intercept Form
x y
a + b = 1, a ̸= 0, b ̸= 0.
General Form
ax + by + c = 0; (a, b) ̸= (0, 0).
Familiar Curves
Parabola
y = x2 ;
Familiar Curves
Parabola Ellipse
y = x2 ; x2
+ y2
= 1; , ab ̸= 0.
a2 b2
Familiar Curves
Circle
Familiar Curves
Circle
x2 + y 2 = r2 ; r > 0.
Familiar Curves
Circle
x2 + y 2 = r2 ; r > 0.
Familiar Curves
Circle Hyperbola
2 2 2
x + y = r ; r > 0.
Familiar Curves
Circle Hyperbola
2 2
2 2 2
x + y = r ; r > 0. xa2 − yb2 = 1; , ab ̸= 0.
Familiar Curves
Circle Hyperbola
2 2
2 2 2
x + y = r ; r > 0. xa2 − yb2 = 1; , ab ̸= 0.
Derived Curves
Cissoid
A cissoid is a plane curve generated from two given
curves C1 , C2 and a point O (the pole).
Derived Curves
Cissoid
A cissoid is a plane curve generated from two given
curves C1 , C2 and a point O (the pole).
Cissoid
If C1 and C2 are given in polar coordinates by
r = f1 (θ) and r = f2 (θ) respectively, then the
equation r = f2 (θ) − f1 (θ) describes the cissoid of
C1 and C2 relative to the origin.
Cissoid
When C1 and C2 are parallel lines then the cissoid is
a third line parallel to the given lines.
Cissoid
When C1 and C2 are parallel lines then the cissoid is
a third line parallel to the given lines.
The cissoid of two non-parallel lines is a hyperbola
containing the pole.
The cissoid of the circle (x + a)2 + y 2 = a2 and the
line x = − a2 relative to the origin is the Trisectrix of
Maclaurin 2x(x2 + y 2 ) = a(3x2 − y 2 ).
Cissoid
The right strophoid y 2 (a + x) = x2 (a − x) is the
cissoid of the circle (x + a)2 + y 2 = a2 and the line
x = −a relative to the origin.
Cissoid
The cissoid of Diocles x(x2 + y 2 ) + 2ay 2 = 0 is the
x = −2a relative to the origin.
Cissoid
The cissoid of Diocles x(x2 + y 2 ) + 2ay 2 = 0 is the
x = −2a relative to the origin.
The cissoid of the circle (x + a)2 + y 2 = a2 and the
line x = ka, where k is a parameter, is called a
Conchoid of de Sluze.
The folium of Descartes x3 + y 3 = 3axy is the
cissoid of the ellipse x2 − xy + y 2 = −a(x + y) and
the line x + y = −a relative to the origin.
Derived Curves
Conchoid is a curve derived from a fixed point O,

another curve, and a length d. It was invented by the
ancient Greek mathematician Nicomedes.
Derived Curves

If r = f (θ) expresses the given curve, then r = f (θ) ± d
expresses the conchoid.
Derived Curves

A limaçon is a conchoid with a circle as the given curve.
Derived Curves

The conchoid is, therefore, the cissoid of the given curve
and a circle of radius d and center O.
Derived Curves

The conchoid is, therefore, the cissoid of the given curve
and a circle of radius d and center O.
The so-called conchoid of de Sluze and conchoid of
Dürer are not actually conchoids.
Conchoid of de Sluze
x(t) = 1 + a cos2 t
a
y(t) = tan t + sin 2t
2
a = 0, line (asymptote to
the rest of the family)
a = −1, cissoid of Diocles
a = −2, right strophoid
a = −4, trisectrix of
Maclaurin
Conchoid of Dürer(1525)
Suppose two perpendicular lines are given, with

intersection point O. For concreteness we may assume
that these are the coordinate axes and that O is the
origin, that is (0, 0). Let points Q = (q, 0) and
R = (0, r) move on the axes in such a way that
q + r = b, a constant. On the line QR, extended as
necessary, mark points P and P’ at a fixed distance a
from Q. The locus of the points P and P ′ is Dürer’s
conchoid1 .
1
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). ”Conchoid” . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol.
6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 826–827.
Conchoid of Dürer
Conchoid of Dürer
Cartesian equation
2y 2 (x2 +y 2 )−2by 2 (x+y)+(b2 −3a2 )y 2 −a2 x2 +2a2 b(x+y)+a2 (a2 −b2 ) = 0
Parametric form
b cos(t)
x= + a cos(t)
cos(t) − sin(t)
y = a sin(t)
Special cases include

a = 0 : the line y = 0. √
b = 0 : the line pair y = ±a/ 2 together with the circle
x 2 + y 2 = a2 .
Pedal Curves2
2
https://mathworld.wolfram.com/PedalCurve.html
Pedal Curves2
For a plane curve C and a given fixed pedal point P , the
pedal curve of C is the locus of points X so that the line
P X is perpendicular to a tangent T to the curve passing
through the point X.
2
Pedal Curves2
For a plane curve C and a given fixed pedal point P , the
pedal curve of C is the locus of points X so that the line
P X is perpendicular to a tangent T to the curve passing
through the point X.
The parametric equations for a curve
(f (t), g(t)) relative to the pedal point
(x0 , y0 ) are given by
(x0 f ′2 + f g ′2 + (y0 − g)f ′ g ′ )

xp =
(f ′2 + g ′2 )
(y0 g ′2 + gf ′2 + (x0 − f )f ′ g ′ )
yp = .
(f ′2 + g ′2 )
2
Pedal Curves
Curve Pedal point Pedal curve

Circle Point on circumfer- Cardioid
ence
Circle Any point Limaçon
Parabola Focus The tangent line at
the vertex
Parabola Vertex Cissoid of Diocles
Central conic Focus Auxiliary circle
Strophoid3
A strophoid is a curve generated from a given curve C and points A
(the fixed point) and O (the pole) as follows: Let L be a variable
line passing through O and intersecting C at K. Now let P1 and P2
be the two points on L whose distance from K is the same as the
distance from A to K (i.e. KP1 = KP2 = AK). The locus of such
points P1 and P2 is then the strophoid of C with respect to the pole
O and fixed point A.
3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strophoid
Strophoid3
A strophoid is a curve generated from a given curve C and points A
(the fixed point) and O (the pole) as follows: Let L be a variable
line passing through O and intersecting C at K. Now let P1 and P2
be the two points on L whose distance from K is the same as the
distance from A to K (i.e. KP1 = KP2 = AK). The locus of such
points P1 and P2 is then the strophoid of C with respect to the pole
O and fixed point A.
Let the curve C be given by r = f (θ), where the origin is taken to
be O. Let A be the point (a, b). The equation of the strophoid is
given by
p
r = f (θ) ± (f (θ) cos θ − a)2 + (f (θ) sin θ − b)2
3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strophoid
Strophoid
Graph of a continuous Function
y = f (x)
More Examples
Nodal Cubic:
x3 + x2 − y 2 = 0
More Examples
Nodal Cubic:
Cuspidal: y 2 − x3 = 0
x3 + x2 − y 2 = 0
More Examples
Nodal Cubic:
Cuspidal: y 2 − x3 = 0
x3 + x2 − y 2 = 0
For curves above, tangent at origin does not exist.

Curve as Roulette4
When one shape rolls over the other, a fixed point of the
rolling shape traces a curve called roulette.
Cycloid
A circle rolls over a straight line. A fixed point on the
circle traces a cycloid.
x = a(θ − sin θ), y = a(1 − cos θ)

4
https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Roulette.html
Roulettes5
Epicycloid
A circle of radius b rolls over a circle of radius a from the
outside. A fixed point on the rolling circletraces the
epicycloid. θ
x = (a + b) cos θ − b cos (a + b)
b

θ
y = (a + b) sin θ − b sin (a + b)
b
where b is the radius of the rolling

and a that of the fixed circle, and θ
is the angle between the radius vector
of the point of contact of the circles.
5
https://www.mathplayground.com/equation_creations.html
Roulettes
Hypocycloid
A circle of radius b rolls on a circle of radius a from
inside. A fixed point on the rolling circle traces an
hypocycloid.

θ
x = (a − b) cos θ + b cos (a − b)
b

θ
y = (a − b) sin θ − b sin (a − b)
b
where b is the radius of the rolling

and a that of the fixed circle, and θ
is the angle between the radius vector
of the point of contact of the circles.
Roulettes
Epitrochoid/Hyptrochoid
A disk of radius b rolls on a disk of radius a from
outside/inside. A fixed point on the rolling disk traces an
epitrochoid/hyptrochoid.

θ
x = (a + sb) cos θ + sd cos (a + sb) ,
b

θ
y = (a + sb) sin θ − d sin (a + sb) ,
b
where d is the distance of the point from the center of

rolling circle, s = 1/−1 for epitrochoid/hyptrochoid.
Witch of Agnesi
Cartesian form: y = 8a3 /(x2 + 4a2 )

Parametric form: x = 2a tan θ, y = 2a cos2 θ where
θ is the angle between the diameter at origin and
line segment joining the point from the origin.
Witch of Agnesi
Figure 1: The witch of Agnesi with parameters a = 1, a = 2, a = 4,

and a = 8.
Other curves
Famous Curves index

Mathematical Curves
Visual Dictionary of Special Plane Curves
Curves and Surfaces Index
Curves in 3-dimensions
Line:
Line: Line is given as intersection of two nonparallel
planes-
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0,
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0.
Line: Line is given as intersection of two nonparallel
planes-
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0,
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0.
More generally, intersection of two surfaces in

3-dimensions may define a curve in 3-dimensions. These
are common solutions of the system
f (x, y, z) = 0
g(x, y, z) = 0
More Examples

x2 + y 2 = 1,
C :
x + y + z = 0.
It gives an ellipse in 3-
dimension.
More Examples

2
x + y = 1, 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1,
C : C :
x + y + z = 0. x + y + z = 0.
It gives an ellipse in 3- Its a great circle of the
dimension. sphere.
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
Not a curve! Single point.
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 2:
Not a curve! Empty set.
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, 2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, 2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 = 2:
Not a curve! Sphere.
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, 2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 3/4:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, 2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 3/4:
A circle.
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 1:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, 2x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 = 2:
C : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z = 3/4:
A circle.
If we get a curve in this manner, the representation is
called a level curve (in plane for one equation in 2
variables, and in 3 dimensions for 2 equations in 3
variables). In this representation, given a point, it is easy
to verify if it lies on the curve.
Parametric representation
Coordinates x, y, z of the point on the curve are

given as a function of a single parameter t.
Thus (x(t), y(t), z(t)); t ∈ I for an interval I gives a

parametric representation of a curve in 3 dimensions.
x,y,z are required to be at least continuous, we

impose further conditions for convinience.
Examples
Straight line: (a1 t + b1 , a2 t + b2 , a3 t + b3 ) : t ∈ R

where ai , bi are constants and
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ̸= (0, 0, 0).
Circle: (cos t, sin t) : t ∈ R.
Circular helix: (cos t, sin t, t) : t ∈ R.
Twisted Cubic: (t, t2 , t3 ) : t ∈ R. It is nothing but
intersection of two surfaces y − x2 = 0 and
z − x3 = 0.
Twisted Cubic
Relation between two representations
To expand on this example, let us consider how this

relationship can be structured.
Graph of a function: For the function f (x) for a real
variable x ∈ I, its graph is given by
{(x, y) : y = f (x)}.
Its level curve form is F (x, y) = y − f (x) = 0.
Its parametric form is x = t, y = f (t).
One can easily go from one form to another form.
Extending this further, suppose a curve in 3-dimension is
given by y = f (x), z = g(x).
Its parametric form is x = t, y = f (t), z = g(t).
Its level curve form is given by y − f (x) = 0,
z − g(x) = 0.
Common feature in both of these is that a coordinate
can be chosen as parameter.
z − g(x) = 0.
Ques. In general when can this be done?
A way Forward
If we can rewrite each of equations in level curve as two
of the variables can be written in terms of the third, then
we can write it in parametric form. Thus we have to
solve the system for two variables in terms of the third
variable.
A way Forward
variable. How and when can we do this?
A way Forward
If the given curve is in parametric form, we can write the
parameter in terms of one of the variable i.e. we can
write level curve form.This amounts in solving one of the
three equations x = f (t), y = g(t), z = h(t) (Obtained
from the parametrization) for the parameter t in terms of
the corresponding Cartesian variable. How and when can
we do this?
Implicit and inverse function theorem
While finding explicitly the solution of the system may

not always be possible, mere existence of the solution
ensures the existence of the other representation from
given one. Many a times this also helps.

It may not always be possible to even assure existence of

the solution, but under some conditions we may be able
to ensure existence of a solution in a neighborhood of a
point.
Implicit Function Theorem
For curves in 2-dimensions

Suppose f (x, y) is a function with continuous partial
derivatives near P (a, b) which lies on the level curve
∂f
C : f (x, y) = 0 i.e. f (a, b) = 0. Assume (a, b) ̸= 0.
∂y
Then, there exists a neighbourhood N of (a, b), an open
interval Ia containing a and a function ϕ : Ia → R such
that C ∩ N is exactly the graph of ϕ.
For real valued functions f (x, y, z), g(x, y, z), let
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
∂(f, g) ∂x ∂y ∂(f, g) ∂y ∂z
= ∂g ∂g
, = ∂g ∂g
,
∂(x, y) ∂(y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f
∂(f, g) ∂x ∂z
= ∂g ∂g
∂(x, z)
∂x ∂z
be the 2 × 2 minors of the Jacobian matrix
" ∂f ∂f ∂f #
J(f, g) ∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∂g ∂g ∂g
J(x, y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Let f (x, y, z), g(x, y, z) be real valued functions with
continuous first partial derivatives in a neighbourhood of
a common solution (x0 , y0 , z0 ) of f (x, y, z) = 0,
∂(f, g)
g(x, y, z) = 0. If, at (x0 , y0 , z0 ), ̸= 0, then there
∂(y, z)
is a neighbourhood N of (x0 , y0 , z0 ), an open interval I0
containing x0 and real valued functions ϕ, ψ : I0 → R
with continuous derivative such that for the set of
common solutions C of f (x, y, z) = 0, g(x, y, z) = 0 ,
C ∩ N is exactly given by {(x, ϕ(x), ψ(x)) : x ∈ I0 }.
Remark
Allowing the interchange of the role of variables, we see

J(f,g)
that if at a point P , the jacobian matrix J(x,y,z) has rank
2, then near the point P , C can be given as a parametric
curve with some coordinate as a parameter.
Inverse function theorem
Theorem
Inverse Function Theorem for one variable
Suppose I is an open interval in R and f : I → R be a
function with continuous derivative and x0 ∈ I be such
df
that dx (x0 ) ̸= 0. Then, there exists an open interval I0
of x0 such that f|I0 has an inverse whose domain is an
open interval J0 and it has continuous derivative on J0 .
Theorem
df
This means we can solve the equation f (x) = y for
y ∈ J0 with solution in I0 .
Corollary
Let ⃗γ (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) be a parametric curve with
continuous derivative at interior point t0 of its domain. If
x′ (t0 ) ̸= 0, then there exists a neighbourhood N of
(x(t0 ), y(t0 ), z(t0 )) and an open interval I0 containing t0
and functions f, g : I0 → R with continuous derivative
such that Im(⃗γ ) ∩ N is exactly all points of the level
curve y − f (x) = 0, z − g(x) = 0 in N .
Geometrical idea of implicit function theorem
Near a point on the curve, curve is approximated by a

tangent line. Near a point of a surface, the surface is
approximated by a tangent plane.

Tangent plane to the level surface f (x, y, z) = 0 at its
point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is given by
fx (P )(x − x0 ) + fy (P )(y − y0 ) + fz (P )(z − z0 ) = 0.

For the intersection of level surfaces, tangent line will be

given by intersection of tangent planes of the level
surfaces.
Thus tangent line to a level curve f (x, y, z) = 0,
g(x, y, z) = 0 at its point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is given as solution
of the system
ax + by + cz + d = 0,
lx + my + nz + k = 0
where (a, b, c) = (fx (P ), fy (P ), fz (P )) and

(l, m, n) = (gx (P ), gy (P ), gz (P )). This system can be
solved for y and z in terms of x provided
∂(f, g) b c
= ̸= 0.
∂(y, z) m n
A Principle in Differential Geometry
To obtain a property of a curve or a surface near a point,
first obtain it for tangent there and then explore if we
can transfer it to the curve or surface.
Other Representation
A point in 3-dimensional space can be given by
cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) instead of Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z). We could consider a representation
where cylindrical coordinates r(t), θ(t), z(t) are given as
functions of parameter t. In this case, we can get the
usual parametrization of Cartesian coordinates
x = r(t) cos(θ(t)), y = r(t) sin(θ(t)), z = z(t).
Similarly, we can give spherical coordinates ρ(t), θ(t),
ϕ(t), as functions of t giving
x = ρ(t) cos(θ(t)) sin(ϕ(t)),
y = ρ(t) sin(θ(t)) sin(ϕ(t)),
z = ρ(t) cos(ϕ(t)).
For polar curve r = f (θ) in xy-plane, we get the
parametrization
x = f (θ) cos θ, y = f (θ) sin θ
where θ is a parameter.
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 3
January 16, 2024
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) January 22, 2024 2 / 47
Chapter 1
Theroy of Space Curves
Section 1.2
Representation of Space Curves
Parametric representation
Coordinates x, y, z of the point on the curve are

given as a function of a single parameter t.
Thus (x(t), y(t), z(t)); t ∈ I for an interval I gives a

parametric representation of a curve in 3 dimensions.
x,y,z are required to be at least continuous, we

impose further conditions for convinience.
Examples
Straight line: (a1 t + b1 , a2 t + b2 , a3 t + b3 ) : t ∈ R

where ai , bi are constants and
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ̸= (0, 0, 0).
Circle: (cos t, sin t) : t ∈ R.
Circular helix: (cos t, sin t, t) : t ∈ R.
Twisted Cubic: (t, t2 , t3 ) : t ∈ R. It is nothing but
intersection of two surfaces y − x2 = 0 and
z − x3 = 0.
Twisted Cubic
Relation between two representations
To expand on this example, let us consider how this

relationship can be structured.
Graph of a function: For the function f (x) for a real
variable x ∈ I, its graph is given by
{(x, y) : y = f (x)}.
Its level curve form is F (x, y) = y − f (x) = 0.
Its parametric form is x = t, y = f (t).
One can easily go from one form to another form.
z − g(x) = 0.
z − g(x) = 0.
Ques. In general when can this be done?
A way Forward
variable.
A way Forward
A way Forward
If the given curve is in parametric form, we can write the
parameter in terms of one of the variable i.e. we can
write level curve form.This amounts in solving one of the
three equations x = f (t), y = g(t), z = h(t) (Obtained
from the parametrization) for the parameter t in terms of
the corresponding Cartesian variable. How and when can
we do this?


It may not always be possible to even assure existence of

the solution, but under some conditions we may be able
to ensure existence of a solution in a neighborhood of a
point.

Suppose f (x, y) is a function with continuous partial
derivatives near P (a, b) which lies on the level curve
∂f
C : f (x, y) = 0 i.e. f (a, b) = 0. Assume (a, b) ̸= 0.
∂y
Then, there exists a neighbourhood N of (a, b), an open
interval Ia containing a and a function ϕ : Ia → R such
that C ∩ N is exactly the graph of ϕ.
For real valued functions f (x, y, z), g(x, y, z), let
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
∂(f, g) ∂x ∂y ∂(f, g) ∂y ∂z
= ∂g ∂g
, = ∂g ∂g
,
∂(x, y) ∂(y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f
∂(f, g) ∂x ∂z
= ∂g ∂g
∂(x, z)
∂x ∂z
be the 2 × 2 minors of the Jacobian matrix
" ∂f ∂f ∂f #
J(f, g) ∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∂g ∂g ∂g
J(x, y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Let f (x, y, z), g(x, y, z) be real valued functions with
continuous first partial derivatives in a neighbourhood of
a common solution (x0 , y0 , z0 ) of f (x, y, z) = 0,
∂(f, g)
g(x, y, z) = 0. If, at (x0 , y0 , z0 ), ̸= 0, then there
∂(y, z)
is a neighbourhood N of (x0 , y0 , z0 ), an open interval I0
containing x0 and real valued functions ϕ, ψ : I0 → R
with continuous derivative such that for the set of
common solutions C of f (x, y, z) = 0, g(x, y, z) = 0 ,
C ∩ N is exactly given by {(x, ϕ(x), ψ(x)) : x ∈ I0 }.
Remark
Allowing the interchange of the role of variables, we see

J(f,g)
that if at a point P , the jacobian matrix J(x,y,z) has rank
2, then near the point P , C can be given as a parametric
curve with some coordinate as a parameter.
Theorem
df
Theorem
df
This means we can solve the equation f (x) = y for
y ∈ J0 with solution in I0 .
Corollary
Let ⃗γ (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) be a parametric curve with
continuous derivative at interior point t0 of its domain. If
x′ (t0 ) ̸= 0, then there exists a neighbourhood N of
(x(t0 ), y(t0 ), z(t0 )) and an open interval I0 containing t0
and functions f, g : I0 → R with continuous derivative
such that Im(⃗γ ) ∩ N is exactly all points of the level
curve y − f (x) = 0, z − g(x) = 0 in N .
Lecture 4
January 18, 2024



For the intersection of level surfaces, tangent line will be

given by intersection of tangent planes of the level
surfaces.
Thus tangent line to a level curve f (x, y, z) = 0,
g(x, y, z) = 0 at its point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is given as solution
of the system
ax + by + cz + d = 0,
lx + my + nz + k = 0
where (a, b, c) = (fx (P ), fy (P ), fz (P )) and

(l, m, n) = (gx (P ), gy (P ), gz (P )). This system can be
solved for y and z in terms of x provided
∂(f, g) b c
= ̸= 0.
∂(y, z) m n
A Principle in Differential Geometry
To obtain a property of a curve or a surface near a point,
first obtain it for tangent there and then explore if we
can transfer it to the curve or surface.
Other Representation
A point in 3-dimensional space can be given by
cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) instead of Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z). We could consider a representation
where cylindrical coordinates r(t), θ(t), z(t) are given as
functions of parameter t. In this case, we can get the
usual parametrization of Cartesian coordinates
x = r(t) cos(θ(t)), y = r(t) sin(θ(t)), z = z(t).
Similarly, we can give spherical coordinates ρ(t), θ(t),
ϕ(t), as functions of t giving
x = ρ(t) cos(θ(t)) sin(ϕ(t)),
y = ρ(t) sin(θ(t)) sin(ϕ(t)),
z = ρ(t) cos(ϕ(t)).
For polar curve r = f (θ) in xy-plane, we get the
parametrization
x = f (θ) cos θ, y = f (θ) sin θ
where θ is a parameter.
Section 1.3
Unique Parametric Representation
of a Space Curve
Formal Definitions
Definition (C m Function)
Let I be a real interval and m be a positive integer. A
real valued function f defined on I is said to be of class
m, if f has continuous mth derivative at every point of
I. We call such functions C m functions.
Formal Definitions
Note 1: When a function is infinitely differentiable,
then f is said to be of class infinity or the
function itself is called C ∞ function.
Formal Definitions
Note 1: When a function is infinitely differentiable,
then f is said to be of class infinity or the
function itself is called C ∞ function.
Note 2: If f is a real valued function of several
variables, then it is of class m if it admits all
continuous partial derivatives of order m.
Analytic Function
A function f is said to be analytic over I, if f has power
series representations in the neighbourhood of every point
of I.This class of functions is denoted by ω. The function
itself is called a C ω function.
Analytic Function
A function f is said to be analytic over I, if f has power
series representations in the neighbourhood of every point
of I.This class of functions is denoted by ω. The function
itself is called a C ω function.
A vector valued function ⃗r(t) of a real variable t in an

open interval containing t0 is said to be analytic at t0 if
it has a power series expansion about t0 converging in a
neighborhood of t0 . This is the Taylor series of ⃗r(t)
about t0 given by
(t − t0 )n (n)
⃗r(t) = ⃗r(t0 ) + (t − t0 )⃗r ′ (t0 ) + · · · + ⃗r (t0 ) + · · ·
n!
Regular Function
Definition
A vector valued function R ⃗ = R(t)
⃗ defined on I is said
to be of class m, if it has continuous mth order derivative
at every point of I.
Regular Function
Definition
Definition
⃗˙ = dR⃗ never vanishes on I, then the vector valued
If R dt
function R ⃗ = R(t)
⃗ is said to be regular.
Regular Function
Definition
Definition
⃗˙ = dR⃗ never vanishes on I, then the vector valued
If R dt
function R ⃗ = R(t)
⃗ is said to be regular.
Definition
⃗ = R(t)
A regular vector valued function R ⃗ of class m is
called a path of class m.
Remarks
⃗
As the parameter t varies, R(t) points on the curve.
Thus a path can be considered as the locus of a
moving point giving the manner in which the curve
is described.
Remarks
⃗
is described.
If R : I → R3 and g : I ∗ → I are C m functions on
intervals I and I ∗ , respectively, then the composite
function R ◦ g : I ∗ → R3 is also a C m function.
Remarks
⃗
is described.
If R : I → R3 and g : I ∗ → I are C m functions on
intervals I and I ∗ , respectively, then the composite
function R ◦ g : I ∗ → R3 is also a C m function.
If a C m map f : I → I ∗ has a C m inverse, then f ′
does not vanish anywhere.
Remarks
If for the C m map f , f ′ does not vanish at x0 ∈ I,

then inverse function theorem guarantees that near
x0 , f has a C m inverse.
Remarks
If for the C m map f , f ′ does not vanish at x0 ∈ I,

then inverse function theorem guarantees that near
x0 , f has a C m inverse.
If f : I → I ∗ is a C m map which is a bijection and
f ′ never vanishes on I, then f has the inverse, which
is also C m and its derivative never vanishes on I ∗ .
Equivalence of Paths
Two paths R ⃗1 and R⃗2 of class C m defined on I1 and I2

are said to be equivalent if there exists a strictly
increasing function ϕ of class m which maps I1 onto I2
such that R⃗1 = R ⃗2 ◦ ϕ.

This gives equivalence relation between C m paths in R3 .

This gives equivalence relation between C m paths in R3 .

A C m curve in R3 is an equivalence class of C m paths in
R3 .
If we are interested in properties of C m paths which are
unchanged by change of parameter using strictly
increasing C m bijection, then we may not distinguish
between equivalent paths, and hence consider it as a
property of a C m curve. Moreover, to study such a
property, we may choose a suitable representative of the
equivalence class, i.e., replace the given path by a
suitable equivalent path.
Example
R⃗1 (u) = (cos u, sin u, u); u ∈ (0, π) is a C m path
for any positive integer m.
Example
ϕ(u) = − cos u is an strictly increasing function
from (0, π) to (−1, 1).
Example
from (0, π) to (−1, 1).
t = − cos u ⇒ u = cos−1 (−t).
Example
from (0, π) to (−1, 1).
t = − cos u ⇒ u = cos−1 (−t).
R⃗2 (t) = (−t, sin(cos−1 (−t)), cos−1 (−t)); t ∈
(−1, 1). Note that R ⃗1 = R ⃗2 ◦ ϕ.
Example
from (0, π) to (−1, 1).
t = − cos u ⇒ u = cos−1 (−t).
R⃗2 (t) = (−t, sin(cos−1 (−t)), cos−1 (−t)); t ∈
(−1, 1). Note that R ⃗1 = R ⃗2 ◦ ϕ.
Similarly
2

⃗3 (τ ) = 1 − τ 2τ
R 2
, 2
, 2 tan−1 τ ; τ ∈ (0, ∞) is
1+τ 1+τ
another representative of the same curve.
Lecture 5
January 20, 2024
Section 1.4
Arc-Length
Length of the Curve
Length of the Curve
Let R⃗ : I → R3 be a C m curve for any positive
integer m ⩾ 1 and [a, b] ⊂ I.
Length of the Curve
∆ : a = u0 < u1 < u2 < · · · < un = b be a partition
of [a, b].
Length of the Curve
∆ : a = u0 < u1 < u2 < · · · < un = b be a partition
of [a, b].
n
X
L(∆) := ⃗ i ) − R(u
|R(u ⃗ i−1 )| is the length of a
i=1
⃗ i ) joined
polygonal arc with the vertices R(u
consecutively.
Definition
The length of the curve is defined as
L = sup L(∆).
∆
Length of the Curve
Theorem
⃗ = R(u)
If R ⃗ is the parametric representation of a curve
where u ∈ [a, b], the length of the curve
Z b
L= ⃗ ′ (u)|du.
|R
a
Example
Find the length of the curve R(t) = (cos t, sin t),
t ∈ [0, 2π].
Length of the Curve
Theorem
⃗ = R(u)
If R ⃗ is the parametric representation of a curve
where u ∈ [a, b], the length of the curve
Z b
L= ⃗ ′ (u)|du.
|R
a
Example
Find the length of the curve R(t) = (cos t, sin t),
t ∈ [0, 2π].
Ans. 2π.
Arc Length Parameter
⃗
Assume R(u) is regular of class m ⩾ 1.
⃗
Ru ′
For u ∈ [a, b], let s(u) = a |R ⃗ (u)|du.
⃗
Ru ′
Since s′ (u) = |R⃗ ′ (u)| > 0 for all u, s is strictly
increasing function with s(a) = 0, s(b) = L.
⃗
Ru ′
s is a C m function onto [0, L].
⃗
Ru ′
R⃗∗ = R⃗ ◦ s−1 : [0, L] → R3 and R ⃗ give same C m
curve.
⃗
Ru ′
R⃗∗ = R⃗ ◦ s−1 : [0, L] → R3 and R ⃗ give same C m
curve.
R⃗ ∗ has arc-length s as a parameter.
Example
Find the parameterization of R⃗ with arc length as
parameter if
⃗
R(u) = (u − sin u, 1 + cos u, 0); u ∈ [0, 2π].
Example
Find the parameterization of R ⃗ with arc length as
parameter if
⃗
R(u) = (u − sin u, 1 + cos u, 0); u ∈ [0, 2π].
Sol. Z u Z u√
√
s(u) = ⃗ ′ (u)| du =
|R 2 1 − cos u du
Z0 u 0
= 2| sin(u/2)| du
0
= 4(1 − cos(u/2)); u ∈ [0, 2π].
Hence u = 2 cos−1 1 − 4s , s(0) = 0 and s(2π) = 8.

⃗ ∗ ⃗

−1
s
R (s) = R 2 cos 1− .
4
Section 1.5
Tangent and Osculating Plane
Tangent Line to a Regular Curve
Let ⃗r : I → R3 be a regular path of class m ⩾ 1.
For P, Q ∈ Im(⃗r), P = ⃗r(u0 ), Q = ⃗r(u) for some
u, u0 ∈ I.
−→
P Q = ⃗r(u) − ⃗r(u0 ) is a vector parallel to the secant
line of ⃗r and so is ⃗r(u)−⃗r(u0 )
u−u0 .
As u → u0 , the secant line approaches to the
tangent line to ⃗r at ⃗r(u0 ).
Hence ⃗r ′ (u0 ) is parallel to the tangent line.
Also the tangent line passes through the point
⃗r(u0 ).
Hence its parametric equation is
⃗
R(u) = ⃗r(u0 ) + u ⃗r ′ (u0 ); u ∈ R.
Unit Tangent Vector
Suppose ⃗r ∗ (s) be an arc length parameterization of

⃗r(u).
⃗ d⃗r ∗
The the vector t = is called the unit tangent
ds
vector.
Its direction is direction in which ⃗r(u) is traced,
which is in the increasing direction of u.
⃗t = d⃗r/du can be evaluated without finding the
|d⃗r/du|
arc length parameterization.
Osculating Plane
Let P = ⃗r(u0 ) be a point on a regular path ⃗r of class

m ≥ 2. Let Q = ⃗r(u) be a point on ⃗r near P . Consider
a plane containing Q and the tangent line at P . As
u → u0 , this plane becomes the osculating plane of ⃗r at
P = ⃗r(u0 ) (We avoid the case when Q keeps lying on
the tangent line to at ⃗r as u → u0 , in particular, if ⃗r is a
straight line).
Osculating Plane
Let P = ⃗r(u0 ) be a point on a regular path ⃗r of class

m ≥ 2. Let Q = ⃗r(u) be a point on ⃗r near P . Consider
a plane containing Q and the tangent line at P . As
u → u0 , this plane becomes the osculating plane of ⃗r at
P = ⃗r(u0 ) (We avoid the case when Q keeps lying on
the tangent line to at ⃗r as u → u0 , in particular, if ⃗r is a
straight line).
How to find the equation of the osculating plane?
Scalar Triple Product
Let ⃗a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), ⃗b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), ⃗c = (c1 , c2 , c3 ) be
vectors in R3 . Their scalar triple product is defined by
a1 a2 a3
⃗ ⃗
[⃗a, b, ⃗c] = (⃗a × b) · ⃗c = b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
Geometrically, the scalar triple product represents the

volume of the cuboid (i.e. parallelopiped) with sides ⃗a, ⃗b,
⃗c at its vertex.
⇒ ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are coplanar if and only if [⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c] = 0.
⇒ [⃗a, ⃗b, α⃗c1 + β⃗c2 ] = α[⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c1 ] + β[⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c2 ] for reals
α, β and vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c1 , ⃗c2 .
Vector function with Constant Length
Let ⃗u(t) be a vectore valued function of class m ⩾ 2 and

assume |⃗u(t)| = 1 for all t, then
⃗u(t) · ⃗u ′ (t) = 0.
Thus if at any point t0 , ⃗u ′ (t0 ) = α⃗u(t0 ) for a scalar α,

then ⃗u ′ (t0 ) = 0.
Consequently If ⃗u ′ (t0 ) ̸= 0, then
⃗u(t0 ) × ⃗u ′ (t0 ) ̸= 0
Equation of the Osculating Plane
Theorem
The equation of the osculating plane to a regular
analytic curve ⃗r(s), where s is the arc length parameter,
at its point P = ⃗r(0) with ⃗r ′′ (0) ̸= 0 is given by
⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′′ (0)] = 0, where R

[R ⃗ = (x, y, z)
Proof. Let Q = ⃗r(s) be a point on the curve. By Taylor

series expansion
s2
⃗r(s) = ⃗r(0) + s⃗r ′ (0) + ⃗r ′′ (0) + s3 (a vector).
2!
Proof Contd.
Let R ⃗ = (x, y, z) be any point of R3 . Since the tangent
line at P is parallel to ⃗r ′ (0), the plane containing Q and
the tangent line at P is parallel to the plane spanned by
⃗r ′ (0) and ⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0).
Now (x, y, z) lies on this plane if and only if R ⃗ − ⃗r(0),
⃗r ′ (0) and ⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0) are coplanar i.e. if and only if
⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0)] = 0.
[R
Thus (x, y, z) lies on this plane if and only if
⃗ ′ ′ s2 ′′
[R − ⃗r(0), ⃗r (0), s⃗r (0) + ⃗r (0) + s3 (a vector)] = 0.
2
Proof Contd.
⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′ (0)] + s2 ⃗

s[R [R − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′′ (0)] + s3 (∗) = 0.
2
⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′ (0)] = 0. Dividing by s2
Now [R 2 and
taking limit as s → 0 we get the result
⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′′ (0)] = 0.
[R
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 6
January 23, 2024
Point of Inflexion
Definition (Point of Inflexion)

The point P = ⃗r(u0 ) on the curve for which ⃗r ′′ (u0 ) = 0
is called a point of inflexion and the tangent line at P is
called inflexional.
Point of Inflexion
Definition (Point of Inflexion)

The point P = ⃗r(u0 ) on the curve for which ⃗r ′′ (u0 ) = 0
is called a point of inflexion and the tangent line at P is
called inflexional.
Corollary
Let k be the smallest integer⩾ 2 such that ⃗r (k) (0) ̸= 0,
then the equation of the osculating plane is
⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r (k) (0)] = 0.
[R
When curve is not parameterised by arc length parameter
When curve is not parameterised by arc length parameter
For ⃗r(t) where t is not necessarily an arc length
parameter, 2
′ d⃗r ds ′′ d2⃗r ds d⃗r d2 s
⃗r = and ⃗r = 2 + .
ds dt ds dt ds dt2
By linearlity, 3 2

⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r (0), ⃗r (0)] =
′ ′′ ds d⃗
r
⃗ − ⃗r(0), , d ⃗
r
[R R .
dt ds ds2
ds
Since ̸= 0, again the equation for the osculating
dt
plane is
[R⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′′ (0)] = 0.
Also the equation at point of inflection remains
[R⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r (k) (0)] = 0.
Example
Find the osculating plane of ⃗r(t) = (t, t3 , 0); t ∈ R at
P = (1, 1, 0).
Example
P = (1, 1, 0).
Sol. Here, P = ⃗r(1) and

⃗r ′ (t) = (1, 3t2 , 0) → ⃗r ′ (1) = (1, 3, 0),
⃗r ′′ (t) = (0, 6t, 0) → ⃗r ′ (1) = (0, 6, 0).
Hence the osculating plane has the equation
x−1 y−1 z
⃗ r(1), ⃗r ′ (1), ⃗r ′′ (1)] =
[R−⃗ 1 3 0 = 0 ⇒ z = 0.
0 6 0
Example
P = (0, 0, 0).
Example
P = (0, 0, 0).
Sol. Here, P = ⃗r(0) and
⃗r ′ (t) = (1, 3t2 , 0) → ⃗r ′ (0) = (1, 3, 0),
⃗r ′′ (t) = (0, 6t, 0) → ⃗r ′′ (0) = (0, 0, 0).
Hence (0, 0, 0) is a point of inflexion. So
⃗r ′′′ (t) = (0, 6, 0) ̸= 0. Hence the osculating plane has
the equation
x−1 y−1 z
⃗ ′ ′′′
[R−⃗r(0), ⃗r (0), ⃗r (0)] = 1 3 0 = 0 ⇒ z = 0.
0 6 0
The curve which doesn’t posses the osculating plane
Consider the curve defined by

 2
 (u, 0, e−1/u ) when u > 0
2
⃗r(u) = (u, e−1/u , 0) when u < 0
(0, 0, 0) when u = 0.

For the above vector valued function, u = 0 is a point of

inflexion. Infact, the vector valued function has all its
derivatives with ⃗r (k) (0) = 0, k ⩾ 0. Hence the curve
does not possess the osculating plane.
Lecture 7
January 27, 2024
Section 1.6
Prinicipal Normal and Binormal
Normal Plane
Let ⃗r be a regular path of class m ⩾ 1. The normal
plane to ⃗r at ⃗r(0) is a plane through ⃗r(0) perpendicular
to ⃗t(0).
Its equation is given by
⃗ − ⃗r(0)) = 0.
⃗t(0) · (R
Normal Plane
Let ⃗r be a regular path of class m ⩾ 1. The normal
plane to ⃗r at ⃗r(0) is a plane through ⃗r(0) perpendicular
to ⃗t(0).
⃗ − ⃗r(0)) = 0.
⃗t(0) · (R
Example
The normal plane of ⃗r(u) = (u, u3 , 0) at ⃗r(0) = (0, 0, 0)
is
(1, 0, 0) · (x, y, z) = 0 ⇒ x = 0.
Principal Normal Line
The principal normal line of a regular path ⃗r of class

m ⩾ 1 at ⃗r(0) is the intersection of the osculating plane
and the normal plane to ⃗r at ⃗r(0).
Principal Normal Line
The principal normal line of a regular path ⃗r of class

m ⩾ 1 at ⃗r(0) is the intersection of the osculating plane
and the normal plane to ⃗r at ⃗r(0).
Example
The principal normal line of ⃗r(u) = (u, u3 , 0) at
⃗r(0) = (0, 0, 0) is
x = z = 0.
Principal Normal Vector
A unit vector parallel to the principal normal line of a
regular path ⃗r of class m ⩾ 1 at ⃗r(0) is called a principal
normal vector ⃗n(0) to ⃗r at ⃗r(0).
Please Note that principal normal vector lies on the
osculating plane and perpendicular to the tangent vector.
Please Note that principal normal vector lies on the
osculating plane and perpendicular to the tangent vector.
Example
The principal normal vector of ⃗r(u) = (u, u3 , 0) at
⃗r(0) = (0, 0, 0) is
⃗n(0) = ĵ = (0, 1, 0)‘.
Section 1.7
Curvature and Torsion
Binormal Line
Definition
The binormal line to a regular path ⃗r of class m ⩾ 1 at
⃗r(0) is a line through ⃗r(0) and perpendicular to the
osculating plane to ⃗r at ⃗r(0).
Example
The binormal line of ⃗r(u) = (u, u3 , 0) at ⃗r(0) = (0, 0, 0)
is
x = y = 0.
Unit Binormal Vector
The unit binormal vector ⃗b(0) to ⃗r at ⃗r(0) is a unit
vector parallel to the binormal line to ⃗r at ⃗r(0) such that
⃗t(0), ⃗n(0), ⃗b(0) form a right handed frame.
If ⃗r(s) is regular of class m ⩾ 2 with arc length

′′
parameter and ⃗r (0) ̸= 0, then generally we take
′′
⃗r (0)
⃗n(0) = ′′ and ⃗b(0) = ⃗t(0) × ⃗n(0).
|⃗r (0)|
If ⃗r(s) is regular of class m ⩾ 2 with arc length

′′
parameter and ⃗r (0) ̸= 0, then generally we take
′′
⃗r (0)
⃗n(0) = ′′ and ⃗b(0) = ⃗t(0) × ⃗n(0).
|⃗r (0)|
Example
The unit binormal vector of ⃗r(u) = (u, u3 , 0) at
⃗r(0) = (0, 0, 0) is ⃗b(0) = ⃗t(0) × ⃗n(0) = î × ĵ = k.
Rectifying Plane
The plane containing the tangent vector and the

binormal vector is called the rectifying plane.
⃗ − ⃗r(0)) = 0.
⃗n(0) · (R
Rectifying Plane
The plane containing the tangent vector and the

binormal vector is called the rectifying plane.
⃗ − ⃗r(0)) = 0.
⃗n(0) · (R
Example
The rectifying plane of ⃗r(u) = (u, u3 , 0) at
⃗r(0) = (0, 0, 0) is y = 0.
Geomerical View
Planes of moving frame
Alternatively we can use these moving vectors to find
osculating, normal and rectifying planes.
Osculating plane to ⃗r(s) at its point ⃗r(s0 ) is a plane
through ⃗r(s0 )and perpendicular to ⃗b(s0 ) (spanned by
⃗t(s0 ) and ⃗n(s0 )).
Normal plane to ⃗r(s) at its point ⃗r(s0 ) is a plane
through ⃗r(s) and perpendicular to ⃗t(s0 ) . (spanned by
⃗n(s0 ) and ⃗b(s0 )).
Rectifying plane to ⃗r(s) at its point ⃗r(s0 ) is a plane
through ⃗r(s0 ) and perpendicular to ⃗n(s0 ). (spanned by
⃗t(s0 ) and ⃗b(s0 )).
Example
Find the vectors ⃗t(0), ⃗n(0), ⃗b(0) and hence the
osculating, normal and rectifying planes to the path
⃗r(u) = (cos u, sin u, u).
Example
Find the vectors ⃗t(0), ⃗n(0), ⃗b(0) and hence the
osculating, normal and rectifying planes to the path
⃗r(u) = (cos u, sin u, u).
Sol. Note : Here parameter is not arc-length. So process

needs to be amended.
d⃗r ds d⃗r √
= (− sin u, cos u, 1) ⇒ = = 2.
du du du
d⃗r
1 1
∴ ⃗t(0) = du d⃗r
= 0, √ , √ .
| du | 2 2
d d⃗r

d2⃗r

d d⃗r du ds − cos u − sin u
= = d⃗r
= , ,0 .
ds2 ds ds | du | 2 2
∴ ⃗n(0) = (−1, 0, 0).

1 1
Hence ⃗b(0) = ⃗t(0) × ⃗n(0) = 0, − √ , √ . The
2 2
osculating plane at ⃗r(0) = (1, 0, 0) is
⃗b(0) · (x − 1, y, z) = 0 ⇒ y − z = 0.
The normal plane at ⃗r(0) = (1, 0, 0) is

⃗t(0) · (x − 1, y, z) = 0 ⇒ y + z = 0.
The rectifying plane at ⃗r(0) = (1, 0, 0) is

⃗n(0) · (x − 1, y, z) = 0 ⇒ x = 1.
Curvature
Definition
The Curvature vector of a regular curve ⃗r(s) of class
m ⩾ 2 with arc-length parameter s is
⃗ d⃗t d2⃗r
K= = .
ds ds2
Curvature
Definition
⃗ d⃗t d2⃗r
K= = .
ds ds2
Definition
⃗
The Curvature of ⃗r(s) is defined by κ = |K|.
Curvature
Definition
⃗ d⃗t d2⃗r
K= = .
ds ds2
Definition
⃗
The Curvature of ⃗r(s) is defined by κ = |K|.
Definition
1
if κ ̸= 0, then ρ = is called the radius of curvature of
κ
⃗r(s).
Curvature vector gives the rate of change (with respect
to the arc length) at which the tangent vector is turning.
d⃗t
In fact, we can write = κ⃗n (by choosing unit principal
ds
d2⃗r
normal in the direction of 2 ).
ds
Torsion
The torsion of a regular curve ⃗r(s) of class m ⩾ 2 with
arc length parameter s is given by
d⃗b
τ = − · ⃗n.
ds
d⃗b
Since |⃗b(s)| = 1 ∀s, so ds
⊥ ⃗b(s) ⇒ ⃗b(s) · ⃗n(s) = 0, ∀s.
d⃗b d⃗n
· ⃗n(s) + ⃗b(s) · = 0.
ds ds
On the other hand, since ⃗b(s) = ⃗t(s) × ⃗n(s),

Differentiating with respect to s
d⃗b d⃗t d⃗n
= × ⃗n(s) + ⃗t(s) × .
ds ds ds
d⃗b ⃗ d⃗b
Hence ds · t = −κ⃗n · ⃗b = 0. Consequently ds ⊥ ⃗t also.
d⃗b d⃗b
Hence ds is a multiple of ⃗n, in fact ds = −τ⃗n. Thus we
see that torsion, in magnitude, represents the arc-rate of
change of ⃗b. This also measures the arc-rate of turning
of the osculating plane.
d⃗n
What is ?
ds
⃗ ⃗ d⃗n d⃗b ⃗ ⃗ d⃗t

As ⃗n = b × t ⇒ = ×t+b× .
ds ds ds
d⃗n
∴ = τ⃗b − κ⃗t.
ds
Serret-Frenet Equations
The information of how the Serret-Frenet frame rotates
is stored in the following Serret-Frenet equations (or
formulas) :
d⃗t
= κ⃗n,
ds
d⃗n
= τ⃗b − κ⃗n,
ds
d⃗b
= −τ⃗n.
ds
Matrix Form
Serret-Frenet equations can be written in matrix form as
 ′  
⃗t (s) ⃗t(s)
 
0 κ(s) 0
⃗n ′ (s) = −κ(s) 0 τ (s) ⃗n(s) .
⃗b ′ (s) 0 −τ (s) 0 ⃗b(s)
Matrix Form
Serret-Frenet equations can be written in matrix form as
 ′  
⃗t (s) ⃗t(s)
 
0 κ(s) 0
⃗n ′ (s) = −κ(s) 0 τ (s) ⃗n(s) .
⃗b ′ (s) 0 −τ (s) 0 ⃗b(s)
It can be shown that ⃗t, ⃗n, ⃗b, κ, τ as well as osculating,

normal and rectifying planes at corresponding points of
equivalent paths are same, i.e., they give property of
regular curves of class m ⩾ 2.
Curvature in Arbitrary Parameter
Theorem
If ⃗r is a regular path of class m ⩾ 2, then
|⃗r ′ × ⃗r ′′ |
κ(t) = .
|⃗r ′ |3
Proof.
′ ′ ′′ d|⃗r ′ (t)|⃗
⃗
As ⃗r (t) = |⃗r (t)|t ⇒ ⃗r (t) = t + |⃗r ′ (t)|2 κ⃗n.
dt
Therefore,
|⃗r ′ × ⃗r ′′ | = |⃗r ′ |3 κ.
Remarks
For a plane parameterized curve
⃗r(t) = (x(t), y(t), 0)
|x′ (t)y ′′ (t) − x′′ (t)y ′ (t)|
κ(t) = .
(x′ (t)2 + y ′ (t)2 )3/2
For the graph y = f (x) of a function f (x) of class
m ⩾ 2,
|f ′′ (x)|
κ(x) = .
(1 + f ′ (x)2 )3/2
For a polar curve r = f (θ) in xy-plane
|2f ′ (θ)2 + f (θ)2 − f (θ)f ′′ (θ)|
κ(θ) = .
(f (θ)2 + f ′ (θ)2 )3/2
For the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) of a level curve f (x, y) = 0
of a function f of class m ⩾ 2 with fy (P0 ) ̸= 0,
|fxx fy2 − 2fxy fx fy + fyy fx2 |

κ(x0 , y0 ) = .
(fx2 + fy2 )3/2 )
P0
Homework Proofs left as an exercise.
Examples
⃗r(t) = (a cos(t), a sin t, 0); 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 2π with a > 0 is
a circle of radius a. Its curvature is κ(t) = a1 . The
radius of curvature of the circle coincides with its
radius.
Examples
radius.
⃗r(t) = (a cos t, a sin t, bt); 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 2π, with a > 0
and b ̸= 0 is a circular helix. Its curvature is
a
κ(t) = a2 +b 2 , a constant.
Examples
radius.
⃗r(t) = (a cos t, a sin t, bt); 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 2π, with a > 0
and b ̸= 0 is a circular helix. Its curvature is
a
κ(t) = a2 +b 2 , a constant.
For a straight line

⃗r(t) = (a1 t + b1 , a2 t + b2 , a3 t + b3 ) : t ∈ R with
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ̸= (0, 0, 0), κ(t) = 0, constant.
Conversely, if κ(t) = 0, constant, then the curve
must be a straight line.
Torsion
Theorem
Torsion of a curve ⃗r(t) of class m ⩾ 3 at t = t0 with
κ(t0 ) ̸= 0, is given by
[⃗r ′ (t0 ), ⃗r ′′ (t0 ), ⃗r ′′′ (t0 )]

τ (t0 ) = .
|⃗r ′ (t0 ) × ⃗r ′′ (t0 )|2
Torsion
Theorem
Torsion of a curve ⃗r(t) of class m ⩾ 3 at t = t0 with
κ(t0 ) ̸= 0, is given by
[⃗r ′ (t0 ), ⃗r ′′ (t0 ), ⃗r ′′′ (t0 )]

τ (t0 ) = .
|⃗r ′ (t0 ) × ⃗r ′′ (t0 )|2
Proof.
Please note that ⃗r ′ (t0 ) × ⃗r ′′ (t0 ) = |⃗r ′ (t0 )|3 κ⃗b. Moreover
r|⃗
⃗r ′′ (t) = d|⃗ r ′ |2 κ⃗n. Hence
dt t + |⃗
⃗r ′′′ (t) = α⃗t + β⃗n + |⃗r ′ |3 κ(τ⃗b − κ⃗t). Using the formula
for κ and solving for τ we get the result.
Example
Torsion of a circular helix:

⃗r(t) = (a cos t, a sin t, bt); 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 2π, a > 0, b ̸= 0,
b
τ= .
a2 + b 2
Example
Torsion of a circular helix:

⃗r(t) = (a cos t, a sin t, bt); 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 2π, a > 0, b ̸= 0,
b
τ= .
a2 + b 2
Note: For the circular helix, both curvature and torsion
is constant. Conversely any curve with constant
curvature and constant torsion can be obtained from
circular helix above by translation and rotation in R3 .
Example
τ
Show that for ⃗r(t) = (3t2 , 3t − t3 , 3t + t3 ), κ is a
constant.
Example
τ
constant.
(A curve for which κτ is constant is called a general helix.
Circular helix is its special case. )
Example
τ
constant.
(A curve for which κτ is constant is called a general helix.
Circular helix is its special case. )
Sol. Here
⃗r ′ (t) = (6t, 3(1 − t2 ), 3(1 + t2 ),

⃗r ′′ (t) = (6, −6t, 6t),
and ⃗r ′′′ (t) = (0, −6, 6).
So ⃗r ′ × ⃗r ′′ = (−36t, 18(1 − t2 ), 18(1 + t2 ).
√
⇒ |⃗r ′ × ⃗r ′′ | = 18 2(1 + t2 )2
√
and |⃗r ′ (t)| = 3 2(1 + t2 )2 ,
|⃗r ′ × ⃗r ′′ | 1
∴κ= = .
|⃗r ′ (t)|3 3(1 + t2 )2
Now [⃗r ′ , ⃗r ′′ , ⃗r ′′′ ] = 216
[⃗r ′ (t), ⃗r ′′ (t), ⃗r ′′ (t)]
⇒τ =
|⃗r ′ × ⃗r ′′ |2
1
= .
3(1 + t2 )2
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 8
January 29, 2024
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) February 5, 2024 2 / 40
Planarity of the curve
Theorem
For a regular curve of class m ⩾ 2 with non vanishing
curvature, the curve is in plane if and only if τ = 0
everywhere.
Theorem
everywhere.
Proof.
Assume ⃗r(s) is a plane curve, say it lies in the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0,(a, b, c) ̸= (0, 0, 0). Hence
(a, b, c) · ⃗r(s) = −d, a constant for all s. Differentiating,
(a, b, c) · ⃗t = 0, ∀s. Differentiating again,
(a, b, c) · κ(s)⃗n(s) = 0∀s.
Theorem
everywhere.
Proof.
As κ(s) never vanishes, (a, b, c) is orthogonal to both
⃗t(s) and ⃗n(s) and hence ⃗b(s) = ϕ(s)(a, b, c) where ϕ(s)
a non-vanishing function which is continuous. Since
|ϕ(s)| is a nonzero constant, ϕ(s) is a constant, i.e. ⃗b(s)
is a constant. Hence τ (s) = 0∀s.
Theorem
everywhere.
Proof.
For converse, assume for a regular curve of class m ⩾ 2
with nonvanishing curvature, τ (s) = 0 ∀s. Hence
d⃗b ⃗
ds = 0 ∀s, i.e. b(s) = (a, b, c) for some onstants a, b, c
not all 0. Since ⃗b(s) · ⃗t(s) = 0 ∀s, integrating wrt s we
get (a, b, c) · ⃗r(s) = d ∀s, where d is a constant. Hence
⃗r(s) lies in the plane ax + by + cz − d = 0.
Q. 6, Page - 99
Show that principal normals at consecutive points of the

curve don’t meet unless τ = 0.
Q. 6, Page - 99
Show that principal normals at consecutive points of the

curve don’t meet unless τ = 0.
(Here principal normals at consecutive points meet
means whenever |ds| the difference between arc-length
parameters of the points, is small the shortest distance
between the principal normal lines is 0.)
Let ⃗n, ⃗n + d⃗n denote principal normal vectors at these
points. The vector d⃗r is the vector joining these two
points (on the respective prinicipal normal lines). Hence
the shortest distance between these lines is given by
[d⃗r, ⃗n, n + d⃗n].
Thus the principal normal lines meet
iff [d⃗r, ⃗n, ⃗n + d⃗n] = 0

⇒iff [d⃗r, ⃗n, d⃗n] = 0
iff [⃗tds, ⃗n, (τ⃗b − κ⃗t )ds] = 0
⇒iff τ (ds)2 [⃗t, ⃗n, ⃗b] = 0
As [⃗t, ⃗n, ⃗b] = 1 and ds ̸= 0, we get the result.
Section 1.8
Behaviour of a Curve near one of
its Points
Behaviour of curve near a point
Recall that for an analytic curve ⃗r(s) with arc length
parameter s, we have Taylor series expansion
s2 ′′ s3
⃗r(s) = ⃗r(0) + s⃗r ′ (0) + ⃗r (0) + ⃗r ′′′ (0) + · · ·
2 3!
When s is small, i.e., for the curve near ⃗r(0), we can
consider approximation to the curve by ignoring terms
with high powers of s, which are small.
Notation: We say f = o(g) (f is small o of g) as s → 0
if lim fg(s)
(s)
= 0.
s→0
Parameterization for small s
Theorem
Let the curve be of class m ⩾ 4. At a point P on the
curve, let the coordinate axes, Ox, Oy, Oz be taken
along ⃗t, ⃗n, ⃗b, respectively. If X, Y , Z are the coordinates
of the neighbouring point Q on the curve, then
κ2 s3 κκ′ 4
X =s− − s + o(s4 ),
6 8
κ 2 κ 3 κ′′ − κτ 2 − κ3 4
′
Y = s + s + s + o(s4 ),
2 6 24
′ ′
κτ 3 2κ τ + κτ 4
Z= s + s + o(s4 ),
6 24
where κ, τ are the curvature and torsion of ⃗r(s) at P .
Proof.
Note ⃗r ′ (s) = ⃗t(s) and ⃗r ′′ (s) = κ(s)⃗n(s).

∴ ⃗r ′′′ = −κ(s)2⃗t(s) + κ′ (s)⃗n(s) + κ(s)τ (s)⃗b(s)
and ⃗r (4) (s) = −3κκ′⃗t − (κ3 + κτ 2 − κ′ )⃗n + (2κ′ τ + κτ ′ )⃗b.
Putting s = 0 and substituting the resulting quantities in

the Taylor series for ⃗r(s), we get the result by collecting
the coefficients of ⃗t(0), ⃗n(0), ⃗b(0), respectively.
Corollary
Under the assumptions of the previous theorem
2Y
(i) κ(0) = lim X 2.
s→0
3Z
(ii) τ (0) = lim XY .
s→0
(iii) Let P = ⃗r(0) and Q = ⃗r(s), then the length of the
chord P Q
κ2 s2
= s(1 − ) + o(s3 ).
24
Proof. Homework
Lecture 9
January 30, 2024
Serret-Frenet Approximation of the Curve
The projection of the curve on the osculating plane
is
κ
Y = X 2 , Z = 0.
2
is
κ
Y = X 2 , Z = 0.
2
The projection of the curve on the rectifying plane is

κτ 3
Z= X , Y = 0.
6
is
κ
Y = X 2 , Z = 0.
2
The projection of the curve on the rectifying plane is

κτ 3
Z= X , Y = 0.
6
The projection of the curve on the normal plane is

2 τ2 3
Z2 = Y , X = 0.
9κ
Example 4, Page-84.
Find a function f (u) such that the curve

⃗r(u) = (a cos u, a sin u, f (u)) is a plane curve, where
a > 0 is a constant.
Example 4, Page-84.
Find a function f (u) such that the curve

⃗r(u) = (a cos u, a sin u, f (u)) is a plane curve, where
a > 0 is a constant.
Hint. We need to show τ (u) = 0 ∀u i.e. [⃗r ′ , ⃗r ′′ , ⃗r ′′′ ] = 0

which leads to the differential equation
f ′′′ (u) + f ′ (u) = 0 ⇒ f (u) = α sin u + β cos u + γ,
where α, β, γ are constants.
Example
Let ⃗r(s) be a regular path of class m ⩾ 2 with arc length
parameter and non-vanishing ⃗r ′′ . Find the curvature and
Z s
torsion of ⃗r1 (s) = ⃗n(s)ds.
0
Example
parameter and non-vanishing ⃗r ′′ . Find the curvature and
Z s
torsion of ⃗r1 (s) = ⃗n(s)ds.
0
Sol. Here ⃗r1 ′ (s) = ⃗n(s), so ⃗r1 ′′ (s) = τ⃗b − κ⃗t and
⃗r1 ′′′ (s) = τ ′⃗b − τ 2⃗n − (κ′ + κ2 )⃗t.
|⃗r1 ′ × ⃗r1 ′′ | p 2
∴ k1 (s) = = κ + τ 2.
|⃗r1 ′ |2
[⃗r1 ′ , ⃗r1 ′′ , ⃗r1 ′′′ ] κτ ′ − τ κ′
and τ1 (s) = = 2 .
|⃗r1 ′ × ⃗r1 ′′ |2 (κ + τ 2 )3/2
Theorem 2, Page-29.
The length of the common perpendicular between
tangents at two nearby points of ⃗r(s) at arcual distance
κτ s3
s is approximately d = .
12
Theorem 2, Page-29.
κτ s3
s is approximately d = .This is the shortest distance
12
between tangents at nearby points of ⃗r(s).
Theorem 2, Page-29.
κτ s3
12
Proof.
⃗r ′ (s) × ⃗r ′ (0) [⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (s), ⃗r ′ (0)]
d = (⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0)) · = .
|⃗r ′ (s) × ⃗r ′ (0)| ⃗r ′ (s) × ⃗r ′ (0)
Theorem 2, Page-29.
κτ s3
12
Proof.
⃗r ′ (s) × ⃗r ′ (0) [⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (s), ⃗r ′ (0)]
d = (⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0)) · = .
|⃗r ′ (s) × ⃗r ′ (0)| ⃗r ′ (s) × ⃗r ′ (0)
κ2 s3 κκ′ 4
Recall X = s − − s + o(s4 ),
6 8
κ κ′ κ′′ − κτ 2 − κ3 4
Y = s2 + s3 + s + o(s4 ),
2 6 24
κτ 3 2κ′ τ + κτ ′ 4
Z= s + s + o(s4 ),
6 24
κ2 s3 κκ′ 4

Hence ⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0) = s − − s + o(s ) ⃗t(0)
4
6 8
κ 2 κ′ 3 κ′′ − κτ 2 − κ3 4

4
+ s + s + s + o(s ) ⃗n(0)
2 6 24
κτ 3 2κ′ τ + κτ ′ 4

+ s + s + o(s ) ⃗b(0),
4
6 24
κ2 s3 κκ′ 4

Hence ⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0) = s − − s + o(s ) ⃗t(0)
4
6 8
κ 2 κ′ 3 κ′′ − κτ 2 − κ3 4

4
+ s + s + s + o(s ) ⃗n(0)
2 6 24
κτ 3 2κ′ τ + κτ ′ 4

+ s + s + o(s ) ⃗b(0),
4
6 24
κ2 s2 ⃗ κ′ 2
κτ
′
∴ ⃗r (s) ≈ 1 − t(0) + κs + s ⃗n(0) + s2 ⃗b(0),
2 2 2
κ2 s3 κκ′ 4

Hence ⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0) = s − − s + o(s ) ⃗t(0)
4
6 8
κ 2 κ′ 3 κ′′ − κτ 2 − κ3 4

4
+ s + s + s + o(s ) ⃗n(0)
2 6 24
κτ 3 2κ′ τ + κτ ′ 4

+ s + s + o(s ) ⃗b(0),
4
6 24
κ2 s2 ⃗ κ′ 2
κτ
′
∴ ⃗r (s) ≈ 1 − t(0) + κs + s ⃗n(0) + s2 ⃗b(0),
2 2 2
κ′ 2 ⃗
κτ
′ ′
⃗r (s) × ⃗r (0) ≈ − κs + s b(0) + s2 ⃗n(0),
2 2
κ2 s3 κκ′ 4

Hence ⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0) = s − − s + o(s ) ⃗t(0)
4
6 8
κ 2 κ′ 3 κ′′ − κτ 2 − κ3 4

4
+ s + s + s + o(s ) ⃗n(0)
2 6 24
κτ 3 2κ′ τ + κτ ′ 4

+ s + s + o(s ) ⃗b(0),
4
6 24
κ2 s2 ⃗ κ′ 2
κτ
′
∴ ⃗r (s) ≈ 1 − t(0) + κs + s ⃗n(0) + s2 ⃗b(0),
2 2 2
κ′ 2 ⃗
κτ
′ ′
⃗r (s) × ⃗r (0) ≈ − κs + s b(0) + s2 ⃗n(0),
2 2
1/2
κ′

′ ′
|⃗r (s) × ⃗r (0)| ≈ κs 1 + s ,
κ
κ2 s3 κκ′ 4

Hence ⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0) = s − − s + o(s ) ⃗t(0)
4
6 8
κ 2 κ′ 3 κ′′ − κτ 2 − κ3 4

4
+ s + s + s + o(s ) ⃗n(0)
2 6 24
κτ 3 2κ′ τ + κτ ′ 4

+ s + s + o(s ) ⃗b(0),
4
6 24
κ2 s2 ⃗ κ′ 2
κτ
′
∴ ⃗r (s) ≈ 1 − t(0) + κs + s ⃗n(0) + s2 ⃗b(0),
2 2 2
κ′ 2 ⃗
κτ
′ ′
⃗r (s) × ⃗r (0) ≈ − κs + s b(0) + s2 ⃗n(0),
2 2
1/2
κ′

′ ′
|⃗r (s) × ⃗r (0)| ≈ κs 1 + s ,
κ
[⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (s), ⃗r ′′ (s)] κτ s3

∴d= ≈ .
|⃗r ′ (s) × ⃗r ′ (0)| 12
Lecture 10
February 01, 2024
Q. 7, Page - 99
If there is one-one correspondence between curves and
the tangents at the corresponding points are parallel,
show that the principal normals are parrallel and so also
their binormals. Also prove that κκ1 = ds
ds
1
= ττ1 .
(Here, by one-one correspondence, we mean a regular

map ϕ of class m ⩾ 2 from an open set containing first
curve to an open set containing the 2nd curve such that
it is 1-1 and onto map of curves and they are traced in
same direction. In this situation, if one curve has parame-
terization ⃗r : I → R3 , then the other curve has ⃗r1 = ϕ⃗r.
ds
Also ds 1
> 0, as both curves are traced simultaneously.)
Tangents to ⃗r and ⃗r1 at corresponding points are
parallel, hence ⃗r ′ (t) = ω(t)⃗r1 ′ (t) for a scalar ω(t).
Moreover, as ⃗r and ⃗r1 have continuous 2nd derivatives,
′ ′
ω(t) = ⃗r|⃗r1·⃗r′1|2 has continuous derivative. Differentiating,
⃗r ′′ (t) = ω ′ (t)⃗
r1 ′ (t) + ω(t)⃗r1 ′′ (t).
Now as ⃗r ′ (t) does not vanish, ω(t) also does not vanish.
Hence the span of ⃗r ′ and ⃗r ′′ is same as the span of ⃗r1 ′
and ⃗r1 ′′ . Since the principal normal vectors of both the
curves lie in this span and both are perpendicular to the
same vector, principal normals are parallel.
Since binormals of both the curves are perpendicular to
this span, they are also parallel. As ⃗t(t) = ⃗t1 (t) for all t,
⃗t(t) · ⃗t1 (t) = 1 for all t. Let s, s1 be respectively arc
dt⃗1 d⃗t ds
length parameters of ⃗r(t) and ⃗r1 . Hence ds 1
= ds ds1
everywhere. Taking magnitude, we get κκ1 = ds ds
1
. Using
binormals instead of tangents, we get the other equality.
Section 1.10
Contact between Curves and
Surfaces
Contact Between Curves and Surfaces
For a surface S : F (x, y, z) = 0 and a parameterized
curve C : ⃗r(u) = (f (u), g(u), h(u)), let P = ⃗r(u0 ) lies
on C. P lies on S if and only if F (f (u0 ), g(u0 ), h(u0 )) = 0. Let
ϕ(u) = F ((f (u), g(u), h(u)) for any parameter value u.
Then P lies on S if and only if ϕ(u0 ) = 0. Suppose F
and ⃗r are of class m for sufficiently large m.
ϕ′′ (u0 )
Assume ϕ(u) =ϕ(u0 ) + (u − u0 )ϕ′ (u0 ) + (u − u0 )2 + · · ·
2
ϕ(n) (u0 )
+ (u − u0 )n + χ(u)
n!
χ(u)
where χ(u) = O((u − u0 )n+1 ) as u → u0 i.e. (u−u0 )n+1 is
bounded as u → u0 .
Definition
The surface S : F (x, y, z) = 0 and a parameterized
curve C : ⃗r(u) has an n-point contact (or contact of
order n) at P = ⃗r(u0 ) if
ϕ(u0 ) = ϕ′ (u0 ) = · · · = ϕ(n−1) (u0 ) = 0 and ϕ(n) (u0 ) ̸= 0.
If S and C have a contact of order 1 at P then it is
called a simple intersection of S and C. Similarly 2-point
contact, 3 point contact etc. are called double, triple
etc. point of intersection.
If P is n-point contact of S and C, we can say S and C
intersect at P in n coincidental points.
Theorem 1, Page-36
The conditions of a surface having n point contact with
the curve γ are invariant under a change of parameter.
Proof.
Let u = θ(t) be the change of parameters with
u0 = θ(t0 ) Then ⃗r2 (t) = ⃗r1 (θ(t)). So
ω(t) = F (⃗ r2 (t)) = ϕ(θ(t)). Now
ω (t) = ϕ (θ(t))θ′ (t), ω ′′ (t) = ϕ′′ (t)θ′ (t)2 + ϕ′ (t)θ′′ (t) In
′ ′
general,ω (k) (t) = ϕ(k) (θ(t))θ′ (t)k +

a linear combination ofϕ′ (θ(t)), ϕ′′ (θ(t)), · · · , ϕ(k−1) (θ(t)).
As θ′ (t) does not vanish, so for k < n, ω (k) (t0 ) = 0 and
ω (n) (t0 ) ̸= 0. This proves the theorem.
Theorem 2, page-36
The osculating plane at any point has at least three
point contact with the curve at P .
Proof.
F (x, y, z) = [R ⃗ − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′′ (0)] = 0
∴F (⃗r(s)) = [⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′′ (0)].
′ s2 ′′ s3 ′′′
⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0) = s⃗r (0) + ⃗r (0) + ⃗r (0) + · · ·
2 6
3
s
[⃗r(s) − ⃗r(0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′′ (0)] = [⃗r ′′′ (0), ⃗r ′ (0), ⃗r ′′ (0)] + O(s4 )
6
κτ 2 3
=− s + O(s4 ).
6
Thus we have a 3-point contact at P if neither κ nor τ vanishes at
P, otherwise order of contact is at least 4.
Section 1.11
Osculating Circle and Osculating
Sphere
Osculating circle
Definition
Let ⃗r(s) be a regular curve of class m ⩾ 2 with arc
length parameter s and let P = ⃗r(0). Let
Pi = ⃗r(si ), i = 1, 2, 3 be 3 (non-collinear) points near P
on ⃗r(s). There is a unique circle through all Pi . The
limiting circle, if it exists, as all Pi approach P is called
the osculating circle or circle of curvature of ⃗r(s) at P .
Osculating circle
Definition
Its center ⃗c(0) is called the center of curvature of ⃗r(s) at
P
Osculating circle
Definition
Its center ⃗c(0) is called the center of curvature of ⃗r(s) at
P while its radius ρ(0) is called the radius of curvature
at P .
Remarks
The osculating circle lies in the osculating plane.
The osculating circle and the curve have the same
tangent at P lying in the osculating plane.
The center of the circle of curvature lies on the
principal normal line at P .
The osculating circle and the curve have at least
3-point contact.
The osculating circle does not exist at points where
curvature vanishes (or one can say osculating circle
becomes a straight line.)
Osculating circle of a circle is the same circle itself.
Theorem
The radius of the osculating circle at P is the reciprocal
of curvature of the curve at P and the position vector of
its centre of the osculating circle is ⃗c = ⃗r + ρ⃗n where
ρ = k1 .
Lecture 11
February 03, 2024
Osculating Sphere
parameter s and assume ⃗r(0) = P , κ(0)τ (0) ̸= 0. A
sphere which has (at least) a 4-point contact with ⃗r(s)
at P is called the osculating sphere at P on ⃗r(s). Let
ρ(s) = 1/κ(s), σ(s) = 1/τ (s). These are respectively called
the radius of curvature and the radius of torsion of ⃗r(s).
Osculating Sphere
parameter s and assume ⃗r(0) = P , κ(0)τ (0) ̸= 0. A
sphere which has (at least) a 4-point contact with ⃗r(s)
at P is called the osculating sphere at P on ⃗r(s). Let
ρ(s) = 1/κ(s), σ(s) = 1/τ (s). These are respectively called
the radius of curvature and the radius of torsion of ⃗r(s).
Theorem
The osculating sphere at p P on ⃗r(s) is given by
⃗ = R where R = ρ(0)2 + σ(0)2 ρ′ (0)2 and
|⃗c − R|
⃗c = ⃗r(0) + ρ(0)⃗n(0) + σ(0)ρ′ (0)⃗b(0).
(⃗c and R are respectively called the center and radius of
spherical curvature to ⃗r(s) at P ).
Remarks
Center of osculating sphere lies in the normal plane
of ⃗r(s), as ⃗c(0) − ⃗r(0) is a linear combination of
⃗n(0) and ⃗b(0).
If κ is constant then
radius of curvature=radius of spherical curvature
center of curvature=center of spherical curvature.
In particular, if ⃗r(s) is a circle then it equals its
osculating circle and is a great circle of the
osculating sphere.
Homework
If R, the radius of spherical curvature is constant then
⃗r(s) lies on a sphere or it has a constant curvature.
Q. 10, Page - 99
Find the osculating sphere and osculating circle at the

point (1, 2, 3) on the curve
⃗r(u) = (2u + 1, 3u2 + 2, 4u3 + 3).
Q. 10, Page - 99
Find the osculating sphere and osculating circle at the

point (1, 2, 3) on the curve
⃗r(u) = (2u + 1, 3u2 + 2, 4u3 + 3).
Ans. Here κ(0) = 32 , ⃗n(0) = (0, 1, 0), so the equation of

the osculating circle is (x − 1)2 + (y − 83 )2 = 49 , z = 3
and τ (0) = 2,ρ′ (0) = 0, hence, the osculating sphere will
be given by (x − 1)2 + (y − 38 )2 + (z − 3)2 = 94 .
Section 1.12
Locus of Centeres of Spherical
Curvature
Locus of Centers of spherical curvature
Since center of spherical curvature at ⃗r(s) is
⃗c(s) = ⃗r(s) + ρ(s)⃗n(s) + σ(s)ρ′ (s)⃗b(s).
It moves along a path as s varies. For this path, we can

calculate quantities like Serret-Frenet frame, curvature,
torsion etc.(These will be denoted with subscript ⃗c ).
′
⃗t⃗c(s) = e⃗b(s) and ds⃗c = ρ(s) + d(σ(s)ρ (s)) ,
ds σ(s) ds
( ′
ρ(s)
1 if σ(s) + d(σ(s)ρ
ds
(s))
> 0,
where e = ρ(s) ′
−1 if σ(s) + d(σ(s)ρ
ds
(s))
< 0.
⃗n⃗c(s) = e1⃗n(s),
ee1 τ (s) τ (s)
κ⃗c(s) = − = ,
ds⃗c/ds ρ(s) d(σ(s)ρ′ (s))
σ(s) + ds
⃗b⃗c(s) = −ee1⃗t(s),
eκ(s) eκ(s)
τ⃗c(s) = ds⃗c = ,
ρ(s) d(σ(s)ρ′ (s))
ds σ(s) + ds
′
τ κ ρ(s) d(σ(s)ρ (s))
= =
∴ +
κ⃗c τ⃗c σ(s) ds
⇒ τ (s)τ⃗c(s) = κ(s)κ⃗c(s).
Locus of Centers of curvature
Since center of curvature at ⃗r(s) is
⃗c(s) = ⃗r(s) + ρ(s)⃗n(s).
It moves along a path as s varies.

Theorem
Radius of curvature of the locus of the center of
curvatures (i.e center of osculating circle) is given by
" 2 #− 21
2 ′ ′2 4

ρσ d σρ 1 ρ σ
ρ1 = − + .
R3 ds ρ R ρ2 R 4
Example
Let ⃗r1 (s) = ⃗t(s), the unit tangent vector of a regular

path ⃗r(s) where s is the arc length parameter of ⃗r(s).
Find the curvature and torsion of ⃗r1 (s) in terms of the
curvature κ(s) and torsion τ (s) of ⃗r(s). (⃗r1 (s) is called
the tangent indicatrix or indicatrix of tangents of ⃗r(s). )
Example
Let ⃗r1 (s) = ⃗t(s), the unit tangent vector of a regular

path ⃗r(s) where s is the arc length parameter of ⃗r(s).
Find the curvature and torsion of ⃗r1 (s) in terms of the
curvature κ(s) and torsion τ (s) of ⃗r(s). (⃗r1 (s) is called
the tangent indicatrix or indicatrix of tangents of ⃗r(s). )
|⃗r1 ′ (s)×⃗r1 ′′ (s)|
Sol. Required curvature κ1 (s) = |⃗r1 ′ |3 .
⃗r1 ′ (s) = κ(s)⃗n(s), ⃗r1 ′′ (s) = κ′ (s)⃗n(s) + κ(s)(τ (s)⃗b(s) − κ⃗t(s)).

√
k(s)2 +τ (s)2
Hence κ1 (s) = κ(s) .
Homework Find torsion and Serret-Frenet framework.
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 12
February 05, 2024
Section 1.13
Tangent Surfaces, Involutes and
Evolutes
Tangent Surface to a Curve
Definition
The tangent surface the curve ⃗r is the union of all
tangent lines to ⃗r(s) at all its points (also called tangent
developable).
Definition
developable).
Definition
developable).
Tangent line at ⃗r(s) is

⃗
R(u, s) = ⃗r(s) + u⃗r ′ (s).
As u and s both vary, we get the
tangent surface. The image of
the curve u = u(s) in us-plane
gives a curve
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + u(s)⃗r ′ (s).
Involute
Definition
An involute of ⃗r is a curve on the tangent surface of ⃗r
which meets all generating lines orthogonally (at the
corresponding points).
Theorem
If ⃗r1 (s) denotes the position vector on the involute C1 of
a curve C corresponding to its point ⃗r(s), then
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + (c − s)⃗t(s) for a constant c (Here s is an
arc length parameter of ⃗r(s)).
Applications of Involute
Gear industries – To make teeth for two revolving

machines and gears.
Scroll compressing and Gas Compressing – These
are made in this shape to reduce noise and to make
them efficient.
Curvature and Torsion of an Involute
Theorem
For an involute ⃗c(s) for a regular path ⃗r(s) of class
m ⩾ 2,
√
τ 2 + κ2 κτ ′ − κ′ τ
κ⃗c = , τ⃗c = .
κ|c − s| κ(c − s)(τ 2 + κ2 )
Curvature and Torsion of an Involute
Theorem
For an involute ⃗c(s) for a regular path ⃗r(s) of class
m ⩾ 2,
√
τ 2 + κ2 κτ ′ − κ′ τ
κ⃗c = , τ⃗c = .
κ|c − s| κ(c − s)(τ 2 + κ2 )
Involute of a circular helix is a plane curve.

If the involute of a curve is a plane curve then the
curve is a general helix.
Involute of a cycloid is a cycloid.
Evolute
Definition
If C̃ is an involute of C then C is called evolute of C̃.
Evolute
Definition
If C̃ is an involute of C then C is called evolute of C̃.
Theorem
Let ⃗r(s) be a regular curve of class m ⩾ 2 with an arc
length parameter s and non-vanishing curvature. Then
its evolute is given by
⃗r1 (s) = ⃗r(s) + ρ(s)⃗n(s) + ρ(s) cot(ψ(s) + c)⃗b(s),

R
where c is constant and ψ(s) = τ (s) ds.
Lecture 13
February 06, 2024
Remarks
⃗r(s) has infinitely many evolutes, as c is an arbitrary

constant.
For a plane curve, τ = 0, hence choosing c′ = 0,
tan(ψ + c′ ) = 0. Thus for a plane curve, one of the
evolutes is the locus of the centers of the curvatures.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/7/7f/Cycloid_osculating_circle_
evolute_2.gif
Example
Find involutes and evolutes of ⃗r(t) = (3t, 3t2 , 2t3 ).
Ans. Involute:
⃗ 2 3 c − (3t + 2t3 )
R(t) = (3t, 3t , 2t ) + 2
(1, 2t, 2t2 ).
1 + 2t
Evolute:
⃗ 2 3 3(1 + 2t2 )2 1
R1 (t) =(3t, 3t , 2t ) + 2
(−2t, 1 − 2t2 , 2t)
2 1 + 2t
3(1 + 2t ) 2 2 √ −1
√
+ 2
cot( 2 tan ( 2t) + c)(2t2 , −2t, 1).
2(1 + 2t )
Corollary
The tangents to two different evolutes corresponding to
two constants c1 and c2 drawn from the same point of
the given curve are inclined to each other at a constant
angle c1 − c2 .
Hint.
r⃗1 = ⃗r + ρ⃗n + ρ cot(ψ + c)⃗b.
Z
and ψ = τ ds ⇒ ψ ′ = τ. We shall find unit tangents
vectors ⃗t1c1 and ⃗tc12 corresponding to two constants c1 and
c2 on the evolute and then find the angle between them
using ⃗tc11 · ⃗tc12 = cos θ.
Chapter 2
The First Fundamental Form and Local Intrinsic
Properties of a Surface
Surface in R3
Definition (Implicit form)
A surface is defined as set of all solutions of F (x, y, z) = 0.
S = {(x, y, z)R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
Surface in R3
S = {(x, y, z)R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

To study S near a point P , we consider the solutions in some
neighbourhood of P ).
Surface in R3
S = {(x, y, z)R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0}.
(In stead of R3 , we can consider solutions in an open subset of R3 .

To study S near a point P , we consider the solutions in some
neighbourhood of P ).
Definition (Parametric form)

For (independent) parameters u, v with (u, v) varying over a domain
D ⊂ R2 , a surface can be parametrically defined by
x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v), z = h(u, v) for some continuous real
valued functions f, g, h defined on D.
S = {(f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)) : (u, v) ∈ D}.
Remarks
We say S is of class m if f, g, h are of class m i.e.
have continuous partials of order upto m.
Remarks
Parameters u, v are called the curvilinear
coordinates or a parametric representation of the
corresponding point on S.
Remarks
Parameters u, v are called the curvilinear
coordinates or a parametric representation of the
corresponding point on S.
A surface may not have unique parametric
equations.
From a parametric equation, by eliminating
parameters, we may get an implicit equation, but it
may give more points than the parametric surface.
For example S : x = u cosh v, y = u sinh v, z = u2 .
On elimination u, v, we get x2 − y 2 − z = 0 which
may contain points with z < 0.
Parametric transformation
Suppose u, v and ũ, ṽ are two parametric representations
of the same surface. The transformation ũ = ϕ(u, v),
ṽ = ψ(u, v) is called a parametric transformation.
Definition: A parametric transformation is called proper
if (i) ϕ, ψ are single valued, and (ii) The jacobian
determinant ∂(ϕ,ψ)
∂(u,v) ̸= 0 in some domain D.
Remark The condition (i) ensures that there is a well
defined way to go from (u, v) to (ũ, ṽ). The inverse
function theorem of 2 variables ensures the map (ϕ, ψ) is
locally invertible, by (ii).
Remark The condition (i) ensures that there is a well
defined way to go from (u, v) to (ũ, ṽ). The inverse
function theorem of 2 variables ensures the map (ϕ, ψ) is
locally invertible, by (ii).
Example: (u, v) → (eu cos v, eu sin v) is a proper
parametric transformation of the (u, v)-plane, but not
invertible.
Ordinary vs. singular points
Assume, for a position vector ⃗r = (x, y, z) of a point on
S, we have parameterization x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v),
z = h(u, v) where f, g, h have continuous partials of
required order. Write
⃗r(u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)),
⃗r1 = (fu , gu , hu ), r2 = (fv , gv , hv ),
⃗r11 = (fuu , guu , huu ), ⃗r12 = (fuv , guv , huv ),
⃗r21 = (fvu , gvu , hvu ), ⃗r22 = (fvv , gvv , hvv ).
Ordinary vs. singular points
Assume, for a position vector ⃗r = (x, y, z) of a point on
S, we have parameterization x = f (u, v), y = g(u, v),
z = h(u, v) where f, g, h have continuous partials of
required order. Write
⃗r(u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)),
⃗r1 = (fu , gu , hu ), r2 = (fv , gv , hv ),
⃗r11 = (fuu , guu , huu ), ⃗r12 = (fuv , guv , huv ),
⃗r21 = (fvu , gvu , hvu ), ⃗r22 = (fvv , gvv , hvv ).
Alternately we write ⃗r1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), ⃗r2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 )
etc.
Definition: If ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ̸= 0 at a point P of S then P is
called an ordinary point of S, otherwise P is called a
singularity of S.
Alternate significance of ordinary point
î ĵ k̂ î ĵ k̂
⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = fu gu hu = x1 y1 z1 .
fv gv hv x2 y2 z2
Thus ⃗r(u0 , v0 ) is ordinary ifand only if some 2 × 2 minor
x y z
of J (x, y, z) = 1 1 1 at (u0 , v0 ) is nonzero i.e. if
x2 y2 z2
and only if J (x, y, z) at (u0 , v0 ) has rank 2.
⃗r(u0 , v0 ) is singular if and only if J (x, y, z) at (u0 , v0 )
has rank 0 or 1.
Example of Singularity
Cone: ⃗r(u, v) = (u sin α cos v, u sin α sin v, u cos α),

−∞ < u < ∞, −∞ < v < ∞.
⃗r1 (u, v) = (sin α cos v, sin α sin v, cos α)

⃗r2 (u, v) = (−u sin α sin v, u sin α cos v, 0).
⃗r2 (0, 0) = ⃗0, hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 vanishes at (0, 0), thus
⃗r(0, 0) is a singularity.
Another Example
Consider ⃗r = (u2 , u3 , v), (u, v) ∈ R2 .
⃗r1 =(2u, 3u2 , 0)

⃗r2 =(0, 0, 1).
Hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (3u2 , −2u, 0). Thus the singularities are
all points ⃗r(0, v).
Invariance
Theorem
A proper parametric transformation carries an ordinary
point to an ordinary point.
Example
In the previous theorem, proper parametric
transformation is essential as indicated in the following
example. Consider (ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) = (r cos θ, r sin θ) be
a parametric transformation for the parametric surface
⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0), −∞ < u < ∞, −∞ < v < ∞.
Here ⃗r1 = (1, 0, 0), ⃗r2 = (0, 1, 0),
∴ ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (0, 0, 1) ̸= 0. Thus all points of this surface
are ordinary. Now
⃗r ∗ S(r, θ) = ⃗r(ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) = (r cos θ, r sin θ, 0).
So ⃗r1∗ = (cos θ, sin θ, 0), ⃗r2∗ = (−r sin θ, r cos θ, 0). Since
⃗r2∗ (0, θ) = ⃗0, hence ⃗r ∗ (0, θ) is singular for all θ.
(ϕ(r, θ), ψ(r, θ)) is not a proper parametric transformation.
Surfaces covered by several parameterizations
Not all surfaces are covered by a single transformation.

Single parametrization is enough to cover the surface
near its point, but to study the whole surface, we may
require to consider several parametrization, union of
whose images is the surface S.
Definition
A representation of a surface S of class m in R3 is a
collection {Sj } of parts of S such that each Sj is given
by a single parametrization and on the overlap Si ∩ Sj ,
where both the parametrization work, the parametric
transformation is proper of class m.
m-equivalence of representations.
Let R = {Si }, R′ = {Si′ } be two representations of a
surface S of class m. We say that R is m-equivalent to
R′ if whenever Si ∩ Sj′ ̸= ϕ, parametric transformation is
proper of class m.
proper of class m.
Definition: A surface S of class m is a m-equivalence
class of representations of class m.
proper of class m.
Remark: To study properties of a surface, we can use a
suitable representation in that m-equivalence class (we
are interested in properties shared by m-equivalent
representations). To study the surface near a point, only
one parameterization whose image contains that point is
enough.
Example
Consider two representations S, S ′ of the xy-plane where

S is a parameterization ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0) ∀ (u, v) and
S ′ is a parameterization
⃗r1 (r, θ) = (r cos θ, r sin θ, 0) ∀ (r, θ). These are not
1-equivalent,
√ as for the parametric transformation,
2 2
r = u + v not of class 1.
Curves on a surface
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the equation of a surface of class m

where u, v vary over a domain in the uv-plane. Let
u = u(t) and v = v(t) be a curve of class n lying in the
domain D of the uv-plane.
Curves on a surface

domain D of the uv-plane. Now consider
⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)). Then ⃗r gives the position vector of a
point in terms of a single parameter t so that
⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) is a curve lying on a surface with class
equal to smaller of m and n. The equation u = u(t) and
v = v(t) are called curvilinear equations of the curve on
the surface.
Remark
As a consequence of inverse function theorem, it can be

shown that near a regular point, any curve ⃗γ (t) whose
image lies in the image of ⃗r(u, v) can be represented as
⃗r(u(t), v(t)) for suitable functions u(t), v(t) of the same
class m.
Parametric Curves
Definition
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the given surface of class m. Let
v = c where c is an arbitrary constant. Then the position
vector ⃗r = ⃗r(u, c) is a function of a single parameter u
and hence ⃗r = ⃗r(u, c) represents a curve lying on the
surface ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v). This curve is called the parametric
curve v = constant. Simlarly, we get another family of
parametric curve, when u = constant.
Properties of parametric curves
Through every point of the surface, there passes
one and only one parametric curve of each system.
No two curves of the same system intersect.
The curves of the systeem u = u0 and v = v0
intersect once but not more than once if
(u0 , v0 ) ∈ D.
(u0 , v0 ) ∈ D.
The parametric curves of the system u = c1 and
v = c2 cannot touch each other.
Tangent to the curve v = c in the direction of u
∂⃗r
increasing is ⃗r1 = ∂u .
Tangent to the curve u = c in the direction of v
∂⃗r
increasing is ⃗r2 = ∂v .
Q. 3, Page - 158
Show that on the surface
⃗r(u, v) = (a(u + v), b(u − v), uv), parametric curves are
straight lines. (ab ̸= 0 is required).
Q. 3, Page - 158
Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R
Q. 3, Page - 158
Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R is a line

passing through ⃗r(0, c) = (ac, −bc, 0) with direction
ratios (a, b, c).
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
Similarly ⃗r(c, v) = (a(c + v), b(c − v), cv), v ∈ R
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
Similarly ⃗r(c, v) = (a(c + v), b(c − v), cv), v ∈ R is a line
passing through ⃗r(c, 0) = (ac, bc, 0) with direction ratios
(a, −b, c).
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
(a, −b, c).
The surface
is
hyperbolic paraboloid (Horse saddle)
1 x2 y2
z = 4 a2 − b2 . It can be made by putting together
straight sticks (such surfaces are called ruled surfaces).
Example 1(ii) Pg. 143
The hyperboloid of one sheet can be represented as

(u − v) (1 + uv) (uv − 1)
⃗r(u, v) = a ,b ,c .
u+v u+v u+v
Find the curves u = constant and v = constant.

(u − v) (1 + uv) (uv − 1)
⃗r(u, v) = a ,b ,c .
u+v u+v u+v
Sol. . It has parametric curves as a straight line. It is

2 2 2
also a level surface xa2 + yb2 − zc2 = 1.
Hyperboloid of one sheet
Definition
Let u = c1 and v = c2 . When the constants c1 and c2
vary, the whole surface is covered with a net of
parametric curves, two of which pass through every
point, (u, v) are called the curvilinear coordinates of P .
The parametric curves are called coordinate curves.
Definition
Definition
Two parametric curves through a point P are said to be
orthogonal if ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = 0 at P. If this condition is satisfied
at every point (u, v) of the domain, than the two system
of parametric curves are orthogonal.
Tangent Plane
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) be a general curve lying on the
surface passing through (u(t), v(t)). Then the tangent
to the curve at any point P on the surface is
d⃗r ∂⃗r du ∂⃗r dv du dv
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
dt ∂u dt ∂v dt dt dt
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
Tangent to any curve drawn on a surface is called a
tangent line to the surface.
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
tangent line to the surface.The tangents to different
curves through P on a surface lie in a plane containing
two independent vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . This plane is called
tangent plane at P .
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
Tangent plane to a regular surface
Theorem
The equation of a tangent plane at P on a surface with position
vector ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) is either
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
where a and b are parameters.
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
Proof. Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the position vector of a point P on the
surface. The tangent plane at P passes through ⃗r and contains the
⃗ is the position vector of any point on the
vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . So if R
tangent plane at P , thenR ⃗ − ⃗r, ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 are coplanar. Hence we
have R⃗ − ⃗r = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 where a and b are arbitrary constants.
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . So if R⃗ is the position vector of any point on the
have R ⃗ − ⃗r = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 where a and b are arbitrary constants.
⃗r1 × ⃗r2 is perpendicular to the tangent plane at P . Hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 is
perpendicular to R ⃗ − ⃗r lying in the tangent plane so that
⃗ − ⃗r) · ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = 0 is another form of the equation of the tangent
(R
plane at P .
Normal to the Surface
Definition
The normal to the surface at P is a line through P and
perpendicular to the tangent plane at P .
Since ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 lie in the tangent plane at P and pass
through P , the normal is perpendicular to both ⃗r1 , and
⃗r2 and it is parallel to ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 . The normal at P is fixed
by the following convention. If N ⃗ denotes the unit
normal at P , then ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 and N ⃗ in this order should form
a right handed system. Using this convention we have
N⃗ = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 , where H = |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |.

|⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | H
Equation of the Normal on the Surface
Theorem
The equation of the normal N ⃗ at a point P on the
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
surface ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) is R
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Remark: Normal line is invariant under proper
parametric transformation.
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Is unit normal vector invariant?
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Theorem
A proper parametric transformation either leaves every
normal unchanged or reverses the direction of the normal.
Proof
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the given surface and let the
parametric transformation be
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
Since the parametric transformation is proper,
′ ′
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸= 0.
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
′ ′
Using H and H in the above step, ′ ⃗ = ∂(u , v ) H ′ N
HN ⃗ ′.
∂(u, v)
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
′ ′
Using H and H in the above step, ′
HN⃗ = ∂(u , v ) H ′ N
⃗ ′.
∂(u, v)
Since H and H ′ are always positive, N and N are of the ⃗ ⃗′
same sign if J > 0 and are of opposite sign if J < 0.
Since J is a continuous function of the parameter u, v
in the whole domain and J does not vanish in D, J
retains the same sign in D. This proves that N⃗ and N
⃗′
have the same sign.
Example 1, Page 111
Obtain the surface equation of sphere and find the
singularities, parametric curves, tangent plane at a point
and the surface normal.
Example 1, Page 111
Sol. Use relation between Cartesian and spherical

coordinates : x = ρ sin ϕ cos θ, y = ρ sin ϕ sin θ,
z = ρ cos ϕ. Unit sphere is ρ = 1. Hence using u, v
instead of ϕ, θ and ρ = a, we get
⃗r = (a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a cos u),
where u, v are parameters and 0 ⩽ u ⩽ π, 0 ⩽ v ⩽ 2π.

Prof. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 15
February 12, 2024
Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) February 17, 2024 2 / 62
Section 2.4
Representation of a Surface
Surfaces covered by several parameterizations
Not all surfaces are covered by a single transformation.

Single parametrization is enough to cover the surface
near its point, but to study the whole surface, we may
require to consider several parametrization, union of
whose images is the surface S.
Definition
A representation of a surface S of class m in R3 is a
collection {Sj } of parts of S such that each Sj is given
by a single parametrization and on the overlap Si ∩ Sj ,
where both the parametrization work, the parametric
transformation is proper of class m.
m-equivalence of representations
proper of class m.
proper of class m.
proper of class m.
Remark: To study properties of a surface, we can use a
suitable representation in that m-equivalence class (we
are interested in properties shared by m-equivalent
representations). To study the surface near a point, only
one parameterization whose image contains that point is
enough.
Example
Consider two representations S, S ′ of the xy-plane where

S is a parameterization ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0) ∀ (u, v) and
S ′ is a parameterization
⃗r1 (r, θ) = (r cos θ, r sin θ, 0) ∀ (r, θ). These are not
1-equivalent,
√ as for the parametric transformation,
2 2
r = u + v not of class 1.
Section 2.5
Curves on Surfaces
Curves on a surface

domain D of the uv-plane.
Curves on a surface

domain D of the uv-plane. Now consider
⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)). Then ⃗r gives the position vector of a
point in terms of a single parameter t so that
⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) is a curve lying on a surface with class
equal to smaller of m and n. The equation u = u(t) and
v = v(t) are called curvilinear equations of the curve on
the surface.
Remark
As a consequence of inverse function theorem, it can be

shown that near a regular point, any curve ⃗γ (t) whose
image lies in the image of ⃗r(u, v) can be represented as
⃗r(u(t), v(t)) for suitable functions u(t), v(t) of the same
class m.
Parametric Curves
Definition
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the given surface of class m. Let
v = c where c is an arbitrary constant. Then the position
vector ⃗r = ⃗r(u, c) is a function of a single parameter u
and hence ⃗r = ⃗r(u, c) represents a curve lying on the
surface ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v). This curve is called the parametric
curve v = constant. Simlarly, we get another family of
parametric curve, when u = constant.
(u0 , v0 ) ∈ D.
(u0 , v0 ) ∈ D.
The parametric curves of the system u = c1 and
v = c2 cannot touch each other.
Tangent to the curve v = c in the direction of u
∂⃗r
increasing is ⃗r1 = ∂u .
Tangent to the curve u = c in the direction of v
∂⃗r
increasing is ⃗r2 = ∂v .
Q. 3, Page - 158
Q. 3, Page - 158
Sol. . ⃗r(u, c) = (a(u + c), b(u − c), cu), u ∈ R
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
Similarly ⃗r(c, v) = (a(c + v), b(c − v), cv), v ∈ R
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
(a, −b, c).
Q. 3, Page - 158

ratios (a, b, c).
(a, −b, c).
The surface
is
hyperbolic paraboloid (Horse saddle)
1 x2 y2
z = 4 a2 − b2 . It can be made by putting together
straight sticks (such surfaces are called ruled surfaces).
Lecture 16
February 13, 2024

(u − v) (1 + uv) (uv − 1)
⃗r(u, v) = a ,b ,c .
u+v u+v u+v

(u − v) (1 + uv) (uv − 1)
⃗r(u, v) = a ,b ,c .
u+v u+v u+v
Sol. . It has parametric curves as a straight line. It is

2 2 2
also a level surface xa2 + yb2 − zc2 = 1.
Hyperboloid of one sheet
Definition
Definition
Definition
Two parametric curves through a point P are said to be
orthogonal if ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = 0 at P. If this condition is satisfied
at every point (u, v) of the domain, than the two system
of parametric curves are orthogonal.
Section 2.6
Tangent Plane and Surface Normal
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
tangent line to the surface.
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
Tangent Plane
= + = ⃗r1 + r⃗2 .
Definition
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
⃗ is the position vector of any point on the
vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . So if R
have R⃗ − ⃗r = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 where a and b are arbitrary constants.
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 or (R
R ⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0,
vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 . So if R⃗ is the position vector of any point on the
have R ⃗ − ⃗r = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 where a and b are arbitrary constants.
⃗r1 × ⃗r2 is perpendicular to the tangent plane at P . Hence ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 is
perpendicular to R ⃗ − ⃗r lying in the tangent plane so that
⃗ − ⃗r) · ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = 0 is another form of the equation of the tangent
(R
plane at P .
Normal to the Surface
Definition
The normal to the surface at P is a line through P and
perpendicular to the tangent plane at P .
Since ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 lie in the tangent plane at P and pass
through P , the normal is perpendicular to both ⃗r1 , and
⃗r2 and it is parallel to ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 . The normal at P is fixed
by the following convention. If N ⃗ denotes the unit
normal at P , then ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 and N ⃗ in this order should form
a right handed system. Using this convention we have
N⃗ = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 , where H = |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |.

|⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | H
Lecture 16-17
February 12, 2024
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Theorem
⃗ = ⃗r + a(⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ).
Theorem
A proper parametric transformation either leaves every
normal unchanged or reverses the direction of the normal.
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸= 0.
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
′ ′
Using H and H in the above step,′ ⃗ = ∂(u , v ) H ′ N
HN ⃗ ′.
∂(u, v)
Proof
u′ = ϕ(u, v) and v ′ = ψ(u, v).
′ ′
′ ′ ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂(u , v ) ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
J = ∂(u ,v )
∂(u,v) ̸
= 0. As × = ′
× ′
.
∂u ∂v ∂(u, v) ∂u ∂v
′ ′
Using H and H in the above step,′
HN⃗ = ∂(u , v ) H ′ N
⃗ ′.
∂(u, v)
Since H and H ′ are always positive, N and N are of the ⃗ ⃗′
same sign if J > 0 and are of opposite sign if J < 0.
Since J is a continuous function of the parameter u, v
in the whole domain and J does not vanish in D, J
retains the same sign in D. This proves that N⃗ and N
⃗′
have the same sign.
Example 1, Page 111
Example 1, Page 111
Sol. Use relation between Cartesian and spherical

coordinates : x = ρ sin ϕ cos θ, y = ρ sin ϕ sin θ,
z = ρ cos ϕ. Unit sphere is ρ = 1. Hence using u, v
instead of ϕ, θ and ρ = a, we get
⃗r = (a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a cos u),
where u, v are parameters and 0 ⩽ u ⩽ π, 0 ⩽ v ⩽ 2π.

⃗r1 = (a cos u cos v, a cos u sin v, −a sin u)
⃗r2 = (−a sin u sin v, a cos u cos v, 0)

a cos u cos v a cos u sin v −a sin u
Hence M =
−a sin u sin v a cos u cos v 0
At u = 0 and u = π, all the three determinant minors of

M are zero so that the rank of M is zero. Thus u = 0,
u = π are singular points. Since these singularities are
due to the choice of parameters, they are artificial
singularities. The same conclusion may be arrived at by
considering ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 also.
Parametric Curves For u = constant = c,
⃗r(c, v) = (a sin c cos v, a sin c sin v, a cos c).
This curve is small circle. Hence the parametric curves of
the system u = constant is a system of parallel small
circles which are called parallels.
Parametric Curves For u = constant = c,
⃗r(c, v) = (a sin c cos v, a sin c sin v, a cos c).
This curve is small circle. Hence the parametric curves of
the system u = constant is a system of parallel small
circles which are called parallels.
For v = constant = c,
⃗r(u, c) = (a sin u cos c, a sin u, sin c, a cos u).
This is a great circle. Thus the parametric curves of the
system v = constant is a system of great circles called
meridians.
Since ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = 0 so that the parametric curves are
orthogonal. Now
⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = a2 (sin2 u cos v, sin2 u sin v, sin u cos v).
The equation of the tangent plane is

⃗ − ⃗r) · (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) = 0. In the cartesian form the above
(R
equation becomes
(X −x) sin u cos v +(Y −y) sin u sin v +(z −z) cos v = 0,
where (x, y, z) = (a sin u cos v, a sin u sin v, a cos u).
Homework
The following surfaces are given in the parametric form
1 (i) Ellipsoid (a sin u cos v, b sin u sin v, c cos u)
(ii) Elliptic paraboloid (au cos v, bu sin v, u2 )
(iii) Cone (a sinh u sinh v, b sinh u cosh v, c sinh u)
(iv) Cone (u cos v, u sin v, u)
(v) Plane (u + v, u − v, u).
Obtain in each case the representation of the
surface in the form f (x, y, z) = 0.
2 Discuss the nature of the points on the following
surfaces,
(i) ⃗r = (u, v, 0)
(ii) ⃗r = (u cos√ v, u sin v, 0)
(iii) ⃗r = u, v, 1 − u2 − v 2
Remark
For the graph of function f (x, y) of class m ⩾ 1, if we use

parameterization ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, f (u, v)), (u, v) ∈ D,
⃗r1 = (1, 0, fu ), ⃗r2 = (0, 1, fv ) are linearly independent everywhere .
Soall points are ordinary. ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (−fu , −fv , 1). Thus unit normal
√ −fu −fv
is ,√ ,√ 1
. Tangent plane at ⃗r(u0 , v0 ) is
1+fu2 +fv2 1+fu2 +fv2 1+fu2 +fv2
z = f (u0 , v0 ) + fu (u0 , v0 )(x − u0 ) + fv (u0 , v0 )(y − v0 ).

Parametric curves through (u0 , v0 , f (u0 , v0 )) are
⃗r(u, v0 ) = (u, v0 , f (u, v0 )) and ⃗r(u0 , v) = (u0 , v, f (u0 , v)). The
parametric curves are orthogonal iff ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = fu fv = 0 everywhere,
i.e. at any point at least one of fu , fv vanishes.
Exercise
Consider the surface S : f (x, y, z) = 0 for a function

f (x, y, z) of class m ⩾ 1. If ∇f ⃗ (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ̸= ⃗0 for
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ S i.e. f (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0, then show that
there is a parametrization of S which makes (x0 , y0 , z0 )
ordinary point and then find tangent plane and normal
line at (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
Exercise
Consider the surface S : f (x, y, z) = 0 for a function

f (x, y, z) of class m ⩾ 1. If ∇f ⃗ (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ̸= ⃗0 for
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ S i.e. f (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0, then show that
there is a parametrization of S which makes (x0 , y0 , z0 )
ordinary point and then find tangent plane and normal
line at (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
Hint. Make use of Implicit function theorem for surface:
Suppose that G(x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0 and Gz (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0.
Then there is function g(x, y) and a neighborhood U of
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) such that for (x, y, z) ∈ U the equation
G(x, y, z) = 0 is equivalent to z = g(x, y).
Section 2.7
Surface of Revolution
Let (g(u), 0, f (u) be a path of class m ⩾ 2 in xz-plane.
If we revolve it about z-axis, collection of all the points
traversed will give a surface S called the surface of
revolution of (g(u), 0, f (u)) about z-axis.
Any point on S is a trace of some point (g(u), 0, f (u))
on the curve in the xz-plane, hence its distance from
z-axis is r = g(u).
Any point on S is a trace of some point (g(u), 0, f (u))
on the curve in the xz-plane, hence its distance from
z-axis is r = g(u).
Parametric equation of surface of revolution
The parametric equation of the surface of revolution of
(g(u), 0, f (u)) about z-axis is given by
⃗r(u, v) = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v, f (u)).
Ordinary points
∂⃗r
⃗r1 = = ((g ′ (u) cos v, g ′ (u) sin v, f ′ (u))),
∂u
∂⃗r
⃗r2 = = (−g(u) sin v, g(u) cos v, 0),
∂v
⇒ ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (−g(u)f ′ (u) cos v, −g(u)f ′ (u) sin v, g(u)g ′ (u)).
Thus |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |2 = g(u)2 (g ′ (u)2 + f ′ (u)2 ).
Hence, if we assume that (g(u), 0, f (u)) is regular of

class m ⩾ 1 and never meets z-axis then all points of
⃗r(u, v) are ordinary.
Ordinary points
∂⃗r
= ((g ′ (u) cos v, g ′ (u) sin v, f ′ (u))),
⃗r1 =
∂u
∂⃗r
⃗r2 = = (−g(u) sin v, g(u) cos v, 0),
∂v
⇒ ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (−g(u)f ′ (u) cos v, −g(u)f ′ (u) sin v, g(u)g ′ (u)).
Thus |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |2 = g(u)2 (g ′ (u)2 + f ′ (u)2 ).
Hence, if we assume that (g(u), 0, f (u)) is regular of

class m ⩾ 1 and never meets z-axis then all points of
⃗r(u, v) are ordinary.
Parametric curves on the surface of revolution
Let P be a point of the surface with u = constant so
that g(u) is also a constant. Then the locus of the point
P is a circle of radius g(u) for a complete rotation as v
varies from 0 to 2π. Thus the parametric curves
u = constant are circles parallel to XOY plane as in the
case of a sphere we call them as parallels.
Parametric curves on the surface of revolution
Let P be a point of the surface with u = constant so
that g(u) is also a constant. Then the locus of the point
P is a circle of radius g(u) for a complete rotation as v
varies from 0 to 2π. Thus the parametric curves
u = constant are circles parallel to XOY plane as in the
case of a sphere we call them as parallels.
Let v = constant. Since v gives the angle of the plane of
rotation in this position, the parametric curves are the
curves of the intersection of this plane of rotation with
the surface. We call these curves meridians
Note that ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = 0 ∀(u, v). Thus the parametric curves
of the surface of revolution are always orthogonal.
Examples
(g(u), 0, f (u)) = (1, 0, u). Then the surface of
revolution is a circular cylinder
⃗r(u, v) = (cos v, sin v, u). All points are ordinary.
Examples
(g(u), 0, f (u)) = (u, 0, 0), u > 0. The surface of
revolution is the punctured plane
⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, 0), u > 0. All the points
of the surface are ordinary.
Examples
(g(u), 0, f (u)) = (u, 0, 0), u > 0. The surface of
revolution is the punctured plane
⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, 0), u > 0. All the points
of the surface are ordinary.
(g(u), 0, f (u)) = (u, 0, cu), a slanted straight line
through origin. The surface of revolution is the cone
⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, cu). All points except
those corresponding to u = 0 (i.e. origin, the
vertex) are ordinary.
More Examples
(g(u), 0, f (u)) = (sin u, 0, cos u), u ∈ (0, π). The

surface of revolution is the unit sphere except points
on z-axis : ⃗r(u, v) = (sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos u).
All points are ordinary. (For this parameterization, if
we allow points of z-axis by extending the domain
of u, the points of z-axis will be singular)
More Examples
(g(u), 0, f (u)) = (sin u, 0, cos u), u ∈ (0, π). The

surface of revolution is the unit sphere except points
on z-axis : ⃗r(u, v) = (sin u cos v, sin u sin v, cos u).
All points are ordinary. (For this parameterization, if
we allow points of z-axis by extending the domain
of u, the points of z-axis will be singular)
(g(u), 0, f (u)) = (b + a cos u, 0, a sin u). The
surface of revolution is the anchor ring :
⃗r(u, v) = ((b+a cos u) cos v, (b+cos u) sin v, a sin u).
Surface Normal
The surface normal to the surface of revolution is given

by
⃗r1 × ⃗r2
N=
|⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |
(−f ′ (u) cos v, −f ′ (u) sin v, g ′ (u))
= p .
f ′ (u)2 + g ′ (u)2
Section 2.8
Helicoids
Helicoids
Screw motion : We have seen in the surface revolution,

the motion of point revolving remains in a plane
perpendicular to the axis. As far as the screw motion is
concerned, as you revolve about the axis, there is also a
translation along the axis. The ratio of the angle of
revolution to the displacement along the axis of
revolution will be constant.
Right helicoid: The surface generated by screw motion
of x-axis about z-axis is a right helicoid. (Imagine a
round stair case).
Parametric Representation of a Right Helicoid
The parametric equation of the right helicoid is given by
⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, av).
Parametric curves : u = c gives the circular helix
⃗r(c, v) = (c cos v, c sin v, av).
v = c gives the straight line
⃗r(u, c) = (u cos c, u sin c, ac)
in the plane z = ac.

For the right helicoid, we have
⃗r1 = (cos v, sin v, 0)
⃗r2 = (−u sin v, u cos v, a)
p
⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = (a sin v, −a cos v, u) and H = a2 + u2 .
Hence, normal on the right helicoid is
⃗ = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = √ 1
N (a sin v, −a cos v, u).
H a2 + u2
Pitch of a right helicoid : If v = 2π, then 2πa is the
distance translated after one complete rotation. This is
called the pitch of the helicoid.
Lecture 19
February 15, 2024
General Helicoid
A general helicoid with axis along z-axis is the surface

generated by a screw motion from the curve of
intersection of the surface with xz-plane. If the
intersection of the general helicoid with xz-plane is
(g(u), 0, f (u)), then the general helicoid is given by
parameterization
⃗r(u, v) = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v, f (u) + av).
So we get ⃗r1 = (g ′ (u) cos v, g ′ (u) sin v, f ′ (u)) and

⃗r2 = (−g(u) sin v, g(u) cos v, a).
Thus
⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = af ′ (u).
Hence, when the parametric curves are orthogonal, then
either f ′ (u) = 0 or a = 0.
If f ′ (u) = 0 i.e. f (u) is a constant so that surface is a
right helicoid.
If a = 0, we do not have a screw motion and we have
only rotation about z-axis so that the helicoid is a
surface of revolution.
Example 2, Page 145
A helicoid is generated by the screw motion of a straight

line skew to the axis. Find the curve coplanar with the
axis which generates the same helicoid.
(Such curve is obtained by taking the intersection of the
helicoid with xz-plane. How to explicitly find its
equation in suitable coordinate system?)
Sol. The helicoid is generated by a straight line which
does not meet the axis of rotation, since the z-axis of
rotation and the straight line generating the helicoid are
skew lines. Let a be the shortest distance between them
and α be the angle between z-axis and the skew-line.
We shall find the coordinates of any point P on the
generating skew line. Let OP ′ be parallel to CP in the
Y OZ plane where C is the point (a, 0, 0) at which the
skew line meets the x-axis. Hence the coordinates of P ′
are (0, u sin α, u cos α) where u = OP ′ . Since CP and
OP ′ are parallel, the coordinates of P are
(a, u sin α, u cos α)
Let us rotate the axis about the z-axis through angle v
and translate it through a distance cv parallel to the axis.
Using the relation between coordinates P and after
rotation, we get
X = a cos v − u sin α sin v, Y = a sin v + u sin α cos v
Since the z-coordinate is subjected to only translation,
we obtain z = u cos α + cv. Hence the position vector of
any point on the helicoid is
(a cos v − u sin α sin v, a sin v + u sin α cos v, u cos α + cv). (* )
The required plane curve is the section of the helicoid
with the XOZ plane. Since the equation to the XOZ
plane is y = 0, we get
a tan v
a sin v + u sin α cos v = 0 which gives u = −
sin α
Substituting the value of u in (*), we get the equation of
the generating curve as
⃗r = (a sec v, 0, cv − a cot α tan v),
where v is the parameter of the curve.

Section 2.9
Metric on a Surface– The First
Fundamnetal Form
First Fundamental Form
How do we make measurements on a surface?
Surface has
curves whose length can be measured.
First Fundamental Form
How do we make measurements on a surface?
Surface has
curves whose length can be measured.
curved regions whose area can be measured.
The tool which aids both these measurements is the first

fundamental form (FFF) of the parameterized surface.
Length of a curve on a surface
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the given surface. Let the parameters
u, v be functions of a single parameter t. Then
⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) is a function of a single variable t and
hence it represents a curve on the surface with t as
parameter. The arc length in terms of the parameter t is
given by 2 2
ds d⃗r d⃗r d⃗r
= · = . (1)
dt dt dt dt
Length of a curve on a surface
Let ⃗r = ⃗r(u, v) be the given surface. Let the parameters
u, v be functions of a single parameter t. Then
⃗r = ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) is a function of a single variable t and
hence it represents a curve on the surface with t as
parameter. The arc length in terms of the parameter t is
given by 2 2
ds d⃗r d⃗r d⃗r
= · = . (1)
dt dt dt dt
d⃗r ∂⃗r du ∂⃗r dv
But = + . (2)
dt ∂u dt ∂v dt
Using (2) in (1), we get
2 2
ds du dv
= ⃗r1
+ ⃗r2
dt dt dt
2 2
2 du du dv 2 dv
= |⃗r1 | + 2⃗r1 · ⃗r2 + |⃗r2 | . (3)
dt dt dt dt
2 2
ds du dv
= ⃗r1
+ ⃗r2
dt dt dt
2 2
2 du du dv 2 dv
= |⃗r1 | + 2⃗r1 · ⃗r2 + |⃗r2 | . (3)
dt dt dt dt
Let E = |⃗r1 |2 , F = ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 and G = |⃗r2 |2 .
2 2
ds du dv
= ⃗r1
+ ⃗r2
dt dt dt
2 2
2 du du dv 2 dv
= |⃗r1 | + 2⃗r1 · ⃗r2 + |⃗r2 | . (3)
dt dt dt dt
Let E = |⃗r1 |2 , F = ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 and G = |⃗r2 |2 .

Using the above notation, (3) can be rewritten in terms
of the differentials as
ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2 .
The First Fundamental Form
Definition
The differential quadratic form
ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2
is called the first fundamental form or metric on the
surface. It is usually denoted by I.
The First Fundamental Form
Definition
The differential quadratic form
ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2
is called the first fundamental form or metric on the
surface. It is usually denoted by I.
Note : The first fundamental form depends only on the
parameterization of the surface, not on the curve. The
coefficients E = E(u, v), F = F (u, v), G = G(u, v) are
called the first fundamental coefficients.
For a curve ⃗r(u(t), v(t)), a ⩽ t ⩽ b on the surface, its
length L is
Z b p
E(u(t), v(t))(u′ (t))2 + 2F (u(t), v(t))u′ (t)v ′ (t) + G(u(t), v(t))(v ′ (t))2 dt.
a
For a curve ⃗r(u(t), v(t)), a ⩽ t ⩽ b on the surface, its
length L is
Z b p
E(u(t), v(t))(u′ (t))2 + 2F (u(t), v(t))u′ (t)v ′ (t) + G(u(t), v(t))(v ′ (t))2 dt.
a
Thus, for evaluation of arc-length of a curve on the

surface, rather than actual parameterization of the
surface or curve on the surface, first fundamental
coefficients and the parameterization of the curve in
uv-plane is important.
Lecture 20
February 17, 2024
Example
Find the length of the curve ⃗r(ect , t), 0 ⩽ t ⩽ π; where

⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, u) is the parametrization of
the cone using first fundamental form of this
parametrization.
Example
Find the length of the curve ⃗r(ect , t), 0 ⩽ t ⩽ π; where

⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, u) is the parametrization of
the cone using first fundamental form of this
parametrization.
Sol. ⃗r1 = (cos v, sin v, 1), ⃗r2 = (−u sin v, u cos v, 0).
Hence E = 2, F = 0, G = u2 . Also u′ (t) = cect and
v ′ (t) = 1. Thus the length
√
Z π √ √ Z π
ct 1 + 2c2 (ecπ − 1)
L= 2c2 e2ct + e2ct dt = 1 + 2c2 e dt = .
0 0 c
Matrix notation for vectors
We can denote a vector ⃗a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) by the
corresponding row matrix [a1 a2 a3 ].
For two vectors ⃗a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), ⃗b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) , the dot
product ⃗a · ⃗b can be represented by the matrix product
[a1 a2 a3 ][b1 b2 b3 ]T of arow matrix 
witha column matrix.
⃗v1 w⃗1
For the matrices V = ⃗v2 , W = w
   ⃗ 2  with vector
⃗v3 w⃗3
T
entries, by V · W , we denote a 1x1 real matrix with
X3
entry ⃗ i and by V · W T , we denote a 3x3 real
⃗vi · w
i=1
matrix with (i, j)th entry ⃗vi · w
⃗j.
Matrix representation of First Fundamental Form
For the curve ⃗r(u, v) on the surface, by the chain rule

d du dv du dv ⃗r1
⃗r(u, v) = ⃗r1 (u, v) + ⃗r2 (u, v) = dt dt .
dt dt dt ⃗r2
2
ds d⃗r(u, v) d⃗r(u, v)
Thus = ·
dt dt dt
du dv ⃗r1 T

du dv ⃗r1
= dt dt ·
⃗r2 dt dt ⃗r2
T du
⃗r1 ⃗r1
= du dv

· dt
dv
dt dt ⃗r2 ⃗r2 dt
du dv E F du

= dt dt dt
F G dv dt
Hence the first fundamental form can be represented by

2
E F du
ds = du dv .
F G dv

E F
The matrix is called the matrix representation of
F G
the first fundamental form.
Invariance under proper parametric transformation
Suppose the parameterizations ⃗r(u, v) and ⃗r ∗ (u∗ , v ∗ ) of

a surface are related by a proper parametric
transformation (u, v) = (ϕ(u∗ , v ∗ ), ψ(u∗ , v ∗ )). Then the
first Fundamental Forms of these parametrization are
same, but first fundamental coefficients and matrix of
the first Fundamental forms are not invariant under
proper parametric transformation.
Invariance under proper parametric transformation
Suppose the parameterizations ⃗r(u, v) and ⃗r ∗ (u∗ , v ∗ ) of

a surface are related by a proper parametric
transformation (u, v) = (ϕ(u∗ , v ∗ ), ψ(u∗ , v ∗ )). Then the
first Fundamental Forms of these parametrization are
same, but first fundamental coefficients and matrix of
the first Fundamental forms are not invariant under
proper parametric transformation.
∗ ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u
E F∗ ∂u∗ ∂u∗ E F ∂u ∗ ∂v ∗
∗ ∗ = ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v
F G ∂v ∗ ∂v ∗
F G ∂u∗ ∂v ∗
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 21
February 19, 2024
Exercise
Let ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0) be the parameterization of
xy-plane. Find its first fundamental form.
Exercise
Let ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0) be the parameterization of
xy-plane. Find its first fundamental form.
Sol. For the given surface, ⃗r1 = (1, 0, 0) and

⃗r2 = (0, 1, 0). Thus E = ⃗r1 · ⃗r1 = 1, F = ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = 0,
G = ⃗r2 · ⃗r2 = 1. Hence first fundamental is
ds2 = du2 + dv 2 .
Consider the parametric transformation u = u∗cos v ∗ ,
cos v ∗ sin v ∗

∗ ∗
v = u sin v . Then J = and the
−u∗ sin v ∗ u∗ cos v ∗
first fundamental form the new parameterization is
ds2 = du∗ 2 + u∗ 2 dv ∗ 2 (Verify by matrix method as well as
by new parameterization)
Positive Definite Forms
A quadratic form in real variables x1 , x2 is given by
Q = a11 x21 + 2a12 x1 x2 + a22 x22 .
Q is called positive definite if Q(x1 , x2 ) > 0 for all

(x1 , x2 ) ̸= (0, 0).
Theorem
Q is positive definite if and only if a11 > 0 and
a11 a22 − a212 > 0.
Proof.
Assume Q is positive definite. Then a11 ̸= 0, as

Q(1, 0) ̸= 0 By completing the square,
2
a11 a22 − a212 2

a12
Q(x1 , x2 ) = a11 x1 + x2 + x2
a11 a11
Clearly if a11 ⩽ 0 then Q(1, 0) ⩽ 0, contradiction.

Similarly if a11 a22 − a212 ⩽ 0 then Q(− aa11
12
, 1) ⩽ 0,
contradiction. Thus a11 > 0 and a11 a22 − a212 > 0. Proof
of converse left as exercise.
I is positive definite at ordinary point
Theorem
The first fundamental form of a surface is a positive
definite quadratic form in du, dv.
Proof. At an ordinary point, E = ⃗r1 · ⃗r1 = |⃗r1 |2 > 0 and
EG − F 2 = (⃗r1 · ⃗r1 )(⃗r2 · ⃗r2 ) − (⃗r1 · ⃗r2 )2
= |⃗r1 |2 |⃗r2 |2 − |⃗r1 |2 |⃗r2 |2 cos2 θ
= |⃗r1 |2 |⃗r2 |2 sin2 θ
= |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |2 > 0.
As E > 0 and EG − F 2 > 0, so the first fundamental
form is positive definite.
So far, we have considered:
Length of curve using First Fundamental Form
Positive definiteness of First Fundamental Form
Effect of parametric transformation on First
Fundamental Form
Effect of parametric transformation on First
Fundamental Form
Recall : FFF is invariant but not E, F , G. We have
∗ ∗

E F E F
JT J = ,
F G F ∗ G∗
where J = J (u∗ , v ∗ ) is the Jacobian matrix of (u, v)

with respect to (u∗ , v ∗ ).
Consequently, taking determinant of both sides,
2
∗ ∗ ∗2 ∂(u, v)
E G −F = ∗ ∗
(EG − F 2 ).
∂(u , v )
Equivalently
∂(u, v)
H∗ = H.
∂(u∗ , v ∗ )
Lecture 22
February 20, 2024
Other Measures using First Fundamental Form
1 Angle between parametric curves :
H
tan θ = .
F
2 Area of a parametric surface :
H
tan θ = .
F
2 Area of a parametric surface :
ZZ
A= H(u, v)du dv.
D
(The parametric surface must be covered exactly once as

parameters vary over D, i.e., the parameterization must
be one-one on D.
Example
Find the area of the surface of the graph of z = f (x, y).
Sol. The graph of z = f (x, y) has the parametrization

⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, f (u, v).
⃗r1 = (1, 0, fu ) ⃗r2 = (0, 1, fv )

⇒ E = 1 + fu2 F = fu fv G = 1 + fv2 .
ZZ p
∴A= 1 + fu2 + fv2 du dv
D
Implicitely defined surface
Find the formula for area of a regular surface

F (x, y, z) = 0 in terms of Fx , Fy , Fz if it is given by
z = z(x, y).
Implicitely defined surface
Find the formula for area of a regular surface

F (x, y, z) = 0 in terms of Fx , Fy , Fz if it is given by
z = z(x, y).
Sol. q
ZZ Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2
A= dxdy
D |Fz |
|∇F |
ZZ
which can also be written as A = dxdy.
D |∇F.k̂|
Example
Calculate the first fundamental form and the area of the
anchor ring.
Example
Calculate the first fundamental form and the area of the
anchor ring.
Sol. ⃗r(u, v) = ((b + a cos(u) cos v, (b + a cos u) sin v, a sin u);
0 ⩽ u ⩽ 2π, 0 ⩽ v ⩽ 2π.
⃗r1 = (−a sin u cos v, −a sin u sin v, a cos v)
⃗r2 = (−(b + a cos u) sin v, (b + a cos u) cos v, 0).
∴ E = a2 , F = 0, G = (b + a cos u)2 .
√
H = EG − F 2 = |a(b + a cos u)|.
Z 2π Z 2π
Hence surface area= |a(b + a cos u)|dudv = 4π 2 ab.
0 0
Parametric curves are orthogonal as F = 0.
Lecture 23
February 22, 2024
Section 2.10
Direction Coefficients on a Surface
Recall
⃗ are linearly independent.

At an ordinary point P, ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 , N
⃗ are LD then
Since ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 are LI, if ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 , N
⃗ = α⃗r1 + β⃗r2 for some reals α, β.
N
But N⃗ · ⃗ri = 0 for both i = 1, 2.
∴N ⃗ ·N ⃗ = 0, contradiction.
Thus every vector is a linear combination of these.
Direction Coefficients on a Surface
For any vector ⃗v , ⃗v = ⃗v1 + ⃗v2 , where ⃗v1 := Tangential

component of ⃗v = λ⃗r1 + µ⃗r2 is tangent to the surface at
P;
Normal component of ⃗v = ⃗v2 := aN ⃗ is normal to the
surface at P.
⃗v lies in tangent plane at P if and only if its normal
component is 0 . In this case, we denote ⃗v by (λ, µ).
Direction on a Surface
A direction on a surface at (ordinary) point P is
direction of a some tangent line to the surface at P.
Thus a direction on a surface at P will be a vector in
tangent plane ⃗v = (λ, µ).
p
|⃗v | = Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2
If w
⃗ = l⃗r1 + m⃗r2 is a unit vector along a tangential
vector ⃗v of surface at P then (l, m) are called the
direction coefficients of ⃗v . Then El2 + 2F lm + Gm2 = 1
and ⃗v = (λ, µ) (i.e. λ⃗r1 + µ⃗r2 ) where (λ, µ) = c(l, m)
are the direction ratios of ⃗v for c = |⃗v |.
Theorem 1, Page 125
Theorem
If (l, m) and (l′ , m′ ) are the direction coefficients of two
directions at a point P on the surface and θ is the angle
between the two directions at P, then
(i) cos θ = Ell′ + F (lm′ + l′ m) + Gmm′ ,
(ii) sin θ = H(lm′ − l′ m).
Theorem 1, Page 125
Theorem
If (l, m) and (l′ , m′ ) are the direction coefficients of two
directions at a point P on the surface and θ is the angle
between the two directions at P, then
(i) cos θ = Ell′ + F (lm′ + l′ m) + Gmm′ ,
(ii) sin θ = H(lm′ − l′ m).
Proof.
Evaluate (a)(l⃗r1 + m⃗r2 ) · (l′⃗r1 + m′⃗r2 )
(b)(l⃗r1 + m⃗r2 ) × (l′⃗r1 + m′⃗r2 )
As a consequence of the Theorem, we get an expression
for tan θ.
Direction Ratios
Definition
If (l, m) are the direction coefficients of a direction at a
point P on the surface, the scalars (λ, µ) which are
proportional to (l, m) are called the direction ratios of
that direction.
If (λ, µ) = k(l, m), then
Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2 = k 2 (El2 + 2F lm + Gm2 ) = k 2 .
(λ, µ)
∴ (l, m) = p .
Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2
Angle in terms of Direction Ratios
The direction coefficients corresponding to direction
ratios (1, 0) are ( √1E , 0). Similarly, the direction
coefficients for direction ratios (0, 1) are (0, √1G ).
The angle between directions can now be expressed in
terms of their direction ratios as follows
Eλλ′ + F (λµ′ + λ′ µ) + Gµµ′
cos θ = p p ,
Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2 Eλ′2 + 2F λ′ µ′ + Gµ′2
H(λµ′ − λ′ µ)
sin θ = p p .
Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2 Eλ′2 + 2F λ′ µ′ + Gµ′2
Orthogonal Directions
Theorem
If (l′ , m′ ) are the direction coefficients of a line which
makes an angle π/2 with the line whose direction
coefficients are (l, m), then
F l + Gm El + F m
l′ = − , m′ = .
H H
Orthogonal Directions
Theorem
If (l′ , m′ ) are the direction coefficients of a line which
makes an angle π/2 with the line whose direction
coefficients are (l, m), then
F l + Gm El + F m
l′ = − , m′ = .
H H
Proof.
sin θ = 1 ⇒ H(lm′ − l′ m) = 1 and
cos θ = 0 ⇒ (El + F m)l′ + (F l + Gm)m′ = 0.
Tangent to a curve on the Surface
Theorem
Assume that ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) is a regular curve on S. Then
the direction coefficient of the tangent direction of this
curve at P = ⃗r(u(t0 ), v(t0 )) are given by
du dv
l= ,m= ,
ds ds
where s is an arc length parameter of ⃗r(u(t), v(t)).
Proof.
The unit tangent vector of ⃗r(u(t), v(t)) is
⃗t = d⃗r = ⃗r1 du + r⃗2 dv .
ds ds ds
The direction ratios ( du ,
ds ds
dv
) are in fact direction
coefficients.
Implicit curve in uv− plane
If the curve on the surface is the image of implicitly

defined curve φ(u, v) = 0 then its direction ratios are
(−φv , φu ).
This follows, as by chain rule,
du dv
φu + φv = 0.
ds ds
Thus du dv

ds ds = k (−φv , φu ) . Hence both have same
,
direction.
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 24
February 26, 2024
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) March 7, 2024 2 / 40
Section 2.11
Families of Curves
Family of Curves
Consider the curves φ(u, v) = c, where c is a parameter, in the
domain U of parameterization of the surface S. Their images in S
give a family of curves on S. For a fixed c, we get a curve in this
family, for different values of c we get different curves of the family.
Theorem
The curves φ(u, v) = c are the solutions of a first order Differential
equation P (u, v)du + Q(u, v)dv = 0, where P = φu and Q = φv
don’t vanish simultaneously, if the curve is to be regular. Conversely
any differential equation P(u, v)du + Q(u, v)dv = 0 has a solution
and hence gives a family of curves, provided P, Q don’t vanish
simultaneously.
We may use either of the description for the family of curves.

Proof:
If φ(u, v) = c is a family of curves then we can take
P = φ1 = φu and Q = φ2 = φv . Then by chain rule,
P du + Qdv = dφ = dc = 0.
For converse, near any point, if P (u, v) ̸= 0, then can

Q
use Picard’s Theorem for the equation dx dy = − P , rhs
being continuous. If Q(u, v) ̸= 0, then do this for
dy P
dx = − Q . Then we get a family φ(u, v) = c satisfying
the given DE. At a point ⃗r (u0 , v0 ), the direction ratios of
the curve of the family is (du, dv) or
(−Q (u0 , v0 ) , P (u0 , v0 )) .
Theorem
For a variable direction at P , dϕ
ds is maximum in the
direction orthogonal to the curve ϕ(u, v) = constant
through P and angle between (−ϕv , ϕu ) and the
orthogonal direction in which ϕ is increasing is π2 .
Q. 3, Page - 146
For a surface with first fundamental coefficients E, F, G,
show that the curve bisecting the angles between
parametric curves is given by Edu2 − Gdv 2 = 0.
Sol. Let (du, dv) be direction ratios of this curve, and

θ1 , θ2 be respectively angles made with parametric curves
u = const. and v = const. Now θ1 = ±θ2 if and only if
cos θ1 = cos θ2 (internal Bisector) and θ1 = π ± θ2 if and
only if cos θ1 = − cos θ2 (external bisector).
Since direction coefficients
for
u= const and v = const
are respectively √1E , 0 and 0, √1G ,

1 du dv 1 du dv
√ E +F = ±√ F +G .
E ds ds G ds ds
Simplifying,
√ √ √ √
(E Gdu + F Gdv) = ±(F Edu + G Edv)
Squaring both sides and simiplifying, we get
E EG − F 2 du2 = G EG − F 2 dv 2

EG − F 2 ̸= 0, therefore cancelling, we get the result.
Lecture 25
February 27, 2024
Section 2.12
Orthogonal Trajectories
Orthogonal Families
Consider the two families of the curves on S given by
φ(u, v) = c1 , ψ(u, v) = c2 .
These families are orthogonal if angle between their

directions is π/2. If these two families are orthogonal at
all the points of S, then one family is said to be
orthogonal trajectory of another.
Existence of Orthogonal Family
Theorem
Every family of curves on S has a family of orthogonal
trajectories.
Existence of Orthogonal Family
Theorem
Every family of curves on S has a family of orthogonal
trajectories.
Proof
Let P du + Qdv = 0 be the given family. Thus its
direction ratios are (−Q, P ). The family with direction
ratios (du, dv) will be an orthogonal trajectory of the
given family if and only if
E(−Q)du + F (−Qdv + P du) + GP dv = 0.
This can be written as
(F P − EQ)du + (GP − F Q)dv = 0.
Proof cont.
As EG − F 2 never vanishes and P, Q don’t vanish
simultaneously, F P − EQ and GP − F Q can’t vanish
simultaneously. Thus the differential equation
(F P − EQ)du + (GP − F Q)dv = 0 has a solution,
which is the orthogonal trajectory to given family.
Proof cont.
As EG − F 2 never vanishes and P, Q don’t vanish
simultaneously, F P − EQ and GP − F Q can’t vanish
simultaneously. Thus the differential equation
(F P − EQ)du + (GP − F Q)dv = 0 has a solution,
which is the orthogonal trajectory to given family.
Theorem
Given any family of curves, there is a parametric
transformation such that given family and its orthogonal
family are the parametric curves of the surface.
Idea Of Proof : If the given family φ(u, v) = c is given
by P du + Qdv = 0, then the orthogonal family is given
by general solution ψ(u, v) = c of
(F P − EQ)du + (GP − F Q)dv = 0,
where P = φu and Q = φv . As P and Q do not vanish

simultaneously, we can show that
(u′ , v ′ ) = (φ(u, v), ψ(u, v)) gives the proper parametric
transformation.
Q. 12, Page - 159
If the parametric curves are orthogonal then show that

differential equation of curves on the q
surface cutting lines
du G
u = const at angle β is dv = (tan β) E.
Q. 12, Page - 159
If the parametric curves are orthogonal then show that

differential equation of curves on the q
surface cutting lines
du G
u = const at angle β is dv = (tan β) E.
Sol. The parametric line u = const has direction

coefficients
1
(l, m) = 0, √
G
Suppose (l′ , m′ ) = du dv

ds , ds be direction coefficients of
the required curve.
Recall
1. cos β = Ell′ + F (lm′ + l′ m) + Gmm′ .
2. sin β = H (lm′ − l′ m).
As parametric
√ curves are orthogonal, F = 0 and
H = EG. The above equations reduce to
G dv √ dv
cos β = √ = G
G ds ds
Dividing the 2nd equation by 1st , we get
√ 1 du √ du
sin β = − EG √ = E
G ds ds
Example 1 (Page 135)
On the (hyperbolic) paraboloid x2 − y 2 = z, find the
orthogonal trajectories of its sections by z = c.
Example 1 (Page 135)
On the (hyperbolic) paraboloid x2 − y 2 = z, find the
orthogonal trajectories of its sections by z = c.
Sol. φ(u, v) = u2 − v 2 = c is the given family. This is

solution of P du + Qdv = 0, where
P = φu = 2u, Q = φv = −2v. The orthogonal trajectory
has differential equation
(F P − EQ)du + (GP − F Q)dv = 0.

Surface has parameterization ⃗r(u, v) = u, v, u2 − v 2 .
∴ E = 1 + 4u2 , F = −4uv, G = 1 + 4v 2 .
∴ Orthogonal trajectory is a solution of
1 + 4u2 vdu − 4uv(vdv + udu) + 1 + 4v 2 udv = 0

Simplifying, we need to solve : vdu + udv = 0.

Thus uv = const is the orthogonal trajectory.
Section 2.13
Double Families of Curves
Double Family of Curves
If P, Q, R are continuous and don’t simultaneously
vanish on a region U in uv−plane, then
P du2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0
defines a double family of curves if (the discriminant)

Q2 − P R > 0 on U .
The two (homogeneous) solutions (du, dv) of this
equation give direction ratios of a member of each family
through that point.
2
To get these, solve P du du

dv + 2Q dv + R = 0 to get
two directions.
For example, for the double family v 2 du2 − u2 dv 2 = 0,
du u
dv = ± v . Thus at (u0 , v0 ) = (1, 1), the two direction
ratios are (1, 1) and (1, −1).
To get both the families, need to solve each 1st order d.e.
du u
= has solution u = c1 v
dv v
du u
= − has solution uv = c2
dv v
Theorem
The two directions given by P du2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0
are orthogonal on the surface if and only if
ER − 2QF + GP = 0.
Theorem
The two directions given by P du2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0
are orthogonal on the surface if and only if
ER − 2QF + GP = 0.
Proof : Let (l, m) and (l′ , m′ ) be their direction ratios.
Then they satisfy
P du2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0
l l′
Thus m , m′ are solutions of quadratic
P t2 + 2Qt + R = 0.
As a consequence,
l l′ Q ll′ R
+ ′ = −2 , =
m m P mm′ P
Condition for orthogonality is
Ell′ + F (lm′ + l′ m) + Gmm′ = 0 Dividing by mm′ , we
get
ER FQ
−2 + G = 0.
P P
More generally, the angle θ between curves of the double
family P du2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0 at point ⃗r(u, v) is
given by
1/2
2H Q2 − P R
tan θ =
ER − 2F Q + GP
Homework Do the proof.
Q. 14, Page - 159
If the curves du2 = (u2 + c2 )dv 2 form an orthogonal
system on the sufarce ⃗r = (u cos v, u sin v, ϕ(v)),
determine ϕ.
Sol. ⃗r1 = (cos v, sin v, 0)

⃗r2 = (−u sin v, u cos v, ϕ′ (v))
2
∴ E = 1, F = 0, G = u2 + (ϕ′ (v)) .
The necessary and sufficient condition for orthogonality
is ER − 2QF + GP = 0. i.e.
− u2 + c2 + u2 + (ϕ′ (v))2 = 0. ∴ ϕ′ (v) = ±c, i.e.

ϕ(v) = ±cv + d, for constant d.

Lecture 26
February 29, 2024
Section 2.14
Isometric Correspondence
Recall
Homomorphism is a structure-preserving map between

two algebraic structures of the same type.
Recall

Isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism.
Recall

Homeomorphism a correspondence between two figures
or surfaces or other geometrical objects,
defined by a one-to-one mapping that is
continuous in both directions.
Recall

Homeomorphism a correspondence between two figures
or surfaces or other geometrical objects,
defined by a one-to-one mapping that is
continuous in both directions.
Diffeomorhism is a differentiable isomorphism whose
inverse is also differentiable.
Isometric Correspondence
We are interested in one-to-one correspondences between

surfaces which preserve some nice properties.
If we represent points of the surface by corresponding
parameters, say a point P of surface S by (u, v) and
corresponding point P ′ of S ′ by (u′ , v ′ ), then we also get
a map (u′ , v ′ ) = (φ(u, v), ψ(u, v)) between the domains
U and U ′ of their parameters. If S, S ′ are of class k and
k ′ respectively we assume φ(u, v), ψ(u, v) are of class
min (k, k ′ ) and ∂(φ,ψ)
∂(u,v) ̸= 0. This means map from S to
S ′ is a differentiable homeomorphism of higher class.
Theorem
In the above situation, to a direction of the tangent to a
curve C at P , there corresponds a direction tangent to a
curve C ′ at P ′ and vice versa.
Theorem
In the above situation, to a direction of the tangent to a
curve C at P , there corresponds a direction tangent to a
curve C ′ at P ′ and vice versa.
Proof.
A curve (u(t), v(t)) gives rise to the curve
(u′ (t), v ′ (t)) = (φ(u(t), v(t)), ψ(u(t), v(t))). The
du dv

direction dt , dt of tangent to C is mapped to
du′ dv ′ du dv

,
dt dt = J dt dt , for the jacobian matrix J of
,
(φ, ψ). Since J is invertible, we get the correspondence
in reverse direction.
Lecture 27
March 02, 2024
Isometric Surfaces
Definition
Two surfaces S, S ′ are said to be isometric or applicable
if there exists a (one-to-one) correspondence between
their parameters, say (u′ , v ′ ) = (φ(u, v), ψ(u, v)), such
that ∂(φ,ψ)
∂(u,v) ̸= 0, which preserves their first fundamental
forms (i.e. metrics).
Isometric Surfaces
Definition
Two surfaces S, S ′ are said to be isometric or applicable
if there exists a (one-to-one) correspondence between
their parameters, say (u′ , v ′ ) = (φ(u, v), ψ(u, v)), such
that ∂(φ,ψ)
∂(u,v) ̸= 0, which preserves their first fundamental
forms (i.e. metrics).
Theorem
Two surfaces S, S ′ are isometric if and only if there is a
one-to-one correspondence which takes any curve on S
to a curve of same length on S ′ .
One implication is easy. If they are isometric, then there
is a correspondence preserving first fundamental form.
But since length of a curve only uses first fundamental
form, they must be preserved for corresponding curves.
Converse proof skipped.
If a surface is obtained from another by bending, but not
stretching or shrinking or cutting or pasting anywhere,
then the two surfaces are isometric.
This follows because lengths of all curves will be
preserved.
For example, if a cylinder is cut along a generating line
then it is isometric to a rectangle in plane. This can be
formally verified.
Example
Let S1 = {(u, v, 0) : u ∈ (0, 2π), v ∈ (0, 1)} be a

rectangular strip in xy−plane and let
S2 = {(cos u, sin u, v) : u ∈ (0, 2π), v ∈ (0, 1)} be the
cylinder cut along a line. Show that they are isometric.
Example
Let S1 = {(u, v, 0) : u ∈ (0, 2π), v ∈ (0, 1)} be a

rectangular strip in xy−plane and let
S2 = {(cos u, sin u, v) : u ∈ (0, 2π), v ∈ (0, 1)} be the
cylinder cut along a line. Show that they are isometric.
Sol. Consider the map f : S1 → S2 such that
f (u, v, 0) = (cos u, sin u, v).
We show that it preserves the first fundamental form.
Consider the parameterization
⃗r : U = (0, 2π) × (0, 1) → S1 given by
⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0).
For this parameterization, E = 1, F = 0, G = 1.

The map f induces the parameterization
⃗r ∗ = f ◦ ⃗r : U → S2 given by
⃗r ∗ (u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v).
Its first fundamental coefficients are

E1 = 1, F1 = 0, G1 = 1.
Example 3, Page-140
Find a surface of revolution isometric to a right helicoid.
Example 3, Page-140
Find a surface of revolution isometric to a right helicoid.
Sol. The right helicoid is
E = 1, F = 0, G = u2 + a2
Let the surface of revolution be
⃗r1 (u, v) = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v, f (u)).
E1 = g ′2 (u) + f√′2
(u), F1 = 0, G1 = (g(u))2 .
G = G1Zgives g(u) = u2 + a2 and E = E1 gives
a −1 u

f (u) = √ du = sinh .
u2 + a2 a
Homework
Determine ϕ(v) so that the surface given by
x = u cosh v, y = u sinh v, z = ϕ(v)
shall be isometric to the surface of revolution.
Recall : Two surfaces are isometric if there is a
one-to-one correspondence between the surfaces which
preserves first fundamental form of the surface.
If in stead of the one-to-one correspondence we have a
locally invertible map of class r ≥ 1 between the surfaces
which preserves the first fundamental form then this map
is called a local isometry.
This, in turn, means that there is a proper parametric
transform of one surface so that after applying it, both
surfaces have same first fundamental form.
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 28
March 04, 2024
Example
A Liouville surface is a surface with
1st Fundamental
form (φ(u) + ψ(v)) du2 + dv 2 after a parametric
transformation.
Prove that any surface locally isometric to a surface of
revolution is a Liouville surface.
Example
A Liouville surface is a surface with
1st Fundamental
form (φ(u) + ψ(v)) du2 + dv 2 after a parametric
transformation.
Prove that any surface locally isometric to a surface of
revolution is a Liouville surface.
Sol. The surface has 1 st FF

f ′ (u)2 + g ′ (u)2 du2 + f (u)2 dv 2 .

Consider the parametric transformation

u = h (v ∗ ) , v = u∗ .
The new 1 st FF has matrix
0 h′ (v ∗ ) f ′ (h(v ∗ ))2 + g ′ (h(v ∗ ))2

0 0 1
1 0 0 f (h(v ∗ ))2 h′ (v ∗ ) 0
f (h(v ∗ ))2 h′ (v ∗ )2

0
=
0 f ′ (h(v ∗ ))2 + g ′ (h(v ∗ ))2
Equating both diagonal entries, we get a differential equation for
h (v ∗ ). For the solution h (v ∗ ) , 1st F F has equal coefficients which
is a function of v ∗ alone. (i.e., φ (u∗ ) = 0. )
Section 2.15
Intrinsic Properties
Properties expressible in terms of 1st fundamental
coefficients are called intrinsic properties.
Isometric surfaces have same intrinsic properties, as they
have same 1st F F .
As surfaces are isometric if and only if corresponding
curves have same length, these properties can be
determined by the data of lengths of all curves on the
surface. As they can be determined by only remaining on
surface without any reference to outer space, they are
called intrinsic properties. If an intrinsic property is not
shared by two surfaces, they are not isometric.
Isometric surfaces have same intrinsic properties, as they
have same 1st F F .
As surfaces are isometric if and only if corresponding
curves have same length, these properties can be
determined by the data of lengths of all curves on the
surface. As they can be determined by only remaining on
surface without any reference to outer space, they are
called intrinsic properties. If an intrinsic property is not
shared by two surfaces, they are not isometric.
Unit normal is not intrinsic.
Conformal Mappings
Two surfaces S and S ′ are said to be conformally
mapped to each other if there is a differentiable
homeomorphism preserving the angle between any two
intersecting curves.
As angle between curves is determined by 1st FF,
isometric surfaces are conformally mapped to each other.
Converse is not true.
Conformal Mappings
Two surfaces S and S ′ are said to be conformally
mapped to each other if there is a differentiable
homeomorphism preserving the angle between any two
intersecting curves.
As angle between curves is determined by 1st FF,
isometric surfaces are conformally mapped to each other.
Converse is not true.
Theorem
Two surfaces are conformally mapped to each other if
and only if there is a function ω(u, v) such that
E = ωE ′ , F = ωF ′ , G = ωG′ everywhere, i.e. 1st FFs
are proportional.
Example : Stereographic projection of a sphere on to
equatorial plane is conformal but not isometry.
Verify that the map is givem by:
u2 + v 2 − 1

2u 2v
f (u, v, 0) = , ,
u2 + v 2 + 1 u2 + v 2 + 1 u2 + v 2 + 1
1st FFs of ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0) and f ◦ ⃗r are proportional

2
(u2 +v2 +1)
with ω(u, v) = 4 .
Equi-Areal Maps
Definition
A correspondence from S to S ′ is called equiareal if it
preserves the area of regions. This happens if and
only if EG − F 2 is preserved.
Equi-Areal Maps
Definition
A correspondence from S to S ′ is called equiareal if it
preserves the area of regions. This happens if and
only if EG − F 2 is preserved.
Thus every isometry is equi-areal, but not conversely.
Example
Archmedes Map: Consider the map from sphere to
cylinder given by !
x y
f (x, y, z) = p ,p ,z .
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
f is equi-areal but not isometric.
Lecture 29
March 05, 2024
Using the first fundamental form, we can not distinguish
between isometric surfaces.
For example, we can’t distinguish between plane and
cylinder, notwithstanding that one is flat but the other
isn’t.
Using the first fundamental form, we can not distinguish
between isometric surfaces.
For example, we can’t distinguish between plane and
cylinder, notwithstanding that one is flat but the other
isn’t.
Thus the curvature properties of surfaces are not
captured by first fundamental form completely. (They
can be captured to some extent, as we will see)
For this we require more information, which is not
intrinsic. We need to also take into account the
surrounding space.
How fast does surface turn?
Moving triad (or coordinate frame) of a surface :

Just as for curves we use (⃗t, ⃗n, ⃗b) frame to study
curvature, for surface we use (N ⃗ , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ) frame (even
though they are not orthonormal). We are interested in
how this frame turns as we move along the surface. This
turning is with respect to the frame of 3-D space, hence
not intrinsic.
How fast does surface turn?
Moving triad (or coordinate frame) of a surface :

Just as for curves we use (⃗t, ⃗n, ⃗b) frame to study
curvature, for surface we use (N ⃗ , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ) frame (even
though they are not orthonormal). We are interested in
how this frame turns as we move along the surface. This
turning is with respect to the frame of 3-D space, hence
not intrinsic.
Ques. To what extent can we capture this turning using
only the first Fundamental form?
Section 3.10 : Geodesic curvature
To see how the surface is turning, we start moving on

surface, along a curve ⃗r(s) with arc length parameter s.
The curve may be turning itself. The r ate of its turning
w.r.t arc length is its curvature : κ = |⃗r ′′ (s0 )| at the
point P = ⃗r(s0 ).
We can resolve ⃗r ′′ (s0 ) along this moving frame:
⃗ (s0 ) + λ⃗r1 (s0 ) + µ⃗r2 (s0 ).

⃗r ′′ (s0 ) = κn N
Normal and Geodesic Curvatures :
Definition
The component κN of ⃗r ′′ (s) in the direction of N ⃗ is
called the normal curvature of ⃗r(s) at P . The (tangent)
vector λ⃗r1 (s0 ) + µ⃗r2 (s0 ) = (λ, µ) is called the geodesic
curvature vector of ⃗r(s) at P and denoted by K ⃗ g.
Normal curvature measures the rate at which the curve is

turning in the direction of the unit surface normal N ⃗,
alternatively it measures the rate at which we move away
from the tangent plane along ⃗r(s). Geodesic curvature
gives direction as well as rate of turning within the
tangent plane as we move on ⃗r(s).
Lecture 30
March 07, 2024
Theorem
The geodesic curvature vector is orthogonal to the curve.

Proof : κn N⃗ · ⃗t = 0 and ⃗r ′′ · ⃗t = 0. Hence ⃗r ′′ − κn N⃗ · ⃗t = 0.
Since the geodesic curvature vector is also orthogonal to
⃗ , it is parallel to ⃗t × N
N ⃗.
Theorem
The geodesic curvature vector is orthogonal to the curve.

Proof : κn N⃗ · ⃗t = 0 and ⃗r ′′ · ⃗t = 0. Hence ⃗r ′′ − κn N⃗ · ⃗t = 0.
Since the geodesic curvature vector is also orthogonal to
⃗ , it is parallel to ⃗t × N
N ⃗.
Definition
The geodesic curvature of the curve ⃗r(s) on the surface
at P is defined as ± (the magnitude of the geodesic
curvature vector) and denoted by κg . (sign is chosen + if
⃗ g, N
⃗r ′ , K ⃗ form a right handed system).
Thus
p
⃗ g = ± Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2
κg = ± K
q
and κ = κN 2 + κg 2 .
Homework
Prove the following
1 κg = [N⃗ , ⃗r ′ , ⃗r ′′ ].
2 κg = ṡ−3 [N ⃗ , ⃗r˙, ⃗r¨ ].
3 κg = ṡ3 H −1 [(⃗r1 · ⃗r˙ )(⃗r2 · ⃗r¨) − (⃗r2 · ⃗r˙ )(⃗r1 · ⃗r¨) ]
Theorem
The geodesic curvature vector is intrinsic.
We will not give complete proof of the theorem, but will
give formulas for (λ, µ) in terms of E, F, G without
proof. First we give their expression in terms of
quantities called Christoffel coefficients of 2nd kind and
later give expressions for Christoffel coefficients of 2nd
kind in terms of E, F, G. (see sec. 3.6, p. 189 and sec.
3.10 Theorem 5 on p. 204 of the text book).
Geodesic curvature vector in terms of Christoffel
coefficients of 2nd kind : Let (u(s), v(s)) be the curve
in U mapped to ⃗r(s).
λ = u′′ + Γ111 u′2 + 2Γ112 u′ v ′ + Γ122 v ′2

µ = u′′ + Γ211 u′2 + 2Γ212 u′ v ′ + Γ222 v ′2
where Γkij , i, j, k ∈ {1, 2} are Christoffel coefficients of S

of 2nd kind.
Christoffel coefficients of 2nd kind

1
−2 1
Γ111 =H GE1 − F F1 − E2
2 2

1 1
= H −2 GE1 − F F1 + F E2 ,
2 2

1 1
Γ112 = H −2 GE2 − F G1 ,
2 2

1 1
Γ122 = H −2 G(F2 − G1 ) − F G2
2 2

1 1
= H −2 GF2 − GG1 − F G2 ,
2 2
Christoffel coefficients of 2nd kind

−2 1 1
Γ211 =H E F1 − E2 − F E1
2 2

−2 1 1
=H EF1 − EE2 − F E1 ,
2 2

1 1
Γ212 = H −2 EG1 − F E2 ,
2 2

−2 1 1
Γ222 =H EG2 − F F2 − G1
2 2

−2 1 1
=H EG2 − F F2 + F G1 ,
2 2
Here Ei , Fi , Gi denote the partial of E, F , G wrt ith

parameter.
Chapter 4
Second Fundamental Form
To study non-intrinsic properties of the surface, we need
tools other than first Fundamental form.
The first fundamental form relates properties about
measurement. Though it was enough to describe
geodesic curvature, to study normal curvature we
introduce the second fundamental form.
Definition
The quadratic form II = Ldu2 + 2M dudv + N dv 2 is
called the second fundamental form where
L=N ⃗ · ⃗r11 , M = N
⃗ · ⃗r12 , N = N
⃗ · ⃗r22
are called the 2nd fundamental coefficients.
You need to distinguish between N ⃗ and N .
Remark
L, M , N are not intrinsic. It means we can have two
surfaces which are isometric but corresponding
parameterizations have different L, M , N .
Example
Let ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0); (u, v) ∈ U = (0, 2π) × (0, 1) be a
parametrization of a plane and
⃗r ∗ (u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v); (u, v) ∈ U . The map
f (u, v, 0) = (cos u, sin u, v)
between the plane and cylinder is an isometry.
Compute the second fundamental coefficients of both
the surfaces
For the plane
⃗r1 = (1, 0, 0) and ⃗r2 = (0, 1, ).
Thus ⃗r11 = ⃗r12 = ⃗r22 = ⃗0. Consequently
L = M = N = 0.
For the cylinder
⃗r1∗ = (− sin u, cos u, 0) and ⃗r2∗ = (0, 0, 1).
∗
Therefore ⃗r11 ∗
= (− cos u, − sin u, 0), ⃗r12 ∗
= ⃗r22 = ⃗0 and
⃗ ∗ = (cos u, sin u, 0). Hence
N
⃗ ∗ · ⃗r11
L∗ = N ∗
= −1, M ∗ = N ∗ = 0.
Formula Of Normal Curvature
Theorem
Normal curvature along curve ⃗r(s) on the surface is
Ldu2 + 2M dudv + N dv 2
κn =
Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2
Proof: We have seen that for a curve ⃗r(s) with arc
length parameter s,
⃗ +K
⃗r,′′ (s) = κn N ⃗g
⃗ ·K
Since N ⃗ g = 0, κn = N
⃗ · ⃗r ′′ (s)
Now, as ⃗r(s) = ⃗r(u(s), v(s)).
∴ ⃗r ′ (s) =⃗r1 (u(s), v(s))u′ (s) + ⃗r2 (u(s), v(s))v ′ (s)
and ⃗r ′′ (s) =⃗r1 (u(s), v(s))u′′ (s) + ⃗r2 (u(s), v(s))v′′ (s)
+ (⃗r11 (u(s), v(s))u′ (s) + ⃗r12 (u(s), v(s))v ′ (s)) u′ (s)
+ (⃗r21 (u(s), v(s))u′ (s) + ⃗r22 (u(s), v(s))v ′ (s)) v ′ (s).
⃗ · ⃗ri = 0 for i = 1, 2 , and mixed partials are equal,

As N
2 2
du
⃗ · ⃗r ′′ (s) = L du dv du
κn = N + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds
2 2
Ldu + 2M dudv + N dv
= .
ds2
Remark
If point P = ⃗r (u0 , v0 ) is fixed, so are L (u0 , v0 ), M (u0 , v0 ),
N (u0 , v0 ). Then κn is completely determined by the
du dv

direction coefficients ds , ds of the tangent vector;
2 2
du du dv du
κn = L + 2M +N .
ds ds ds ds
Thus if two curve share the tangent vector at P , they
have same κn at P . Hence the role of the tangent
direction is more important than the curve itself.
This also illustrates the importance of 2nd fundamental
form in the determination of normal curvature. The 1st
fundamental form also plays a role if direction ratios of
the tangent vector is used instead of its direction
coefficients.
2nd FF of a surface of revolution :
⃗r(u, v) = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v, f (u))
∴ ⃗r1 = (g ′ (u) cos v, g ′ (u) sin v, f ′ (u))
⃗r2 = (−g(u) sin v, g(u) cos v, 0)
∴ E = f ′2 (u) + g ′2 (u), F = 0, G = g 2 (u)
⃗r11 = (g ′′ (u) cos v, g ′′ (u) sin v, f ′′ (u))
⃗r12 = (−g ′ (u) sin v, g ′ (u) cos v, 0)
⃗r22 = (−g(u) cos v, −g(u) sin v, 0).
⃗ = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = p
N
1
(−f ′ (u) cos v, −f ′ (u) sin v, g ′ (u))
|⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | ′2 ′2
f (u) + g (u)
∴ 2nd fundamental form is
1 ′
(g (u)f ′′ (u) − f ′ (u)g ′′ (u)) du2 + g(u)f ′ (u)dv 2

p
f ′2 (u) + g ′2 (u)
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2 Circular Cylinder : g(u) = 1, f (u) = u.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2 Circular Cylinder : g(u) = 1, f (u) = u. II = dv 2 .
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
3 Circular Cone: g(u) = u, f (u) = u.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
3 Circular Cone: g(u) = u, f (u) = u. II = udv√ .
2
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
4 Sphere: g(u) = cos u, f (u) = sin u
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
II = du2 + cos2 (u)dv 2 .
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
5 Anchor ring : g(u) = a + b cos(u), f (u) = b sin(u).
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
II = bdu2 + (a + b cos(u)) cos(u)dv 2 .
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Thanks for your
attention!
Prof. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 31
March 18, 2024
Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) April 2, 2024 2 / 27
Chapter 4
Section 4.2
The first fundamental form relates properties about
measurement. Though it was enough to describe
geodesic curvature, to study normal curvature we
introduce the second fundamental form.
Definition
The quadratic form II = Ldu2 + 2M dudv + N dv 2 is
called the second fundamental form where
L=N ⃗ · ⃗r11 , M = N
⃗ · ⃗r12 , N = N
⃗ · ⃗r22
are called the 2nd fundamental coefficients.
You need to distinguish between N ⃗ and N .
Remark
L, M , N are not intrinsic. It means we can have two
surfaces which are isometric but corresponding
parameterizations have different L, M , N .
Example
Let ⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, 0); (u, v) ∈ U = (0, 2π) × (0, 1) be a
parametrization of a plane and
⃗r ∗ (u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v); (u, v) ∈ U . The map
f (u, v, 0) = (cos u, sin u, v)
between the plane and cylinder is an isometry.
Compute the second fundamental coefficients of both
the surfaces
For the plane
⃗r1 = (1, 0, 0) and ⃗r2 = (0, 1, ).
Thus ⃗r11 = ⃗r12 = ⃗r22 = ⃗0. Consequently
L = M = N = 0.
For the cylinder
⃗r1∗ = (− sin u, cos u, 0) and ⃗r2∗ = (0, 0, 1).
∗
Therefore ⃗r11 ∗
= (− cos u, − sin u, 0), ⃗r12 ∗
= ⃗r22 = ⃗0 and
⃗ ∗ = (cos u, sin u, 0). Hence
N
⃗ ∗ · ⃗r11
L∗ = N ∗
= −1, M ∗ = N ∗ = 0.
Formula Of Normal Curvature
Theorem
Normal curvature along curve ⃗r(s) on the surface is
κn =
Proof: We have seen that for a curve ⃗r(s) with arc
length parameter s,
⃗ +K
⃗r,′′ (s) = κn N ⃗g
⃗ ·K
Since N ⃗ g = 0, κn = N
⃗ · ⃗r ′′ (s)
Now, as ⃗r(s) = ⃗r(u(s), v(s)).
∴ ⃗r ′ (s) =⃗r1 (u(s), v(s))u′ (s) + ⃗r2 (u(s), v(s))v ′ (s)
and ⃗r ′′ (s) =⃗r1 (u(s), v(s))u′′ (s) + ⃗r2 (u(s), v(s))v′′ (s)
+ (⃗r11 (u(s), v(s))u′ (s) + ⃗r12 (u(s), v(s))v ′ (s)) u′ (s)
+ (⃗r21 (u(s), v(s))u′ (s) + ⃗r22 (u(s), v(s))v ′ (s)) v ′ (s).
⃗ · ⃗ri = 0 for i = 1, 2 , and mixed partials are equal,

As N
2 2
du
⃗ · ⃗r ′′ (s) = L du dv du
κn = N + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds
2 2
Ldu + 2M dudv + N dv
= .
ds2
Lecture 32
March 19, 2024
Remark
If point P = ⃗r (u0 , v0 ) is fixed, so are L (u0 , v0 ), M (u0 , v0 ),
N (u0 , v0 ). Then κn is completely determined by the
du dv

direction coefficients ds , ds of the tangent vector;
2 2
du du dv du
κn = L + 2M +N .
ds ds ds ds
Thus if two curve share the tangent vector at P , they
have same κn at P . Hence the role of the tangent
direction is more important than the curve itself.
This also illustrates the importance of 2nd fundamental
form in the determination of normal curvature. The 1st
fundamental form also plays a role if direction ratios of
the tangent vector is used instead of its direction
coefficients.
2nd FF of a surface of revolution :
⃗r(u, v) = (g(u) cos v, g(u) sin v, f (u))
∴ ⃗r1 = (g ′ (u) cos v, g ′ (u) sin v, f ′ (u))
⃗r2 = (−g(u) sin v, g(u) cos v, 0)
∴ E = f ′2 (u) + g ′2 (u), F = 0, G = g 2 (u)
⃗r11 = (g ′′ (u) cos v, g ′′ (u) sin v, f ′′ (u))
⃗r12 = (−g ′ (u) sin v, g ′ (u) cos v, 0)
⃗r22 = (−g(u) cos v, −g(u) sin v, 0).
⃗ = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 = p
N
1
(−f ′ (u) cos v, −f ′ (u) sin v, g ′ (u))
|⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | ′2 ′2
f (u) + g (u)
∴ 2nd fundamental form is
1 ′
(g (u)f ′′ (u) − f ′ (u)g ′′ (u)) du2 + g(u)f ′ (u)dv 2

p
f ′2 (u) + g ′2 (u)
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2 Circular Cylinder : g(u) = 1, f (u) = u.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
3 Circular Cone: g(u) = u, f (u) = u.
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Special Cases
1 Plane : g(u) = u, f (u) = 0. II = 0.
2
2
Theorem (2 Pg 281)
1 ⃗ 1 · ⃗r1 , M = −N
L = −N ⃗ 2 · ⃗r1 = −N
⃗ 1 · ⃗r2 , N = −N
⃗ 2 · ⃗r2 .
2 HL = [⃗r11 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] , HM = [⃗r12 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] = [⃗r21 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] , HN =
[⃗r22 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ]
Theorem (2 Pg 281)
1 ⃗ 1 · ⃗r1 , M = −N
L = −N ⃗ 2 · ⃗r1 = −N
⃗ 1 · ⃗r2 , N = −N
⃗ 2 · ⃗r2 .
2 HL = [⃗r11 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] , HM = [⃗r12 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] = [⃗r21 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] , HN =
[⃗r22 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ]
Proof : N ⃗ · ⃗r1 = 0 everywhere. Differentiating with

respect to u,
N⃗ · ⃗r11 + N
⃗ 1 · ⃗r1 = 0. ∴ L = −N
⃗ 1 · ⃗r1 .
⃗ · ⃗r1 = 0 with respect to v and
Similarly differentiating N
⃗ · ⃗r2 = 0 with respect to u, we get two expressions for
N
M . By differentiating N ⃗ · ⃗r2 = 0 with respect to v, we
get the expression for N .
Theorem
If the second fundamental form of any regular surface of
class r ≥ 2 vanishes everywhere, then the surface must
be a plane.
Theorem
If the second fundamental form of any regular surface of
class r ≥ 2 vanishes everywhere, then the surface must
be a plane.
Proof : We show the surface normal N ⃗ is constant.
⃗1 = N
This will be done by showing N ⃗ 2 = 0 everywhere.
⃗ 1 · ⃗r1 = 0, M = −N
L = −N ⃗ 1 · ⃗r2 = 0
∴N ⃗ 1 = φN ⃗ for some real valued function φ = φ(u, v).

Since, |N⃗ | = 1, N
⃗1 · N
⃗ = 0. ∴ N⃗ 1 = 0 everywhere.
Similarly, M = N = 0. =⇒ N ⃗ 2 = 0 everywhere.
Therefore, N ⃗ is constant.
Second Fundamental Form of the Right Helicoid
⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, cv)

∴ ⃗r1 = (cos v, sin v, 0) and ⃗r2 = (−u sin v, u cos v, c).
∴ E = 1, F = 0, G = u2 + c2 .
Also N⃗ =√ 1 (c sin v, −c cos v, u)
u2 + c2
Now ⃗r11 = (0, 0, 0), ⃗r12 = (− sin v, cos v, 0),

⃗r22 = (−u cos v, −u sin v, 0).
c cdudv
∴ L = 0, M = − √ , N = 0 ⇒ II = − √ .
u2 + c2 u2 + c2
As a consequence,
−2c dudv
κn = √ .
u2 + c2 du2 + (u2 + c2 )3/2 dv 2
In particular, normal curvature at ⃗r(0, 0) in the direction

of u = 0 is 0. Normal curvature at ⃗r(0, 0) in the
direction of u = v is
−2c
κn = .
|c|(1 + c2
For the family of curves ϕ(u, v) = 0, the direction ratios

are given by (−ϕv , ϕu ).
Normal Sections
For a regular curve ⃗r(s) with arc length parameter s,
⃗.
κn = ⃗r ′′ · N
As ⃗r ′′ = κ⃗n, where ⃗n is the principal normal to ⃗r(s),

κn = κ if ⃗n = N ⃗.
In particular, for any tangent vector ⃗u of the surface S at
its point P , if we take the plane Π through P containing
⃗u and N ⃗ , for the curve C = Π ∩ S then, up to sign, κn
is the (ordinary) curvature of C at P .
C is called the normal section of S in the direction of its
tangent vector ⃗u.
Lecture 33
March 23, 2024
Meusnier’s Theorem
Theorem
If at a point P of the surface, φ denotes the angle
between the principal normal ⃗n of the curve ⃗r(s) and the
surface normal N⃗ , then κn = κ cos φ.
Meusnier’s Theorem
Theorem
If at a point P of the surface, φ denotes the angle
between the principal normal ⃗n of the curve ⃗r(s) and the
surface normal N⃗ , then κn = κ cos φ.
Thus, if for a tangent vector ⃗u of the surface S at its

point P , we take curvatures sections by various planes
through ⃗u, it is maximum for normal section and its
value is the normal curvature, While curvature is 0 if we
take the section by the tangent plane.
Sign Of Normal Curvature
⃗.
κn = κ cos φ where φ is the angle between ⃗n and N
As κ ≥ 0, sign of κn depends on the sign of cos φ.
⃗ , then κn ≥ 0.
If 0 ≤ φ < π , i.e. ⃗n is tilted towards N
2
If π ⃗ , then κn < 0.
< φ ≤ π, i.e., ⃗n is tilted towards −N
2
Since the curve is always turning towards ⃗n, the sign

depends on whether the curve is turning towards N ⃗ or
−N⃗.
Section 4.3
Classification of points on a surface
Classification of points on a surface
If a tangent vector at P to surface has direction ratio

(du, dv),
κn = .
Since 1st Fundamental form is positive definite,
Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2 > 0 for all tangent vectors.
Thus sign of κn for any (tangent) direction is determined
by the sign of 2nd Fundamental form for its direction
ratio.
Three Cases
Case 1 : At P, LN − M 2 > 0. Then either κn > 0 in all
directions or κn < 0 in all directions at P . Then P is
called elliptic.
Three Cases
called elliptic.
Case 2 : At P, LN − M 2 = 0. Then
Ldu2 + 2M dudv + N dv 2 = ±(Adu + Bdv)2 .
Thus κn = 0 in some direction but can’t change its sign
with direction. Such point is called parabolic.
Three Cases
called elliptic.
Case 3 : At P, LN − M 2 < 0. Then κn > 0 in some
direction and κn < 0 in some direction at P. Then P is
called hyperbolic.
Three Cases
called elliptic.
Case 3 : At P, LN − M 2 < 0. Then κn > 0 in some
direction and κn < 0 in some direction at P. Then P is
called hyperbolic.
The directions in which κn = 0 are called asymptotic
directions.
Example
All the points of a right helicoid are hyperbolic.
Solution : For right helicoid,
∴ ⃗r1 = (cos v, sin v, 0), ⃗r2 = (−u sin v, u cos v, a)
⃗r11 = (0, 0, 0),

⃗r12 = (− sin v, cos v, 0),
⃗r22 = (−u cos v, u sin v, 0)
∴ HL = 0, HM = −a, HN = 0.
2
∴ LN − M 2 = − Ha 2 < 0 for a ̸= 0.
Example
Paraboloid is surface of revolution

of
2
(g(u), 0, f (u)) = u, 0, u . (For parameterization to be
regular, u > 0 )
2u 2u3
∴ L = , M = 0, N = .
H H
4u4
∴ LN − M 2 =
>0
H2
If you want to consider u = 0, case consider the
parametrization u, v, u2 + v 2 .
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 34
April 01, 2024
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) April 9, 2024 2 / 21
Classifying Points of Anchor Ring
II = bdu2 + (a + b cos u) cos udv 2 .

∴ LN − M 2 = b(a + b cos u) cos u.
As a > b > 0, b(a + b cos u) > 0. Thus the points are
Elliptic for − π2 < u < π2 ,

π 3π
Hyperbolic for 2 <u< 2 ,
Parabolic for u = ± π2 .
Geometric Interpretation of Second Fundamental Form
If DP = Perpendicular distance of a point Q of the
surface near P from the tangent plane to the surface at
P is approximately given by
1
Ldu2 + 2M dudv + N dv 2 .

DP ≈
2
Geometric Interpretation of Second Fundamental Form
If DP = Perpendicular distance of a point Q of the
surface near P from the tangent plane to the surface at
P is approximately given by
1
Ldu2 + 2M dudv + N dv 2 .

DP ≈
2
Proof: Let P = ⃗r (u0 , v0 ) and Q = ⃗r (u0 + du, v0 + dv).
By Taylor’s theorem,
P⃗Q = ⃗r (u0 + du, v0 + dv) − ⃗r (u0 , v0 )
= ⃗r1 (u0 , v0 ) du + ⃗r2 (u0 , v0 ) dv
1
+ (⃗r11 (u0 , v0 ) du2 + 2⃗r12 (u0 , v0 ) dudv
2
+ ⃗r22 (u0 , v0 ) dv 2 ) + small terms.
∴ DP = P⃗Q · N
⃗
⃗ = 0, ignoring small terms, we get the result.
As ⃗ri · N
Remark : DP is the directed distance, hence can be
negative also. At hyperbolic points, surface crosses
tangent plane as DP assumes both the signs. In the
elliptic case, it is on one side of tangent plane, at
parabolic points it is on one side but in asymptotic
direction, surface lies on the tangent plane
(approximately).
Lecture 35
April 02, 2024
Principal Curvatures
Definition
The directions at P in which normal curvature is
maximum or minimum are called principal directions at
P . The normal curvatures at P in those directions are
called the principal curvatures at P .
Principal Curvatures
Definition
The directions at P in which normal curvature is
maximum or minimum are called principal directions at
P . The normal curvatures at P in those directions are
called the principal curvatures at P .
Theorem
The principal curvatures at P are the roots of the
quadratic 2equation
2 2

EG − F κ − (EN + GL − 2F M )κ + LN − M = 0. (*)
The principal directions at P are the roots of the
quadratic equation
2 2
(EM − F L)λ + (EN − GL)λµ + (F N − GM )µ = 0. (**)
Proof : Consider the direction coefficients (λ, µ) of
various directions at P . Corresponding normal curvature
is
κn = Lλ2 + 2M λµ + N µ2
As Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2 = 1, this provides constraint
also. Using Lagrange multiplier c, stationary points
(λ, µ) satisfy equations
Lλ + M µ = c(Eλ + F µ) (1)
M λ + N µ = c(F λ + Gµ) (2)
Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2 = 1 (3)
λ(1) + µ(2) gives
κn = Lλ2 + 2M λµ + N µ2 = c Eλ2 + 2F λµ + Gµ2 = c

On the other hand, (1), (2) are linear equations in (λ, µ)

with nontrivial solution. Thus coefficient matrix is
singular.
L − cE M − cF
∴ = 0, which is the required
M − cF N − cG
equation.
To find the quadratic for direction coefficients, eliminate
c between (1) and (2).
Linear Algebra View on Principal Curvature
Principal curvatures are solutions of
L − cE M − cF
=0
M − cF N − cG
i.e. det (FII − cFI ) = 0, where FI and FII are matrices

associated with 1st and 2nd Fundamental Forms
respectively.
Since det (FI ) ̸= 0, principal curvatures are eigenvalues
of FI−1 FII .
Direction ratios of principal directions are corresponding
eigenvectors of FI−1 FII .
To see principal directions always exist( are real), we
need to show the discriminant ∆ of (∗∗) is non-negative.
∆ = (EN − GL)2 − 4(EM − F L)(F N − GM )

2 F G
= (EN − GL) − 4(EM − F L) (EN − GL) − (EM − F L)
E E
2
4 (EG − F 2 )

2F
= (EN − GL) − (EM − F L) + 2
(EM − F L)2
E E
≥ 0.
Equation for Principal Directions
Equation (2) can be written as:
dv 2 −dudv du2
E F G = 0.
L M N
Asymptotic Lines and Lines of Curvature
Asymptotic line on the surface is a curve on the

surface such that at each of its points, tangent vector is
asymptotic direction of the surface at that point (i.e.
κn = 0 in that direction).
This is obtained by solving the differential equation
Ldu2 + 2M dudv + N dv 2 = 0
Line of curvature on the surface is a curve on the

surface such that at each of its points, its tangent vector
is the principal direction of the surface at that point.
Theorem
Lines of curvature is a double family of curves with
differential equation
(EM −F L)du2 +(EN −GL)dudv+(F N −GM )dv 2 = 0

Proof. Notice that this is the quadratic giving principal
directions. The double family defined by this differential
equation has (du, dv) as direction ratios of the tangent
vectors to its curves. So they are The principal directions.
Lecture 35
April 04, 2024
Theorem (Rodrigue’s Theorem)
The necessary and sufficient condition for the given curve
⃗
⃗r(s) to be a line of curvature is ddsN = −κn d⃗
r
ds , where κn
is the normal curvature along ⃗r(s). (This is written as
dN⃗ + κn d⃗r = 0 ).
Proof. Assume ⃗r(s) is a line of curvature whose normal

curvature is κn . Therefore κn is the principal curvature
with principal direction ⃗r′ (s).
∴ (L − κn E) du + (M − κn F ) dv = 0,
(M − κn F ) du + (N − κn G) dv = 0
Now L = −N ⃗ 1 · ⃗r1 , M = −N
⃗ 1 · ⃗r2 = −N⃗ 2 · ⃗r1 ,
N = −N ⃗ 2 · ⃗r2 and E = ⃗r1 · ⃗r1 , F = ⃗r1 · ⃗r2 = ⃗r2 · ⃗r1 ,
N = ⃗r2 · ⃗r2 .

⃗ ⃗
∴ N1 du + N2 dv · ⃗r1 + κn (⃗r1 du + ⃗r2 dv) · ⃗r1 = 0

⃗
∴ dN + κn d⃗r · ⃗r1 = 0.

⃗
Similarly, dN + κn d⃗r · ⃗r2 = 0

⃗ ⃗
∴ dN + κn d⃗r = cN
But
⃗ ⊥N
dN ⃗ , d⃗r ⊥ N
⃗ ⃗
∴ c = 0 i.e., dN + κn d⃗r = 0.
⃗
Conversely assume ddsN = −κn d⃗ r
ds for the curve ⃗
r(s).

⃗ + κn d⃗r · ⃗ri = 0 for i = 1, 2
dN
∴ By retracing back,
(L − κn E) du + (M − κn F ) dv = 0,
(M − κn F ) du + (N − κn G) dv = 0
Hence κn is the principal curvature and (du, dv) is the

principal direction. Thus ⃗r(s) is a line of curvature.
Example
Find the lines of curvatures of the right helicoid
⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, cv).

Solution : E = 1, F = 0, G = u2 + c2 .
p c
∴ H = u2 + c2 , L = 0, M = − , N = 0.
H
Hence diff equation for the lines of curvature is
(EM − F L)λ2 + (EN − GL)λµ + (F N − GM )µ2 = 0
i.e., −cdu2 + u2 + c2 cdv 2 = 0

√
Solving, v = ± ln u + u2 + c2 + C ′ , C ′ const of

integration.
Hence the lines of curvature are
p
2 2 ′
u cos ± ln u + u + c + c ,
p
2 2 ′
u sin ± ln u + u + c + c ,
p
2 2 ′
c ± ln u + u + c + c , u ∈ R
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 35
April 09, 2024
Umbilic Points
These are points where both principal curvatures are
equal.
This will happen when all normal curvatures at P are
equal.
Umbilic Points
equal.
equal.
This is equivalent to all directions are principal
directions, i.e LHS of (∗∗) is 0 polynomial.
Umbilic Points
equal.
equal.
This is equivalent to all directions are principal
directions, i.e LHS of (∗∗) is 0 polynomial.
Thus P is umbilic if and only if
EM − F L = EN − GL = F N − GM = 0.
i.e. EL = M
F
=NG
or equivalently 1st and 2nd Fundamental
forms are proportional.
Remark : As we know maximum and minimum of
normal curvatures exist, this quadratic has real roots.
From the quadratic we can easily find sum and products
of principal curvatures κa and κb .
Definition
κa +κb
The mean curvature of the surface at P is µ = 2 .
The Gaussian curvature is K = κa κb .
Remark : As we know maximum and minimum of
normal curvatures exist, this quadratic has real roots.
From the quadratic we can easily find sum and products
of principal curvatures κa and κb .
Definition
κa +κb
The mean curvature of the surface at P is µ = 2 .
The Gaussian curvature is K = κa κb .
Theorem
EN + GL − 2F M LN − M 2
µ= , K =
2 (EG − F 2 ) EG − F 2
Remarks
1 The classification of points of S as elliptic,

parabolic, elliptic can also be done using Gaussian
curvature K (K and LN − M 2 have same sign).
2 Principal curvatures both are invariant under those
parametric transformations with ∂(Φ,Ψ )
∂(u,v) > 0, and
both change their sign if ∂(Φ,Ψ )
∂(u,v) < 0. In effect, K is
invariant under all parametric transformations.
The pairs (µ, K) and (κa , κb ) determine each other.
Lecture 36
April 12, 2024
Q. 3, Page - 379
For the surface S : ⃗r(u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, f (u)), find
(i) Principal curvatures and principal directions at any
point of the S,
(ii) Normal curvature in direction making an angle π4
with the meridian of S.
⃗r1 = (cos v, sin v, f ′ (u)) and ⃗r2 = (−u sin v, u cos v, 0)
∴ E = 1 + f ′ (u)2 , F = 0, G = u2
⃗r11 = (0, 0, f ′′ (u)) ,

⃗r12 = (− sin v, cos v, 0),
⃗r22 = (−u cos v, −u sin v, 0)
[⃗r11 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] f ′′ (u)
∴L= =p
H (1 + f ′ (u)2 )
[⃗r12 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ]
M= = 0,
H
[⃗r22 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] uf ′ (u)
N= =p
H (1 + f ′ (u)2 )
∴ Principal curvatures are eigenvalues of FI−1 FII , Hence
f ′′ (u) f ′ (u)
κa = , κb = p .
(1 + f ′ (u)2 )3/2 u (1 + f ′ (u)2 )
Principal directions are given by
dv 2 −dudv du2
1 + f ′ (u)2 0 u2 =0
′′
uf ′ (u)
√ f (u)′ 2
0 √ ′
(1+f (u) ) (1+f (u)2 )
i.e. −(D)dudv = 0, D ̸= 0.
Thus, principal directions are parametric curves i.e.,
u = const and v = const.
Here, using the angle with meridian and 1st F F , find
direction ratios. Then use the formula for normal
curvature.
Meridian
is v = const. and has direction coefficients
1
√ , 0 . Let the required direction coefficient be (l, m).
E
π l m
∴ cos = E√ + F √
4 E E
π m
sin = H√
4 E
We have
E = 1 + f ′ (u)2 , F = 0, G = u2 ;
p
∴ H = u 1 + f ′ (u)2 .
Solve for (l, m) and then substitute in formula for normal
curvature.
Theorem
The lines of curvature are orthogonal to each other.
Theorem
The lines of curvature are orthogonal to each other.
Proof. Let (l1 , m1 ) and (l2 , m2 ) be the direction
coefficients of the lines of curvature. Then
(EM − F L)li2 + (EN − GL)li mi + (F N − GM )m2i = 0, i = 1, 2.
Thus EN − GL F N − GM
l1 m2 + l2 m1 = − m1 m2 , l1 l2 = m1 m2 .
EM − F L EM − F L
If the angle between the directions (l1 , m1 ) and (l2 , m2 )
is θ, then
cos θ = El1 l2 + F (l1 m2 + l2 m1 ) + Gm1 m2 = 0
Theorem
A necessary and sufficient condition for the lines of
curvature to be parametric curves is that F = M = 0.
Theorem
Surface contains no umbilic points.
Theorem
Surface contains no umbilic points.
Proof. Let the lines of curvature be the parametric
curves. As the lines of curvature are orthogonal, the
parametric curves are orthogonal, hence F = 0. Since
H 2 = EG > 0 so E ̸= 0 and G ̸= 0.
The differential equation of the lines of curvature is
(EM −F L)du2 +(EN −GL)dudv+(F N −GM )dv 2 = 0.

The differential equation of the parametric curves is
dudv = 0. These two equations must be identical. So
M = 0.
The differential equation of the parametric curves is
dudv = 0. These two equations must be identical. So
M = 0.
Conversely, if we assume F = M = 0, the differential
equation of the line of curvatures becomes
(EN − GL)dudv = 0.
Since EN − GL ̸= 0, dudv = 0 the lines of curvatures

are the parametric curves.
Theorem (Euler’s Theorem)
If κn is the normal curvature in a direction making angle
Ψ with the principal direction and κa is the principal
curvature in this direction and κb the principal curvature
in the other principal direction then
κn = κa cos2 Ψ + κb sin2 Ψ.
This provides a method to find normal curvature along
an arbitrary tangent direction from principal curvatures
and directions.
Example: Do Part (ii) of previous problem using this
method.
Example
Find all the umbilic points of the anchor ring, which is
the surface of revolution of (a + b cos u, 0, b sin u),
a > b > 0.
Example
Find all the umbilic points of the anchor ring, which is
the surface of revolution of (a + b cos u, 0, b sin u),
a > b > 0.
Sol. E = b2 , F = 0, G = (a + b cos u)2 , L = b, M =
0, N = (a + b cos u) cos u. A necessary and sufficient
condition for umbilic points is that the 1st and 2nd
fundamental forms are proportional.
As F = M = 0, ⃗r (u0 , v0 ) is umbilic if and only if
E (u0 , v0 ) G (u0 , v0 )
= , i.e., a = b+a cos u
cos u . Thus no point
L (u0 , v0 ) N (u0 , v0 )
of anchor ring is umbilic, as a ̸= 0.
Note : Umbilic points can also be found by equating the
principal curvatures. Equivalently µ2 = K also gives
umbilic points.
umbilic points.
Example : Find all (u0 , v0 ) such that ⃗r (u0 , v0 ) are the
umbilic points
of the surface whose 1st fundamental form
is 1 + v 2 du2 + 2uvdudv + 1 + u2 dv 2 and 2nd
2dudv
fundamental form is √1+u 2 +v 2
.

By proportionality of 1st and 2nd F F s, 1 + v 2 = 0 is
never satisfied, hence no point is umbilic.
umbilic points.
Example : Find all (u0 , v0 ) such that ⃗r (u0 , v0 ) are the
umbilic points
of the surface whose 1st fundamental form
is 1 + v 2 du2 + 2uvdudv + 1 + u2 dv 2 and 2nd
2dudv
fundamental form is √1+u 2 +v 2
.

By proportionality of 1st and 2nd F F s, 1 + v 2 = 0 is
never satisfied, hence no point is umbilic.
Note : Hyperbolic point can never be umbilic. Thus if
LN − M 2 < 0, the point is not umbilic.
Theorem
At a non-umbilic point, principal directions are
orthogonal.
Theorem
orthogonal.
Proof. Condition of orthogonality of a double family
P du2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0 is ER − 2QF + GP = 0.
pause. For principal drections, P = (EM − F L),
2Q = (EN − GL), R = (F N − GM ).
Theorem
orthogonal.
Proof. Condition of orthogonality of a double family
P du2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0 is ER − 2QF + GP = 0.
pause. For principal drections, P = (EM − F L),
2Q = (EN − GL), R = (F N − GM ).
The condition of orthogonality is satisfied.
Lecture 37
April 13, 2024
Dupin Indicatrix
Definition
For a (regular) point O on the surface S, section of the
surface by a plane parallel to the tangent plane at O at a
small distance is called the Dupin indicatrix of S at O.
Theorem (Page 302)
Assume, by rotation and translation , that O is origin, X
axis and Y axis are along principal directions and z-axis
along N⃗ . If Ra , Rb are the principal radii of curvature of
the surface S at O, then the equation of the Dupin
indicatrix at O is
x2 y2 1 1
+ = 2h, z = h, Ra = , Rb =
Ra Rb κa κb
Theorem (Page 302)
Assume, by rotation and translation , that O is origin, X
axis and Y axis are along principal directions and z-axis
along N⃗ . If Ra , Rb are the principal radii of curvature of
the surface S at O, then the equation of the Dupin
indicatrix at O is
x2 y2 1 1
+ = 2h, z = h, Ra = , Rb =
Ra Rb κa κb
The nature of Dupin indicatrix justifies the classification
of the point as elliptic, hyperbolic. For parabolic points
though, Dupin indicatrix is a pair of lines.
Example
Show that the Dupin indicatrix at every point of the
right helicoid ⃗r = (u cos v, u sin v, av) is a rectangular
hyperbola.
Example
Show that the Dupin indicatrix at every point of the
right helicoid ⃗r = (u cos v, u sin v, av) is a rectangular
hyperbola.
Sol. Here, E = 1, F = 0, G = u2 + a2 and

L = 0, M = − √u2a+a2 , N = 0. Now, κa and κb are the
roots of the equation
2 a2
2 2
(u + a )κ − 2 = 0 ⇒ κa + κb = 0.
u + a2
This proves that the indicatrix is a rectangular hyperbola.
Asymptotic and Conjugate Directions
Theorem
For a hyperbolic point, asymptotes of Dupin indicatrix
occur along the asymptotic directions at that point.
Theorem
An asymptotic line is a curve on the surface whose
tangent vector is an asymptotic direction at each of its
point.
Theorem
An asymptotic line is a curve on the surface whose
tangent vector is an asymptotic direction at each of its
point. We have the following
Theorem
The curve ⃗r(s) is an asymptotic line if and only if at all
of its points
⃗
d⃗r dN
· =0
ds ds
Proof.
⃗
d⃗r dN

du dv

du dv

· = ⃗r1 + ⃗r2 ⃗
· N1 ⃗
+ N2
ds ds ds ds ds ds
2 2 !
du du dv dv
=− L + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds
Proof.
⃗
d⃗r dN

du dv

du dv

· = ⃗r1 + ⃗r2 ⃗
· N1 ⃗
+ N2
ds ds ds ds ds ds
2 2 !
du du dv dv
=− L + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds
The condition for asymptotic line is RHS = 0. This is

equivalent to LHS = 0.
Proof.
⃗
d⃗r dN

du dv

du dv

· = ⃗r1 + ⃗r2 ⃗
· N1 ⃗
+ N2
ds ds ds ds ds ds
2 2 !
du du dv dv
=− L + 2M +N
ds ds ds ds
The condition for asymptotic line is RHS = 0. This is

equivalent to LHS = 0.
Corollary
Any straight line on the surface is an asymptotic line.
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 38
April 15, 2024
Conjugate Diameter of a Conic
Definition
For a central conic, a diameter is a chord passing through
its center. Two diameters are said to be conjugate if any
one of them bisects all chords parallel to the other.
Definition
For example, two diameters of a circle are conjugate if
and only if they are perpendicular.
Definition
For example, two diameters of a circle are conjugate if
and only if they are perpendicular.
For an ellipse, two diameters are conjugate if and only if
the tangent line to the ellipse at an endpoint of one
diameter is parallel to the other diameter.
Conjugate directions at a point of a surface
Two tangent directions at a point P of the surface are
called conjugate if the corresponding diameters of its
Dupin indicatrix are conjugate diameters.
Theorem
Two directions (l1 , m1 ) and (l2 , m2 ) at a point on the
surface are conjugate directions if and only if
Ll1 l2 + M (l1 m2 + m1 l2 ) + N m1 m2 = 0.
Conjugate directions at a point of a surface
Two tangent directions at a point P of the surface are
called conjugate if the corresponding diameters of its
Dupin indicatrix are conjugate diameters.
Theorem
Two directions (l1 , m1 ) and (l2 , m2 ) at a point on the
surface are conjugate directions if and only if
Ll1 l2 + M (l1 m2 + m1 l2 ) + N m1 m2 = 0.
Note : The condition can be
written as
⃗ ⃗
(⃗r1 l1 + ⃗r2 m1 ) · N1 l2 + N2 m2 = 0.
Proof. Homework
Corollary
Parametric curves are in conjugate directions if and only
if M = 0.
Corollary
Parametric curves are in conjugate directions if and only
if M = 0.
Proof.
For parametric curves, (l1 , m1 ) = and √1 , 0
E
(l2 , m2 ) = 0, √1G . Thus they are conjugate if and only

√
if √M EG
= 0. But EG ̸= 0.
Corollary
Lines of curvature at any (non-parabolic, non-umbilic)
point on a surface are in conjugate directions.
Corollary
Lines of curvature at any (non-parabolic, non-umbilic)
point on a surface are in conjugate directions.
Proof.
By Rodrigues’ formula, along line of curvatures,
⃗ = −κn d⃗r.
dN
By orthogonality of principal directions,
(⃗r1 l1 + ⃗r2 m1 ) · (⃗r1 l2 + ⃗r2 m2 ) = 0
Multiply both sides by −κn and use Rodrigues’

formula.
Example
Show that parametric curves (i.e. meridians and
parallels) on any surface of revolution are conjugate
directions.
Example
directions.
It is enough to show that M = 0. This has already been
shown.
Example
directions.
shown.
Example
Show that the directions on the surface given by
P du2 + Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0 are conjugate if and only if
LR − M Q + N P = 0
Example
directions.
shown.
Example
Show that the directions on the surface given by
P du2 + Qdudv + Rdv 2 = 0 are conjugate if and only if
LR − M Q + N P = 0
(Note that here coefficient of dudv is Q, not 2Q)
Sol. Let directions (l1 , m1 ) and (l2 , m2 ) be given by this
equation. They are conjugates if and only if
Ll1 l2 + M (l1 m2 + m1 l2 ) + N m1 m2 = 0.
li
Since mi , i = 1, 2 satisfy P x2 + Qx + R = 0,
l1 m2 + l2 m1 Q l1 l2 R
=− , = .
m1 m2 P m1 m2 Q
Substitution in the necessary and sufficient condition for
conjugate directions gives the result.
Q. 2, Page - 358
Show that if all points of a surface S are umbilic then S
is either a plane or a sphere.
Q. 2, Page - 358
Show that if all points of a surface S are umbilic then S
is either a plane or a sphere.
Sol. At umbilic points, 1st and 2nd FF are proportional.

Thus there is a real valued function κ = κ(u, v) such
that FII = κFI , i.e. L = κE, M = κF, N = κG
everywhere.
Since L = −N ⃗ 1 · ⃗r1 , M = −N⃗ 1 · ⃗r2 = −N
⃗ 2 · ⃗r1 ,
⃗ · ⃗r2 , we have
= −N2
N
⃗ ⃗
κ⃗r1 + N1 · ⃗r1 = 0, κ⃗r1 + N1 · ⃗r2 = 0.

⃗ ⃗
Therefore κ⃗r1 + N1 = λN . But κ⃗r1 + N1 ⊥ N ⃗ ⃗.

⃗ ⃗
∴ κ⃗r1 + N1 = 0. Similarly κ⃗r2 + N2 = 0.
Differentiating these with respect to v and u respectively,

⃗ ⃗
κ⃗r12 + N12 + κ2⃗r1 = 0, κ⃗r21 + N21 + κ1⃗r2 = 0
Using equality of mixed partials, we get κ2⃗r1 = κ1⃗r2 .

We claim that κ1 = κ2 = 0. If it is not, then ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 are L.
D. at that point, contradicting regularity of the surface
there. Thus κ is constant.
If κ = 0, then L = M = N = 0 everywhere, hence
surface is a plane.
⃗ i for i = 1, 2 implies ⃗r + 1 N
If κ ̸= 0, then ⃗ri = − κ1 N ⃗ is
κ
constant, say ⃗c.
Now |⃗r − ⃗c| = κ1 is constant. Hence surface is part of the
sphere.
Q. 3, Page - 360
Show that
the principal
radiix2 +y
of curvature of the surface
2 2
y cos a = x sin a are ± a +a . Find lines of
z z
curvatures also.
Q. 3, Page - 360
Show that
the principal
radiix2 +y
of curvature of the surface
2 2
y cos a = x sin a are ± a +a . Find lines of
z z
curvatures also.
Sol. To find a parametric representation, note that

z
−1 y

= tan .
a x
x y
Let cos( az )
= sin( az )
= u, az = v. Then the surface is the
right helicoid ⃗r = (u cos v, u sin v, av). Solving the
quadratics for principal curvatures, κ = ± x2 +ya2 +a2 .
(Does it depend on the choice of parameters?)
Lines of curvature has differential equation becomes
a p
− √ du + a u2 + a2 dv 2 = 0.
2
2
u +a 2
du
∴ dv = ± √ .
u2 + a2
u
−1
∴ v = ± sinh + c, c a constant.
a
Q. 6, Page - 379
Find the Gaussian and mean curvature of the helicoid
⃗r = (u cos v, u sin v, f (u) + cv).
Q. 6, Page - 379
Find the Gaussian and mean curvature of the helicoid
⃗r = (u cos v, u sin v, f (u) + cv).
Solution :
E = 1 + f ′ (u)2 , F = cf ′ (u), G = u2 + c2
uf ′′ (u) c
L= p , M = −p ,
c2 + u2 (1 + f ′ (u)2 ) c2 + u2 (1 + f ′ (u)2 )
u2 f ′ (u)
N=p
c2 + u2 (1 + f ′ (u)2 )
Gaussian curvature
LN − M 2
K=
EG − F 2
u3 f ′ (u)f ′′ (u) − c2
= 2 .
c + u2 (1 + f ′ (u)2 )
Mean curvature
EN + GL − 2F M
µ=
2 (EG − F 2 )
u2 f ′ (u)(1 + f ′ (u)2 ) + u(u2 + c2 )f ′′ (u) + 2c2 f ′ (u)
= 3 .
2[c2 + u2 (1 + f ′ (u)2 )] 2
Q. 5, Page - 362
If κ1 , κ2 , . . . , κm are the normal curvatures of the surface
at its point P in directions making angle 2π m with
successive directions, and if m > 2 then show that
κ1 + κ2 + . . . + κm = mµ, where µ is the mean
curvature of the surface at P .
Q. 5, Page - 362
If κ1 , κ2 , . . . , κm are the normal curvatures of the surface
at its point P in directions making angle 2π m with
successive directions, and if m > 2 then show that
κ1 + κ2 + . . . + κm = mµ, where µ is the mean
curvature of the surface at P .
Solution : If κa , κb are principal curvatures then for any
direction making an angle Ψ with the 1st principal
direction, normal curvature
κn = κa cos2 Ψ + κb sin2 Ψ
κa + κb κa − κb
= + cos 2Ψ
2 2
If θ is the angle made by 1st of these m directions with
1st principal direction then successive angles are
θ + 2πi
m , 0 ≤ i ≤ m − 1.

κa − κb 2πi
∴ κi = µ + cos 2 θ +
2 m
m m−1 !
X κa − κb X 2πi
∴ κi = mµ + cos 2 θ +
i=1
2 i=0
m
Pm−1
To evaluate sum k=0 cos(a + kb), multiply and divide
b
by 2 sin 2 and note that
b
2 sin cos(a+kb) = sin(a+(2k+1)b/2)−sin(a+(2k−1)b/2)
2
This converts the series in to telescopic series. The 1st
and last term can be combined together by sin C − sin D
rule.
Thus
m
κa − κb cos 2θ + (m − 1) 2π

m sin 2π
X
κi = mµ +
i=1
2 sin 2π
m
= mµ
Lecture 39
April 16, 2024
Derivatives of Surface Normal
Note that |N⃗ | = 1, thus N ⃗i ⊥ N⃗ for i = 1, 2.
∴N⃗ 1 = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 , N
⃗ 2 = c⃗r1 + d⃗r2 for some a, b, c, d.
∴N⃗ 1 = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 , N
Example

a c
Show that = −FI−1 FII , i.e.,
b d

E F a c L M
=−
F G b d M N
∴N⃗ 1 = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 , N
Example

a c
Show that = −FI−1 FII , i.e.,
b d

E F a c L M
=−
F G b d M N
Solution : N ⃗ 1 = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 . Taking dot product with ⃗r1 ,

⃗ 1 · ⃗r1 = aE + bF , i.e. − L = aE + bF .
N
Similarly −M = aF + bG = cE + dF, −N = cF + dG.
Thus, if we consider a map which assigns to a tangent
⃗ =N
vector d⃗r = ⃗r1 du + ⃗r2 dv the vector dN ⃗ 1 du + N
⃗ 2 dv,
then
⃗ = N ⃗ 2 du = ⃗r1 ⃗r2 a c
⃗1 N du

dN
dv b d dv
This map is a linear transformation, called
Gauss-Weingarten map, and the direction ratios are
transformed by
du a c du
→
dv b d dv

a c
where = −FI−1 FII
b d
Section 4.11: Ruled Surfaces
Recall : A ruled surface is the union of one-parameter

family of straight lines. Equivalently, it is generated by a
motion of straight lines with one degree of freedom.
The straight lines are called generators.
Definition
Any curve on a ruled surface, which meets each
generator exactly once, is called a base curve or directrix.
Examples : a plane, cylinder, cone, tangent surface to a
curve.
Parametric Equation of a Ruled Surface
Let the base curve be given by ⃗γ (u) and let the generator
through the point ⃗γ (u) be parallel to a unit vector ⃗g (u).
For any point Q in the surface, Q lies on some
generator. Suppose base curve meets it at point ⃗γ (u).
Then the position vector R ⃗ of Q is given by
⃗ = R(u,
R ⃗ v) = ⃗γ (u) + v⃗g (u).
The base curve is one of the parametric curves given by

v = 0. All the generators are parametric curves u = c.
Regularity of a Ruled Surface
Assume ⃗γ (u) and ⃗g (u) are of class r ≥ 1. Then

R⃗ 1 = ⃗γ ′ (u) + v⃗g ′ (u), R
⃗ 2 = ⃗g (u).
If the generator at ⃗γ (u) is not tangent to ⃗γ (u), then
⃗γ ′ (u) × ⃗g (u) ̸= ⃗0.
By choosing small v, we can ensure R ⃗1 × R
⃗ 2 ̸= ⃗0, by
continuity, i.e., regularity is proved in a small strip
around base curve.
To study a ruled surface near a point, we can choose a
base curve through that point and apply the above
method.
1st Fundamental Coeff. for Ruled Surface
For the ruled surface
E=R⃗1 · R ⃗ 1 = |⃗γ ′ (u) + v⃗g ′ (u)|2 ,

⃗1 · R
F =R ⃗ 2 = ⃗γ ′ (u) · ⃗g (u), ( As ⃗g ′ (u) · ⃗g (u) = 0)
G=R⃗2 · R ⃗ 2 = ⃗g (u) · ⃗g (u) = 1,
p
H = EG − F 2
q
= |⃗γ ′ (u) + v⃗g ′ (u)|2 − (⃗γ ′ (u) · ⃗g (u))2 ,
⃗ (⃗γ ′ (u) + v⃗g ′ (u)) × ⃗g (u)
N= .
H
2nd Fundamental Coeff. for Ruled Surface
h i
HL = R⃗ 11 , R
⃗ 1, R
⃗2
= [⃗γ ′′ (u) + v⃗g ′′ (u), ⃗γ ′ (u) + v⃗g ′ (u), ⃗g (u)]

h i
⃗ ⃗
HM = R12 , R1 , R2⃗
= [⃗g ′ (u), ⃗γ ′ (u) + v⃗g ′ (u), ⃗g (u)]

= [⃗g ′ (u), ⃗γ ′ (u), ⃗g (u)].
h i
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
HN = R22 , R1 , R2 = 0, as R ⃗ 22 = ⃗0
Corollary
For a ruled surface, the Gaussian curvature
[⃗g ′ (u), ⃗γ ′ (u), ⃗g (u)]2
K=− . Thus ruled surface has no
H4
elliptic points.
Corollary
For a ruled surface, the Gaussian curvature
[⃗g ′ (u), ⃗γ ′ (u), ⃗g (u)]2
K=− . Thus ruled surface has no
H4
elliptic points.
On the ruled surface, a point is either parabolic or
hyperbolic point.
Parameter of Distribution
Note that the ruled surface is a cylinder based on some

curve if and only if ⃗g ′ (u) = ⃗0 for all u.
Consider a ruled surface which is not a cylinder.
[⃗γ ′ (u), ⃗g (u), ⃗g ′ (u)]
The function p(u) = is called the
|⃗g ′ (u)|2
parameter of distribution of the ruled surface.
Thus the Gaussian curvature of the ruled surface can be
given by
p(u)2 |⃗g ′ (u)|4
K=− .
H4
Properties of parameter of distribution
1 p(u) is constant on a generator line.

2 p(u) is independent of the base curve.
3 p(u) is independent of the choice of the parameter
u of the base curve.
Lecture 40
April 18, 2024
Classification of Ruled Surfaces
For a ruled surface with non-vanishing ⃗g ′ (u), note that
K = 0 if and only if p(u) = 0.
Ruled surface with K = 0 everywhere are called
developable surfaces.
We will not study developable surfaces in detail. But we
point out that any surface with K = 0 everywhere is a
developable surface, and hence a ruled surface.
A ruled surface which is not a developable surface is
called a scroll, or a skew surface.
Corollary
A necessary and sufficient condition that a ruled surface
be skew is [⃗γ ′ , ⃗g , ⃗g ′ ] ̸= 0.
Asymptotic Lines on a Ruled Surface
Theorem
For a ruled surface: (i) One family of asymptotic lines is
the generators, (ii) the second family of asymptotic lines
is the solution of Riccati differential equation
dv 2
du = A + Bv + Cv , where A, B, C are the functions of
u only.
Proof : Since N = 0, the differential equation for
asymptotes becomes du(Ldu + 2M dv) = 0.
du = 0 gives generating lines as asymptotes. For the
dv L
other factor, du = − 2M . Substituting their expressions,
we get the result.
Lecture 41
April 20, 2024
Example-2, Page-348
For a ruled surface generated by the binormals of a skew

curve, find the parameter of distribution and the
Gaussian curvature.
Example-2, Page-348
For a ruled surface generated by the binormals of a skew

curve, find the parameter of distribution and the
Gaussian curvature.
Solution : Parameterization of the ruled surface is
⃗
R(u, v) = ⃗γ (u) + v⃗b(u). Thus ⃗g (u) = ⃗b(u). ( u is taken
as arc-length parameter of ⃗γ (u))
[⃗γ ′ (u), ⃗g (u), ⃗g ′ (u)] [⃗t(u), ⃗b(u), −τ⃗n(u)]

p(u) = = =σ
|⃗g ′ (u)|2 τ2
p2 (u) |⃗g ′ (u)|2
K=− . Thus we need to compute H.
H4
⃗ 1 = (⃗t(u) − vτ⃗n(u)), R
R ⃗ 2 = ⃗b(u);
p
⃗ ⃗
∴ H = R1 × R2 = 1 + v 2 τ 2 .
−τ 2
∴K= .
(1 + v 2 τ 2 )2
(Thus the surface is a skew, as the curve is not plane).
Example-3, Page-348
Show that parameter of distribution of the ruled surface
generated by principal normal of a skew curve is
−1
τ τ 2 + κ2 . Also find its Gaussian curvature.
Example-3, Page-348
Show that parameter of distribution of the ruled surface
generated by principal normal of a skew curve is
−1
τ τ 2 + κ2 . Also find its Gaussian curvature.
⃗
Solution : R(u, v) = ⃗γ (u) + v⃗n(u). So
⃗t(u), ⃗n(u), ⃗n ′ (u)

τ
∴ p(u) = 2 = 2
|⃗n ′ (u)| τ + κ2
⃗ 1 = ⃗t + v(τ⃗b − κ⃗t), R
R ⃗ 2 = ⃗n(u)
2 2 −τ 2 2 2
∴ H = (1 − κv) + τ v and K =
((1 − κv)2 + τ 2 v 2 )2
Example
Find the Gaussian curvature for the ruled surface
generated by the tangent to a regular curve.
This is the tangent surface to the curve.
⃗
R(u, v) = ⃗γ (u) + v⃗t(u)
Clearly [⃗γ ′ (u), ⃗g (u), ⃗γ ′ (u)] = 0, (As ⃗γ ′ (u) = ⃗g (u))
∴ K = 0. (Thus the surface is developable surface.)
Example-6, Page-363
Suppose two surfaces intersect along a curve C at a

constant angle. Show that if C is a line of curvature on
one of these surfaces then it is also a line of curvature on
the other surface. (This is called Joachimsthal’s
theorem).
Example-6, Page-363
Suppose two surfaces intersect along a curve C at a

constant angle. Show that if C is a line of curvature on
one of these surfaces then it is also a line of curvature on
the other surface. (This is called Joachimsthal’s
theorem).
dN ⃗ dN⃗∗
⃗ ⃗ ∗
N ·N =α⇒ ⃗ ∗ ⃗
· N (s) + N (s) · = 0.
ds ds
Assume C is the line of curvature on S. Then by
⃗
Rodrigues’ formula, ddsN = −κ⃗t
⃗∗
∴N ⃗ (s) · dN = κ⃗t · N
⃗ ∗ (s) = 0.
ds
(As ⃗t is the tangent vector to the curve C on S ∗ )
⃗∗ ⃗ (s). It is also perpendicular
∴ dds
N
is perpendicular to N
⃗ ∗ (s). But ⃗t is also perpendicular to both these
to N
⃗∗
vectors. ∴ ddsN
is parallel to ⃗t.
This condition is sufficient to show C is the line of
curvature on S ∗ .
The converse to Joachimsthal’s theorem is also true, i.e.,
if C is the line of curvature on both S and S ∗ , then S
and S ∗ meet at a constant angle along C.
As C is a line of curvature on S, by Rodrigues’ formula,
⃗
dN ⃗
ds = −κt.
dN⃗∗
⃗
∴ N (s) · ⃗ ∗ (s) = 0.
= κ⃗t · N
ds
(As ⃗t is the tangent vector to the curve C on S ∗ )
⃗ ∗ (s) · ⃗
Since C is a line of curvature on S ∗ , N dN
ds = 0.
⃗ ⃗ (s) · dN⃗ ∗ = 0.
∴ d(cos
ds
θ) ⃗ ∗ (s) + N
= ddsN · N ds
∴ θ is constant.
Q. 25, Page - 380
Let ⃗r(s) denote an asymptotic line on the regular surface

⃗
R(u, v). Then show that the curvature of ⃗r(s) is given by

⃗ 1 · ⃗r
R ′
R⃗ 2 · ⃗r − R
′′ ⃗ 2 · ⃗r ′
R⃗ 1 · ⃗r ′′
.
H
Solution
h : Recall i that for asymptotic line, κn = 0 and
κg = N ⃗ , ⃗r , ⃗r . ∴ κ = |κg | and sign of κg is positive if
′ ′′
h i
′ ⃗ ′′ ⃗ ⃗ ′ ′′ ⃗
⃗r , Kg = ⃗r − κn N , N is right handed, i.e., ⃗r , ⃗r , N
and κ have same sign.
h i
⃗ ′ ′′
∴ κ = N , ⃗r , ⃗r .
(R⃗ 1 ×R⃗ 2 )·(⃗r ′ ×⃗r ′′ ) (R⃗ 1 ·⃗r ′ )(R⃗ 2 ·⃗r ′′ )−(R⃗ 2 ·⃗r ′ )(R⃗ 1 ·⃗r ′′ )
Thus κ = H = H .
h i
⃗ ′ ′′
∴ κ = N , ⃗r , ⃗r .
(R⃗ 1 ×R⃗ 2 )·(⃗r ′ ×⃗r ′′ ) (R⃗ 1 ·⃗r ′ )(R⃗ 2 ·⃗r ′′ )−(R⃗ 2 ·⃗r ′ )(R⃗ 1 ·⃗r ′′ )
Thus κ = H = H .
In addition,h the torsion i of the asymptotic curve is given
by τ = N ⃗,N⃗ ′ , ⃗r ′
Proof : For asymptotic line, ⃗r ′′ · N ⃗ = κn = 0. Also
⃗ · ⃗r ′ = 0.
⃗r ′′ · ⃗r ′ = N
h i
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
∴ b = N as N , ⃗r , ⃗r > 0 ′ ′′
Now h i h i
⃗ ′ ⃗ ′ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ′ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ′ ′
τ = −b · ⃗n = −b · (b × t) = b, b , t = N , N , ⃗r .
Thanks for your
attention!
Dr. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Lecture 42
April 22, 2024
Example-16, Page-373
Find the 1st and 2nd Fundamental Forms and hence the
mean and Gaussian curvature of the surface z = f (x, y).
(This is called Monge form of surface)
Sol. Let p = fx , q = fy , r = fxx , s = fxy , t = fyy . As
⃗r(u, v) = (u, v, f (u, v)) ⇒ ⃗r1 = (1, 0, p), ⃗r2 = (0, 1, q).o0k9
∴ E = 1 + p2 , F = pq, G = 1 + q 2 , H 2 = 1 + p2 + q 2 .
r⃗11 = (0, 0, r), r⃗12 = (0, 0, s), r⃗22 = (0, 0, t).
∴ HL = r, HM = s, HN = t.
∴ Mean curvature

EN + GL − 2F M r 1 + q 2 − 2pqs + t 1 + p2
µ= =
2H 2 (1 + p2 + q 2 )
Gaussian curvature
rt − s2
K= .
(1 + p2 + q 2 )2
Example-16, Page-373
Find the equation for principal curvatures of a surface in

Monge form. Hence find the equation of umbilic points.
As κa + κb = 2µ, κa κb = K, hence equation for
principal curvatures is κ2 − 2µκ + K = 0, with
r (1 + q 2 ) − 2pqs + t (1 + p2 ) rt − s2
µ= ,K= .
2 (1 + p2 + q 2 ) (1 + p2 + q 2 )2
At umbilic points, principal curvatures are equal, so
µ2 = K which yields the equation
2
r 1 + q − 2pqs + t 1 + p2
2
= 4 rt − s2 .
(This is equivalent to conditions obtained by EL = MF = NG .)
Recall local max/min from calculus
Critical points satisfy fx = fy = 0.
Thus at critical points, surface normal to graph of
f (x, y) is (0, 0, 1).
∴ At critical points, K > 0 implies in all directions
surface turns towards N ⃗ , i.e. upwards, or away from N⃗,
i.e. downwards.
Thus the point is local min or local max., respectively.
Now K > 0 is equivalent to rt − s2 = fxx fyy − fxy 2
> 0.
nd
This justifies 2 derivative test for a critical point to be
local min/max. Similarly K < 0 is equivalent to
rt − s2 = fxx fyy − fxy 2 < 0.
This justifies the condition for critical point to be saddle
point.
Third Fundamental Form
Definition
The 3rd Fundamental Form of a regular surface is defined
as III = dN ⃗ · dN
⃗ , where N
⃗ is the unit surface normal of
the surface.
Definition
⃗ , where N
the surface.
Note : For the 1st and 2nd FF we have
⃗ . The relation between 1st
I = d⃗r · d⃗r, II = −d⃗r · dN
and 2nd F F is given by II = κn I.
Definition
⃗ , where N
the surface.
Note : For the 1st and 2nd FF we have
⃗ . The relation between 1st
I = d⃗r · d⃗r, II = −d⃗r · dN
and 2nd F F is given by II = κn I.
Theorem
The relation between the three fundamental forms is
given by KI − 2µII + III = 0, where µ, K are
respectively mean and Gaussian curvatures.
Proof : By choosing the lines of curvatures (which are
mutually orthogonal) as parametric curves, we can
assume F = M = 0.
∴ I = Edu2 + Gdv 2 · (1)
Let κa , κb be the principal curvatures of the surface.

Since F = M = 0, solving the equation of principal
curvatures, we get
L N
κa = , κb = .
E G
(du, dv) be the direction ratios of a tangent vector.
Then we get
II = κa Edu2 + κb Gdv 2 (2)
As parametric curves are lines of curvature and along

them, normal curvatures are κa , κb , by Rodrigues’
formula,
⃗ 1 = 0,
κa⃗r1 + N ⃗2 = 0
κb⃗r2 + N
2
⃗ · dN
∴ III = dN ⃗ = N
⃗ 1 du + N
⃗ 2 dv
= (−κa⃗r1 du − κb⃗r2 dv) · (−κa⃗r1 du − κb⃗r2 dv)
∴ III = κa 2 Edu2 + κb 2 Gdv 2 (3)

( As F = 0)
Eliminating Edu2 , Gdv 2 from (1), (2) and (3),
I 1 1
II κa κb = 0
III κ2a κ2b
Expanding, and cancelling κa − κb (assume no point is
umbilic), we get the result.
Lecture 43
April 23, 2024
Theorem (Beltrami-Enneper Theorem)
The
√ torsion of the asymptotic line of the surface is
± −K, where K is the Gaussian curvature.
Proof : For asymptotic line, II = 0.
∴ III = −KI.
⃗ = κn = 0. Also = N
For asymptotic line, ⃗r ′′ · N ⃗ · ⃗r ′ = 0.
h i
∴ ⃗b = N
⃗ ⃗ ′ ′′
As N , ⃗r , ⃗r > 0
⃗ dN
dN ⃗ III
∴ τ2 = · = = −K.
ds ds I
The Matrix of 3rd Fundamental Form
We write 3rd Fundamental Form as

du
III = du dv FIII
dv
where FIII is a symmetric 2 × 2 matrix, called the

matrix of 3rd Fundamental form.
Exercise
Show that FIII = FII FI−1 FII .
Exercise
Show that FIII = FII FI−1 FII .
Proof. Note that
⃗1

N du
⃗ · dN⃗ = du dv ⃗1 N
⃗2

III = dN ⃗ · N .
N2 dv
⃗1

N a c
Now recall ⃗ = ⃗r1 ⃗r2 ;
N 2 b d

a c
where = −FI−1 FII .
b d

−1
t ⃗r1 −1
du
∴ III = du dv −FI FII · ⃗r1 ⃗r2 −FI FII
⃗r2 dv

⃗r
Since, 1 · ⃗r1 ⃗r2 = FI , we see that

⃗r2

du
III = du dv FIII
dv
where FIII = FII FI−1 FII .
A Matrix Identity
The relation between 1st , 2nd , and 3rd Fundamental forms

can be written as a matrix identity
FIII − 2µFII + KFI = 0
Gauss Map
Another interpretation of Gaussian curvature can be

given through the concept of Gauss map.
Let ⃗r(u, v), (u, v) ∈ U be the parametrization of surface
S. Further let N ⃗ (u, v) be the unit surface normal at the
point ⃗r(u, v). Since |N ⃗ (u, v)| = 1, N
⃗ (u, v) may be
thought as the position vector of a point on the unit
sphere S 2 in R3 .
Gauss map g is the map from S to S 2 which sends
⃗ (u, v).
⃗r(u, v) to N
For a point (u0 , v0 ) ∈ U and δ > 0, let Uδ be the open
disc centered at (u0 , v0 ) of radius δ such that its closure
Uδ ⊂ U .
Then ⃗r (Uδ ) is a neighbourhood of ⃗r (u0 , v0 ) on S and its
image on S 2 under the Gauss map g is N ⃗ (Uδ ).
Theorem
If the Gaussian curvature of S at ⃗r (u0 , v0 ) is
K (u0 , v0 ) ̸= 0, then

⃗
Area N (Uδ )
|K (u0 , v0 )| = lim .
δ→0 Area (⃗
r (Uδ ))
Lecture 44
April 25, 2024
Proof : First ⃗ ⃗
note that N1 = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 , N2 = c⃗r1 + d⃗r2 ,
a c
where = −FI−1 FII
b d
But N⃗1 × N
⃗ 2 = (a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 ) × (c⃗r1 + d⃗r2 )
= (ad − bc) (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) .
⃗1 × N
⃗ 2 = −det F −1 FII |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |

∴ N I
= det FI−1 |det (FII )| |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |

LN − M 2
= |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |
EG − F 2
= |K(u, v)| |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |
⃗ are 1 − 1
As K (u0 , v0 ) ̸= 0, for small δ > 0, both ⃗r, N
on Uδ , and hence
ZZ
Area(⃗r(Uδ )) = N⃗1 × N
⃗ 2 dudv
Uδ
Similarly,
ZZ
Area(⃗r(Uδ )) = |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | dudv
Uδ
ZZ
= |K(u, v)| |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | dudv
Uδ
Since |K(u, v)| is continuous, it has minimum kδ and
maximum Kδ on U δ and
lim kδ = lim Kδ = |K (u0 , v0 )| .

δ→0 δ→0
Now on Uδ , kδ ≤ |K(u, v)| ≤ Kδ .

Hence kδ |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | ≤ |K(u, v)| |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | ≤ Kδ |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |.
Integrating,
ZZ
kδ Area(⃗r(Uδ )) ≤ |K(u, v)| |⃗r1 × ⃗r2 | dudv ≤ Kδ Area(⃗r(Uδ ))
Uδ
Area(N⃗ (Uδ ))
kδ ≤ ≤ Kδ
Area(⃗r(Uδ ))
Taking the limit as δ → 0, we get the result.
Note : If we allow the concept of signed area in stead of
area, then we have
ZZ
Area(N⃗ (U )) = K(u, v)|⃗r1 × ⃗r2 |dudv
U
In this sense, the result holds without assuming
K(u0 , v0 ) ̸= 0 And we can remove the absolute value on
LHS to get
Area(N ⃗ (Uδ ))
K(u0 , v0 ) = lim
δ→0 Area(⃗ r(Uδ )) April 28, 2024
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F342 (Differential Geometry) 23 / 39
Example
Let S be the anchor ring and S + and S − be the parts of
S where the Gaussian curvature K > 0 and K < 0,
respectively. Show, without any calculation, that
ZZ ZZ
KdA = − KdA = 4π.
S+ S−
Example
Let S be the anchor ring and S + and S − be the parts of
S where the Gaussian curvature K > 0 and K < 0,
respectively. Show, without any calculation, that
ZZ ZZ
KdA = − KdA = 4π.
S+ S−
Sol. Note that S + denotes the outer part of the anchor

ring while S − denotes the inner part.
On S + , |K| = K and N ⃗ covers all directions exactly
once, i.e. N ⃗ (U ) = S 2 .
Z Z MATH F342 (Differential Geometry)
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) April 28, 2024 24 / 39
On S + , |K| = −K and N ⃗ covers all directions exactly
⃗ (U ) = S 2 .
once,RRi.e. N
∴ − S − KdA = 4π
Consequently,
ZZ
|K|dA = 8π
S
ZZ
KdA = 0.
S
Example
Show that the parametric curves are conjugate at regular
points for the surface
⃗r(u, v) = (φ(u), ψ(v), f (u) + g(v))

Solution : ⃗r1 = (φ′ (u), 0, f ′ (u)) , ⃗r2 = (0, ψ ′ (v), g ′ (v)).
∴ ⃗r12 = (0, 0, 0).

Thus HM = [⃗r12 , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ] = 0. But H ̸= 0 at a regular
point. ∴ M = 0. Thus parametric curves are conjugate.
Example
h
i
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ LN −M 2
Show that N , N1 , N2 = H .
Solution : Recall that

⃗1 × N
N ⃗ 2 = (ad − bc) (⃗r1 × ⃗r2 ) where

a c
= −FI−1 FII
b d
h i h i LN − M 2
∴ N⃗,N
⃗ 1, N
⃗ 2 = det −F FII N
−1 ⃗ , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 = .
I
H
Example
Show that
h i
⃗ ⃗
H N , N1 , ⃗r1 = EM − F L (4)
h i
⃗ ⃗
H N , N1 , ⃗r2 = F M − GL (5)
h i
⃗ ⃗
H N , N2 , ⃗r1 = EN − F M (6)
h i
⃗ ⃗
H N , N2 , ⃗r1 = F N − GM (7)
We prove (4). The proof of others is implicit in the proof

of (4).
Solution : If we can resolve vectors in terms of
N⃗ , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 , then by substituting, we can evaluate their
scalar triple products.
N⃗ 1 = a⃗r1 + b⃗r2 .
h i h i h i
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
∴ N , N1 , ⃗r1 = a N , ⃗r1 , ⃗r1 + b N , ⃗r2 , ⃗r1 = −bH.
⃗.
As ⃗r2 × ⃗r1 = −H N
To find b,

a c
= −FI−1 FII
b d
But
G −F
−F E
FI−1 =
H2
∴ H 2 b = F L − EM.
Lecture 45
April 27, 2024
Example
Show that

LN − M ⃗ ⃗2 ⃗ ⃗
N1 × N = H f N1 − eN2

2 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

LN − M N2 × N = H g N1 − f N2
where
H 2 e = EM 2 − 2F LM + GL2
H 2 f = EM N − F LN + M 2 + GLM

H 2 g = EN 2 − 2F M N + GM 2
⃗ , ⃗r1 , ⃗r2 , and later in
First we express LHS in terms of N
terms of N⃗ 1, N
⃗ 2.
HN ⃗ = ⃗r1 × ⃗r2 .
⃗ + HN
∴ H1 N ⃗ 1 = ⃗r11 × ⃗r2 + ⃗r1 × ⃗r21 .

∴H N⃗1 × N
⃗ = H1 N ⃗ + HN ⃗1 × N
⃗ = (⃗r11 × ⃗r2 + ⃗r1 × ⃗r21 ) × N
⃗

⃗ ⃗r2 − ⃗r2 · N
= ⃗r11 · N ⃗ ⃗r11 + ⃗r1 · N⃗ ⃗r21 − ⃗r21 · N ⃗ ⃗r1
= L⃗r2 − M⃗r1
2
⃗ = LN − M (L⃗r2 − M⃗r1 )

∴ LN − M 2 ⃗1 × N
N
H
Now,
a c
⃗1 N
⃗ 2 = ⃗r1 ⃗r2

N
b d
Multiplying
on right of both sides by the adjoint of
a c
.
b d

d −c a c
⃗1 N
⃗2

N = ⃗r1 ⃗r2 det
−b a b d
LN − M 2
= ⃗
r 1 ⃗
r 2
H2
2 h
⃗ = H LN − M L −cN

∴ LN − M 2 ⃗1 × N
N ⃗ 1 + aN
⃗2
H2 i
⃗
−M dN1 − bN2⃗
h i
= H −(Lc + M d)N⃗ 1 + (La + M b)N⃗2
Now,

G −F L M
−F E M N

a c
= −FI−1 FII = −
b d H 2

F M − GL F N − GM
F L − EM F M − EN
=
H2
− (LF N − LGM + F M 2 − EN M )
∴ −(Lc + M d) = = f,
H2
H (LF M − GL2 + M F L − EM 2 )
(La + M b) = = −e.
H2
Exercise : Show that the curvature κ at any point
P of the curve of intersection of two surfaces is given by
κ2 sin2 θ = κ∗2 ∗∗2 ∗ ∗∗

n + κn − 2κn κn cos θ,
Where κ∗n , κ∗∗

n are the normal curvatures of these two
surfaces in the direction of the curve at P and θ is the
angle between their normal at P .
Solution : Let N ⃗ ∗, N
⃗ ∗∗ be the unit surface normals to
these surfaces. Then κ∗n = N ⃗ ∗ · κ⃗n, κ∗∗ ⃗ ∗∗ · κ⃗n.
n =N

⃗ ∗∗ − κ∗∗
∴ κ∗n N n
⃗
N ∗
= κ ⃗
N ∗
· ⃗
n ⃗
N ∗∗
− κ ⃗
N ∗∗
· ⃗
n ⃗∗
N

=κ N ⃗∗ ×N ⃗ ∗∗ × ⃗n.
2
⃗ ∗∗ − κ∗∗ N
∴ κ∗n N ⃗ ∗ = κ2 N
⃗ ∗∗ − κ∗∗ N
⃗ ∗ · κ∗ N ⃗∗ ×N
⃗ ∗∗ × ⃗n .
n n n
Now unit tangent of the curve ⃗t ⊥ N ⃗ ∗, N

⃗ ∗∗ for i = 1, 2. Hence

⃗∗ ×N
N ⃗ ∗∗ is parallel to ⃗t, hence ⊥ ⃗n.

∴ ⃗∗ ×N
N ⃗ ∗∗ × ⃗n = N
⃗∗ ×N
⃗ ∗∗ = sin θ.
∴κ∗2 ∗∗2 ∗ ∗∗ 2 2
n + κn − 2κn κn cos θ = κ sin θ.
Example 17 Page-374
Find all the umbilic points of the ellipsoid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + 2 = 1, a > b > c > 0.
a2 b c
Solve it z = z(x, y), and use parametrization with
parameters x, y. The equation for principal curvatures
has repeated roots. So get equation for umbilics in x, y.
Consider its solutions in the domain of z. Do this for
each of 6 half-ellipdoids.

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MATH F342 (Differential Geometry)

Prof. Sangita Yadav

Plane and space curves,

Conchoid is a curve derived from a fixed point O,

Conchoid is a curve derived from a fixed point O,

Conchoid is a curve derived from a fixed point O,

Conchoid is a curve derived from a fixed point O,

Conchoid is a curve derived from a fixed point O,

Suppose two perpendicular lines are given, with

Special cases include

(x0 f ′2 + f g ′2 + (y0 − g)f ′ g ′ )

Curve Pedal point Pedal curve

For curves above, tangent at origin does not exist.

x = a(θ − sin θ), y = a(1 − cos θ)

where b is the radius of the rolling

where b is the radius of the rolling

where d is the distance of the point from the center of

Cartesian form: y = 8a3 /(x2 + 4a2 )

Figure 1: The witch of Agnesi with parameters a = 1, a = 2, a = 4,

Famous Curves index

More generally, intersection of two surfaces in

Coordinates x, y, z of the point on the curve are

Thus (x(t), y(t), z(t)); t ∈ I for an interval I gives a

x,y,z are required to be at least continuous, we

Straight line: (a1 t + b1 , a2 t + b2 , a3 t + b3 ) : t ∈ R

To expand on this example, let us consider how this

While finding explicitly the solution of the system may

While finding explicitly the solution of the system may

It may not always be possible to even assure existence of

For curves in 2-dimensions

For curves in 3-dimensions

Allowing the interchange of the role of variables, we see

Near a point on the curve, curve is approximated by a

Near a point on the curve, curve is approximated by a

fx (P )(x − x0 ) + fy (P )(y − y0 ) + fz (P )(z − z0 ) = 0.

Near a point on the curve, curve is approximated by a

fx (P )(x − x0 ) + fy (P )(y − y0 ) + fz (P )(z − z0 ) = 0.

For the intersection of level surfaces, tangent line will be

where (a, b, c) = (fx (P ), fy (P ), fz (P )) and

x = f (θ) cos θ, y = f (θ) sin θ

Dr. Sangita Yadav

Coordinates x, y, z of the point on the curve are

Thus (x(t), y(t), z(t)); t ∈ I for an interval I gives a

x,y,z are required to be at least continuous, we

Straight line: (a1 t + b1 , a2 t + b2 , a3 t + b3 ) : t ∈ R

To expand on this example, let us consider how this

While finding explicitly the solution of the system may

While finding explicitly the solution of the system may

It may not always be possible to even assure existence of

For curves in 2-dimensions

For curves in 3-dimensions

Allowing the interchange of the role of variables, we see

Near a point on the curve, curve is approximated by a

Near a point on the curve, curve is approximated by a

fx (P )(x − x0 ) + fy (P )(y − y0 ) + fz (P )(z − z0 ) = 0.

Near a point on the curve, curve is approximated by a

fx (P )(x − x0 ) + fy (P )(y − y0 ) + fz (P )(z − z0 ) = 0.

For the intersection of level surfaces, tangent line will be

where (a, b, c) = (fx (P ), fy (P ), fz (P )) and

x = f (θ) cos θ, y = f (θ) sin θ

A vector valued function ⃗r(t) of a real variable t in an

If for the C m map f , f ′ does not vanish at x0 ∈ I,

If for the C m map f , f ′ does not vanish at x0 ∈ I,

Homework Proofs left as an exercise.