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Algebra
for Parents
A Book for Grown-Ups About
Middle School Mathematics
Other World Scientific Titles by the Author

Arithmetic for Parents: A Book for Grown-Ups About Children’s

Mathematics Revised Edition
ISBN: 978-981-4602-89-1
ISBN: 978-981-4602-90-7 (pbk)

Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty

ISBN: 978-981-4602-93-8
ISBN: 978-981-4602-94-5 (pbk)

Circularity: A Common Secret to Paradoxes, Scientific Revolutions

and Humor
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ISBN: 978-981-4723-68-8 (pbk)
 Algebra
for Parents
A Book for Grown-Ups About
Middle School Mathematics

Ron Aharoni
Technion, Israel institute of Technology, Israel
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Aharoni, Ron, author.
Title: Algebra for parents : a book for grown-ups about middle school mathematics
/ Ron Aharoni, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Israel.
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2021]
Identifiers: LCCN 2020041069 | ISBN 9789811209222 (hardcover) | ISBN
9789811210747 (paperback) | ISBN 9789811209239 (ebook for institutions) |
ISBN 9789811209246 (ebook for individuals)
Subjects: LCSH: Algebra--Study and teaching. | Algebra--Study and teaching
(Middle school)
Classification: LCC QA152.3 .A24 2021 | DDC 512.9071/2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020041069

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Copyright © 2021 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or
any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented,
without written permission from the publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the
Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher.

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Desk Editor: Liu Yumeng

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Printed in Singapore
Contents

Introduction

Part 1
Variables and Unknowns
Unknowns

Part 2
Forward, or Backward to Elementary Mathematics?
The Meaning of the Arithmetic Operations
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Discrete and Continuous Quantities
Fractions
Two Rules on Fractions
Expansion and Reduction of Fractions
Division of Fractions

Part 3
Negative Numbers
Meanings of Directed Numbers
Operations with Directed Numbers
 The Order Among Directed Numbers
The Directed Numbers on the Real Line
Absolute Value
Multiplication and Division of Directed Numbers
Directed Fractions

Part 4
The Grammar of Algebra
Opening Boxes — Distributivity
Birds of a Feather Flock Together
Opening Up Two Pairs of Brackets
Short Multiplication
The Square of a Sum
An Application to Geometry
A Bit Beyond: Newton’s Binomial Formula

Part 5
Powers and Logarithms
Powers
The Rules of Powers
Roots
Logarithms

Part 6
Equations: Going Back to Where You Started
Equations with Two Operations
Balancing Sides
Inequalities
Part 7
Similarity and Proportion
The Rule of Three
Problems of Capacity

Part 8
Functions
Rate of Change

Part 9
When Algebra Meets Geometry
Geometric Locations
Graphs
Ascending and Descending Functions
Admonition: A Function is Not its Graph
Functions Defined Separately in Different Domains
Deciphering Graphs
Lines, Once Again

Part 10
Arithmetic Sequences and Their Sums
Free Fall

Part 11
Polynomials
Dividing Polynomials
Part 12
Equations with Two Unknowns
Equalizing Coefficients
A Second Method: Expressing One Variable in Terms of the
Other
The Number of Solutions of a System of Linear Equations
A Bit Beyond — Determinants

Part 13
Quadratic Equations and Quadratic Expressions
The Vieta Formulas
Solving Systematically
Quadratic Functions

Part 14
Inequalities
Solving Inequalities
Inequalities Involving Absolute Value

Part 15
Geometric Sequences
The Sum of a Geometric Sequence
Introduction

Mathematics is for the lazy. It means letting the principles do the work for
you.
George Polya, a Hungarian-American mathematician and educator.

For the lazy? You must be kidding, Professor Polya. Everybody knows
that mathematics is the hardest academic subject! Go entice others
with promises of easy life.
But Polya means precisely what he says. In fact, this is true for
all abstract thinking. A short-term effort results in a long term
economy. We invent an abstraction, say “cat”, and using it we know
what to expect from every cat we meet, instead of learning anew
how to behave with such a creature every time we meet one. A one-
time investment bears long range fruit.
So, why does Polya speak of mathematics, among all
abstractions? Of course — because he is a mathematician. But not
only. Mathematics is the ultimate abstraction. It abstracts the most
basic thought processes. First and foremost — numbers. The
number “3” is an abstraction from three fingers, three apples and
three cats. We realize that when it comes to arithmetic operations, it
doesn’t matter what we are counting. If 2 apples and 3 apples are 5
apples, the same will be true for pencils and books. We summarize it
concisely: 2 + 3 = 5. It is true for any type of objects, and at any
time. Economy at its best.
Learning the abstraction “3” is like learning to recognize a certain
person — a useful feat in itself. A baby learns to recognize that the
figure that appears on and off is actually the same person. The next
step of abstraction is making generalizations on all human beings. All
people have heads and legs. In mathematics, this corresponds to
stating generalizations about all numbers. This is algebra. Algebra
says things like “adding 1 to any number enlarges it”. This is a much
more demanding abstraction. No wonder that we wait with it for
adolescence — the age in which the power of abstraction makes a
leap forward. The famous x’s are the tool for that. See, for example,
how compactly a formula says the same thing:

Note how short is the formula in comparison with the verbal

formulation.
This book is a step by step guide to the teaching of algebra.
Alongside the mathematical material, it tells of some teaching
principles. Real understanding must be active, and hence I included
some exercises. I chose to put only basic ones — more intricate
exercises can be found in textbooks.
Like all abstractions, algebra is beautiful. For those who are
looking for the beauty side in mathematics, I inserted chapters
called “a bit beyond” at places. These are topics that are not usually
studied at school, and are there mainly for their beauty.

Two teaching principles

Two teaching principles are so prominent, that I want to mention
them already now. One is inventing problems on your own: invent
an equation having 2 as a solution; find a quadratic equation
whose solutions are 0 and 1; invent a problem for which the
solution is “the travel time was 2 hours”. Inventing problems gives
better mastery of the subject than solving them. The other
principle relates to thought in general, not only in teaching: look
for simple examples. What is the simplest quadratic equation?
What is the simplest travel problem you can formulate? A simple
example strips the topic of its less relevant details, and leaves its
essence.
Part 1
Variables and Unknowns

One merit of poetry few people will deny: it says more and in fewer words
than prose.
Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique portatif
(“A Philosophical Dictionary”) (1764), Poets.

“Poetry” in German is “Dichtung”, which means “compression” —

indeed, one of its best known properties. In this, mathematics is a
worthy competitor. Remember? “Mathematics is for the lazy”. And a
main agent in its economy is the formulas, that say things concisely
and precisely. In other words, algebra.
To introduce this idea to students, I sometimes tease them. In
the 11-th or 12-th grade I ask them “What is algebra?”. They have
been studying algebra for at least four years by then, and still they
stammer. The best I can draw from them is “it is x’s”.
I write a few pairs of equalities:

Can you find regularity here? — I ask them. To check their

understanding, I ask them to add one more example of their own.

A basic teaching principle: examples. Abstractions are understood

only through examples. And best are examples invented by the
students themselves.

What is the simplest example? There are two contestants for this
title:
One should first look for the simplest example possible. There is no
such thing as “too simple”.

Here is an attempt of a verbal formulation: the first member of

each pair is the product of a number by itself. The second is the
product of the number plus 1 by the number minus 1. And the result
is 1 less than in the first pair.
Did you follow? Even I can hardly follow, though I just wrote it.
Here is a shorter version: “a number times itself is the number plus
1, times the number minus 1, plus 1”. Better, but still cumbersome.
Why is it that thought stumbles so badly in its way to the light of
explicit formulation?
The reason is that we need a name for the number. Without
names, it is like referring as “that person” to the hero of a story. And
best is a short name, like a letter. Say, a. The law is then:

Now one can understand.

Identities
What does “a” signify in the last formula? Of course, any number.
The rule is valid, as we deduced by experimentation, for all
numbers.
A letter-name denoting a general number is called a “variable”. It
“varies” over all possible numbers. This is a first use of algebra:
formulating an equality that is true for any number. Such an equality
is called an “identity”. Algebra uses letters to formulate identities. Of
course, it does not matter what letter is used. We could just have
written b × b = (b − 1) × (b + 1) + 1 as well.
Use the identity a × a = (a − 1) × (a + 1) + 1 to
calculate 19 × 21 and 99 × 101.
More Identities
Here are a few more identities, simpler and better known:

Complete the following identities: a + 0 = ; a + b − b =

; = ; a × 1= .

A tip for guessing the identity: substitute numbers for the

variables. For example, putting x = 4 in gives , which is 4 (an
explanation why is given in one of the next chapters). It is easy to
guess from this that . By the way, here x is not totally general
— it cannot be 0, since division by 0 is not permitted.
Another example: look at the following equalities:

If you do not remember how to subtract fractions, just take my word

that I calculated right. Look at the equality . In the
denominator of the right hand side there is the product of the two
left hand side denominators. Calling the first denominator (in this
case 5) m, the second denominator is m + 1, the rule is then:

Check that the equality fits this formula. What

is m here? Generalize by a formula the rule exemplified
by the following:
Solution: (x − 2) × (x + 2) = x2 − 4. Similar to the law in the
beginning of this chapter.
Put a number for the question mark, so as to make the
following equality an identity: (x − 3) × (x + 3) = x2−?
Generalize the following equalities, and formulate a
corresponding identity:

Solution: n2 + (n + 1)2 + (n × (n + 1))2 = (n × (n + 1) + 1)2.

Unknowns
When the police are searching for the identity of a criminal, they
give him a nickname, like “the motorbike robber”. This is also done
in algebra. Sometimes we are looking for a number that is not
known, but we have some information on it. We give it a name,
which as usual is a letter, and this enables referring to it
conveniently. In this role, the letter is called an “unknown”.
Albert Einstein related how he was infected with love for
mathematics as a child after reading a famous riddle, inscribed on
the grave of the great ancient Greek mathematician Diophantus.
Adhering to the basic teaching rule of starting from the simple, I will
replace this riddle by a simpler problem of its type, leaving the
Diophantus problem for later.
David’s age is 3 times that of his brother John, and in 5
years his age will be 2 times that of John. How old are
David and John?
 Let us call John’s age x (we could also give a letter-name, say
y,to the age of David, but this would result in dealing with fractions,
since then John’s age is y). Then David’s age is 3x. In 5 years time
David’s age will be 3x + 5 and John’s age will be x + 5. The fact that
David is going to be twice as old as John can be written as:

and opening brackets yields:

This is an equation, the creature most commonly identified with

algebra. An equation provides information by which we are supposed
to find the identity of the “criminal”, the unknown number.
Leaving systematic treatment of equations to later chapters, let
us solve this particular equation by a simple observation. On the left
hand side there is one more x than on the right. This is
counterbalanced by the fact that the 10 on the right is larger by 5
than the 5 added on the left. So, x = 5. John is 5 years old, and
David is 15, three times the age of John. In 5 years John will be 10,
and David will be 20 years old, precisely 2 times John’s age.
A diagram illustrates this nicely. In the following diagram, the top
row is of length 3x + 5, and the bottom is 2x + 10. The equality
between them shows that x = 5.

The first book on algebra was published by the Baghdad-ian

mathematician Al-Houarismi, of the 12-th century. He named his
book after the method for solving equations that we have just used,
that of balancing the two sides. The word for balancing is “Al gabar”,
and this is the way algebra got its name.
Why is the Letter x Popular for Denoting
Variables and Unknowns?
The letter x is by far the most popular letter in algebra. One theory
explaining this is that the medieval Arabs did not use letters, but
called the variable or unknown “thing”, in Arabic “shei”. The
Spaniards replaced this by “chei”, which is spelled in Spanish “xei”.
From the first letter of this word they borrowed the notation.

Substitution — connecting to the ground

A tip to be used throughout the study of algebra: the best way to
understand an algebraic expression is to substitute numbers for the
letters. For example to help a student solve an equation like (a −
1) × (a + 3) = 0, prompt him or her to put numbers for a. A few
attempts will lead him or her to the conclusion that one of the
factors should be zero, which happens for a = 1 and for a = −3.

The Diophantus Riddle

The riddle on Diophantus’ grave asks for the length of his life. Here
it is:
The youth of Diophantus lasted of his life. After
another of his life he grew a beard. After another
of his life he married. After 5 more years his son was
born. His son died at half the age Diophantus died.
Diophantus died 4 years after his son. How long did
Diophantus live?

Diophantus
Diophantus, who lived in the third century AC in Alexandria, was
the father of number theory and some claim also of algebra. He
invented the use of formulas, and was the first using them to solve
equations. His book “Aritmetica” was a main source of inspiration
for the renaissance mathematicians. It was in the margins of a
copy of this book that Pierre de Fermat wrote his famous
conjecture, solved only in 1995, that for n > 2 there are no non-
zero solution to the equation xn + yn = zn. He added a comment
that tormented mathematicians for over 300 years: “I have a
marvelous proof, but there is not enough space in the margins to
write it.”

Solution: Denote Diophantus’ life span (measured in years) by x. His

youth lasted x years, he grew a beard at , married at
, and gave birth to his son at the age of .
The son died after x years, when Diophantus was
. Diophantus died after 4 years, namely when he
was , and by the choice of x he was then x
years old. We get:

and gathering terms we obtain:

or , namely . Let us solve this by a

guess (an easy one) — x = 84. Diophantus lived 84 years.
Part 2
Forward, or Backward to Elementary
Mathematics?

How do I think about my problems? Concretely and systematically.

Karl Friedrich Gauss

Middle school teachers, all over the world, face the same dilemma:
to repeat, or not to repeat? Should they devote the first month or
two in the first year of middle school to rehearsing the primary
school material, or start a new subject? My own unequivocal answer
is — repeat. There is no choice. To understand what is 2x, you first
need to know the meaning of multiplication. For a student who does
not understand the meaning of , the expression is an empty
shell.
To convince you of the necessity of going back to elementary
school, here is a small challenge — four questions on elementary
school mathematics, each hiding some insight that will be needed in
algebra. Do they look simple?

1. What is addition?
2. Why is the fraction line a sign of division? Why ?
3. Why is the same as , of 24?
4. Can you tell an arithmetic story clarifying why

Here are the answers:

1. Every arithmetic operation has a meaning, a link to reality, telling

us when is the operation applicable. The meaning of addition is
joining: 2 + 3 means joining 2 objects and 3 objects. The
outcome is 5 objects.
2. Ask first: how will you divide an apple and a banana among 3
children? Of course, you divide each separately — divide the
 apple to 3, and then the banana to 3.

The darkened part is a third of apple + banana.

In the expression 2:3, one divides two equal objects, say two
rectangles, to three portions. We have just learnt how to do it —
divide each separately, as in the picture.

As seen from the picture, the result is two thirds. So, 2 : 3 = ,

which is what we wanted to show.
3. Multiplication is “times”. You repeat the object. For example, 2
times an apple is 2 apples. This is also true for fractions.
Multiplying something by means taking of this thing.
4. 6 : 2 = 3 because when you divide 6 apples among 2 children
each gets 3 apples, but also for another reason: 2 goes 3 times
into 6. When you divide 6 apples among children and each gets 2
apples, there are 3 children. Similarly, 2 : means “how many
times goes into 2?” Since goes 4 times into 1, it goes 2 × 4 =
8 times into 2. A possible story: I divided 2 apples equally among
children, and each got a quarter of an apple. How many children
were there?
Repeating While Going Forward
Repeating elementary school material has its drawbacks. Its
meaning for the students is “We are now going to not understand
quickly what before we did not understand slowly”. Indeed, the
repetition is pointless if it is done in the same way as it was done
before. Some new element is needed.
In fact, the innovation should be double. First, more stress is
needed on the meaning of the operations, as opposed to their
calculation. The other new element is introducing algebra at the
same time. These two converge to the same solution: teaching the
meaning of the arithmetical operations, using variables. When an
expression contains variables, it cannot be calculated, and hence
one concentrates on meaning. For example, x + 2 cannot be
calculated without knowing what is the value of x, but one can
understand its meaning.

The Meaning of the Arithmetic Operations

An arithmetic operation has two sides: calculation and meaning.
Calculation answers the question “how much”, while meaning tells
you when is the operation needed. In algebra calculation is
secondary, and hence we shall concentrate on the meaning of the
operations.

Addition
The first meaning of addition is joining: in my right pocket there are
3 pencils, and in my left pocket there are 4 pencils. How many
pencils do I have together? The answer is 4 + 3. Note that we are
not interested in the result of this exercise, only its form.

In the expression 4 + 3 = 7 the numbers 3 and 4 are called

“summands”, and 7 is the “sum”.
Precise terminology is a must. Words are the cement of thought. In
order to stabilize some knowledge and make it available for future
use it must be formulated in words. Once formulated explicitly, the
next layer of knowledge can be built on it.

Every operation has more than one meaning. Addition has also the
meaning of “more than”:
Joseph’s grade is 95, and Mary got 5 points more. What is
Mary’s grade? Write only the expression.

Algebraic Generalization
When the outcome of the expression is immaterial, it does not
matter what numbers it includes. Instead of “Jane has 6 flowers and
Ruth has 5 flowers” we can say “Jane has a flowers and Ruth has b
flowers, how many do they have together?”. The answer, a + b, is
called “an algebraic expression”, and a and b are called “variables”.

Images
Every abstraction is accompanied in our mind by some image,
though often it is vague and unconscious. A variable appears in our
minds as some lump, representing a number. In the beginning of the
study of algebra it is worthwhile to use images. For example:
Ben has u dollars, and James has 5 dollars more. How many
dollars do they have together?

Think of the sum owned by Ben as a rectangle.

James’ u + 5 dollars can then be depicted as:

 Joining the two gives u + (u + 5), which is twice u plus 5, written
as 2u + 5.

Subtraction
In the most common meaning of subtraction, something disappears:
Dirk had 10 pencils, 3 broke, how many intact pencils is
he left with?
In a second meaning nothing disappears, but the objects are
divided into types:
Igor has 10 flowers, red and yellow, 3 of them are red,
how many are yellow?

Yet a third meaning is comparison:

Rebecca has 10 pencils, Dan has 3 pencils, how many more
does Rebecca have than Dan?

Types of subtraction stories

Something disappeared: 2 of the 5 balloons popped, how many are left?

Partitioning to types: out of the 5 fruits 3 are apples and the rest bananas. How
many bananas there are?

Comparison: by how many meters is the 324 meters Eiffel tower taller than a 187
meters tower?

In the subtraction exercise 10 − 3 = 7, the number 10 is called

“subtrahend”, 3 is called “subtractor” and 7 is the “difference”.

Multiplication
Multiplication means repeating the same thing a few times. For
example, 3 times an apple means 3 apples. Yes, it is possible to
multiply apples! It is not commonly known but counting and
multiplication are one and the same thing. But usually we reserve
the name “multiplication” for repeating numbers. 3 times 4 means
repeating 4 three times, namely 4 + 4 + 4. Note that this is not the
same as 4 times 3, which is 3 + 3 + 3 + 3. The result, 12, is the
same, but not the expressions.

Why 2 Times x is 2x?

The ancient Indians (the Asian ones) wrote “3 4” for “3 times 4”. We
no longer use this notation, for the risk of confusing it with the
number “thirty four”, but there is logic in it. “Two apples” we may
write this way:

For the same reason 2 times x, namely 2 × x, can be written as 2x.

The Notation for Multiplication

The notation “×” for multiplication was suggested by the Englishman
Willliam Ottred in 1631. At about the same time the use of the letter
x in algebra became common, and the danger of confusion between
the two arose. To overcome the problem, the German
mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibnitz suggested the use
of a dot instead: 2·3. Now the expression 2 · x can be written
without risk of ambiguity. But for the reason pointed out above, the
dot is not really necessary, and nowadays the most common
notation is 2x.

The Commutativity of Multiplication

2 × 30 means 2 times 30, which is 30 + 30, while 30 × 2 means 30
times 2, which is 2 + 2 + · · · + 2 thirty times. Why are they equal?
Suppose that there are 30 students in class. Each has 2 feet, and so
together they have 2 + 2 + · · · + 2 = 30 × 2 feet. Now let us count
the feet in a different way: there are 30 right feet, and 30 left feet,
together 30 + 30 = 2 × 30 feet. Of course, the two ways should
lead to the same result.

The law of commutativity, a × b = b × a, is not an axiom, namely

it did not “fall from heaven”. It is a theorem that can, and should,
be proved.
 In one pack of bottles there are 6 bottles. How many are
there in x packs?
Answer: x × 6.
Write a story for which the right expression is 6 × x.

When interested in the result, and not in the meaning, we shall

use the law of commutativity freely. We shall write 6x for x × 6, and
actually prefer the first to the second.
Daria has a bills of $20, and b bills of $50. What is the
expression for the total amount she has? What are a and b
if the total amount is $200? Is there more than one
possible answer?

(Answer: the expression is 20a + 50b, and there are 3

possibilities for this amount to be $200: a = 0, b = 4; a = 5, b = 2;
a = 10, b = 0.)

Division
In division, a set or an abstract number is divided into equal parts.
There are two questions that can be asked: what is the size of each
part, and how many parts there are. So, there are two principal
meanings to division.
I put 12 flowers in 3 vases, the same number in each. How
many flowers are there in each vase? What type of
division is this?

Of course — “how large is each part”, and the expression is 12 :

3.
A father divided 12 candy bars among his children, and
each got 3 bars. How many children were there?

Again, the answer is 12 : 3, but this time the division is of the

type “how many parts”. In the first story 12 : 3 = 4 because 4 + 4 +
4 = 12 (4 flowers in each of the 3 vases), namely 3 × 4 = 12; while
in the second 12 : 3 = 4 because 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12, namely 4 × 3
= 12. So, the existence of two different meanings to division stems
from the commutativity of multiplication.
A ship brought a cargo of x cars, 10 in each container.
How many containers were there? What type of division is
this?

(Solution: x : 10, the type is “how many parts”.)

In a chocolate bar there are 20 squares, and each row
contains r squares. How many rows there are? What type of
division is this?

Discrete and Continuous Quantities

I want to make here an important distinction, that appears often but
is rarely mentioned explicitly, between discrete and continuous
quantities. Discrete objects are those that we can count, like apples.
But how do we “count” length, or air pressure, or temperature, or
the amount of electricity you use in a month? These are continuous
magnitudes, and they cannot be counted. To measure them,
arbitrary units of measurement are invented. For example, “foot”
(which was probably indeed the length of an average person’s foot)
to measure length, or one percent of the distance in temperature
between boiling and freezing water, to measure heat.
A major step forward was the standardization of measurements.
In 1791, amidst their revolution, the French decided to standardize
the measurement of length, and invented a unit of length called
“meter”, which they defined to be 1:10,000,000 of the distance
between the equator and the north pole. Needless to say, the
measurements of those times were not precise in our standards, and
the French were about 0.5% off in measuring this distance.
Nowadays a “meter” is defined in a totally different way: it is the
distance light traverses in of a second.
By the way, can you guess how is a “second” defined?
Fractions

A Fraction Means Two Compounded

Operations
I will dwell more on fractions than on any other subject of
elementary mathematics, since fractions are the stumbling block for
most middle school students, and most of the revision time should
be devoted to them.
What is of 240 apples? One eighth of 240 is 240 divided by 8,
namely 30, and is just what you hear when you say the word — 5
eighths, namely 5 times 30, which gives 150.
A fraction is the conjunction of two operations, division and
multiplication. of an object, where the object can also be a number
or a set, is obtained by dividing it by 8, and multiplying the result by
5.

The conjunction of addition and subtraction is not a new operation:

subtracting 8 and adding 3 is just like subtracting 5. The
conjunction of division and multiplication is something new. It
demands the invention of a new concept — the fraction.

An Activity for Understanding Fractions

In every class in which I teach fractions I do one activity that in my
view is a must. I draw on the board some number, say 10, of objects
— say circles. I ask the students to draw in their books a similar
picture, and circle one fifth, namely 10:5 (for the sake of the
example) of the objects. I circle two objects on the board, and write
“one fifth of 10 is 2”, and also “ of 10 is 2”. I then ask them to circle
another fifth, and we write “ of 10 are 4”. We then circle another
fifth, and another, and write the corresponding words. When we get
to 5 fifths of 10, which is of course 10, I ask them why this is so,
and what are of a million — they are proud of doing calculations in
the millions. Then I ask them what are of 10. This cannot be
drawn any more because there are only 10 circles on the board, but
we can calculate: one fifth is 2, so 6 fifths is 6 times 2, namely 12.
We go on with this, up to (say) 20 fifths.
Draw 8 flowers, and circle a quarter of them. How much is
a quarter of 8? Circle another quarter. How many flowers
are two quarters of 8 flowers? Continue this way to 4
quarters. How much is 100 quarters of 8? What are the
operations you used to calculate the answer?

In the notation “ ” the 4 is called “denominator” because it gives

the name to the fraction, and 3 is the “numerator” because it
enumerates (counts) how many parts are taken.
What is one eighth of 24? What are a eighths of 24?

Answer: 3a.

The Whole
The object from which the fraction is taken is called the “whole”. It
can be an object, a set, a shape or a number. The whole serves the
same role as denomination in counting: in “ of an apple” the whole
is the apple, just as in “3 apples” the denomination is “apple”.

Teaching Division and Fractions Together

Unfortunately, in elementary school fractions and division are studied
separately. Division is studied in Grade 2, while fractions are studied
in Grades 3 or 4. This is a mistake: the two should be taught
together. In Grade 1, when division by 2 is studied, the result should
be given a name — half, and the notation should be introduced. In
Grade 2, when division by 4 is studied, the notion of quarter can be
mentioned, and also what are three quarters. Division and fractions
are almost the same, and teaching them together will make fractions
much more accessible for the children.
A main factor in the separation of the two subjects is that division
is studied only of numbers, while fractions are first taken of shapes,
mainly a circle. This is yet another mistake. Division should also be
of shapes — what is a square divided by 3, or a rectangle divided by
5. And fractions should be taken, right from the start, also from
numbers — what is a half of 12 circles? of 12 apples?

Another Way of Understanding What is

— How do you divide 3 apples among 4 children?
— You make apple mash.

This is time to learn why the fraction line can be viewed as division.
How do you really divide the apples? Repeating the same idea of
dividing an orange and a banana among three children from the
introduction, let us divide 3 cakes (rectangles) among 4 children.
Here is the picture — we divide each rectangle separately.

Each child got 3 quarters. We learn that 3 : 4 = , which explains

why the fraction line is sometimes called also “division line”. A
fraction is the result of dividing its numerator by its denominator.

Two Rules on Fractions

What Happens When the Numerator is

Multiplied by a Number?
There are two rules that put order in the world of fractions. One is:
 Multiplying the numerator of a fraction by (say) 4
multiplies the fraction by 4.
For example, if 5 pirates share 3 gold bars, each gets of a bar.
If the number of the bars turns out for some reason to be 4 times
bigger, namely 12 bars, the share of each grows 4 times. That is,
.
This tells us that to calculate 4 × we should multiply the
numerator by 4.
Calculate .
Solution: .
Calculate .
Solution: .
Generalize: what is ?

What Happens When the Denominator is

Multiplied by a Number?
The second rule is:
When the denominator is multiplied by 4, the fraction is
divided by 4.
This is also clear: if there are 4 times more pirates, the share of
each is 4 times smaller. For example, if instead of 3 pirates sharing
the 5 bars we have 20 pirates, the share is and it is 4 times
smaller, namely .
This is used for dividing a fraction by a number: is obtained
by multiplying the dominator by 4, to obtain .
Of course, 4 is just an example. The rule is:
Multiplying the numerator by a multiplies the fraction by
a. Multiplying the denominator by a divides the fraction by a.
What fraction in each pair is smaller, and by what
factor?
a. b. c. d. e. f.
 Calculate: .

(Solution for .

Multiplying Two Fractions

Using the two rules, we now know how to multiply two fractions.
Take for example the product . We know that . So,
multiplying by means multiplying by 3:4, which means multiplying
by 3 and dividing by 4. By the two rules we learnt, multiplying by 3
means multiplying it numerator by 3, and dividing the result by 4
means multiplying the denominator by 4. We get . In
general:
Multiplying two fractions is done by multiplying
numerators to get the numerator of the result, and
multiplying denominators to get the denominator of the
result.
Algebraically:

Calculate

Calculate:

Expansion and Reduction of Fractions

Doing an Operation and Then Reversing it

 Alice put her hand on her head, to see if she is growing or getting smaller.
To her surprise, she felt no change. Of course, this is what usually happens
when one eats a cake.
‘Alice in Wonderland’, Lewis Carrol

Eating from one side of the mushroom, Alice grew four times her
previous height. Eating from the other side, she became 4 times
smaller, thus getting back to her original size. Just like if you walk 4
kilometers south and then 4 kilometers north, you get back to where
you started.
By our two rules, if we multiply the numerator of a fraction by 4
it grows 4 times; if we then multiply the denominator by 4, it
diminishes 4 times, getting back to its original size. For example, if
we multiply the numerator and denominator of by 4, we get
. So, . What we just did is called expanding the fraction
by 4. Expanding a fraction by a number means multiplying its
numerator and denominator by this number. Expanding the fraction
does not change is value.
Expand the fraction by a.
Solution: .
Expand the following fractions by .
Solution of .

Reduction
The opposite of expansion is called reduction. It means dividing the
numerator and denominator by the same number. Reduction, like
expansion, does not change the value of the fraction. For example,
reducing by 2 yields:
Reduce the following fractions, and write by which number
you reduced them: .
 A fraction that cannot be reduced by any number larger than 1 is
called a “reduced fraction”.
Which of the following fractions is reduced? .

We can also reduce algebraic fractions. For example, can be

reduced by a, to yield .
Reduce the following fractions: .

Complete: .

Division of Fractions
Invert and Multiply
Dividing by a fraction is the opposite of multiplying by it. So, if
multiplying by is done by multiplying by 3 and dividing by 4,
dividing by is done in the reverse way — dividing by 3, and
multiplying by 4, which really means multiplying by . The general
rule is: dividing by is multiplying by . American teachers who
despaired of explaining to their students why this is so, composed a
rhyme (after a famous poem by Alfred Tennyson):

Here is a conversation I had with my then 10 years old daughter,

Geffen, in which I taught her the rule for division. I am bringing it
mainly as an exemplifier of a few teaching principles.

A Conversation on Division by
I: Look at the exercise 10 : . How do you think we should start?
G: We should ask a simpler question. (It was Geffen who taught
me this principle: when asked a question that was too
hard for her, she would ask for a simpler question.)
 I: Indeed. What is the simplest fraction you can think of?
G: .
I: Indeed, is a simple fraction. Can you invent a simple division
exercise?

(Start from the simplest possible example).

G: 1 : .
I: and how much this is?
G: Yes, this is 2, because 1 : 2 = . If 6 : 2 = 3 then 6 : 3 = 2. If 1 :
2 = then 1 : = 2.
I: Very nice. But here is another way. 6 : 2 = 3 because 2 goes 3
times into 6. Remember what kind of division is this?
G: Yes, this is “how many parts”.
I: How many times does go into 1?
G: 2.
I: so what is 1 :
G: 2.

(Teach the same principles from different angles. We learnt

two ways of calculating 1 : .)

I: Now can you tell me what is 3 : ? (Introduce one principle a

time.)
G: 6, because goes into 1 twice, so into 3 it goes 3 × 2 = 6 times.
I: Nice. And what is 4 : ? (Stabilize the principle by
exercising)
G: 8.
I: What is the rule?
G: Dividing by is multiplying by 2. (We reached the rule by
examples, now it is time for putting it into words.)
 How many halves of apples there are in 10 apples? What is
10 : ?
I: Let us now move to division by . What is 1 : ?
G: goes 3 times into 1, so 1 : = 3.
I: And 4 : ?
G: In 4 the fraction goes 4 times 3 times, so 4 : = 12.
I: Can you tell me the rule?
G: Yes, dividing by is multiplying by 3.
I: And dividing by ?
G: It is multiplying by 4.
In the language of algebra, the rule is: dividing by is multiplying by
n.

I: Now let us divide by . If we divided 10 cakes among children,

and each child got of a cake, how many children were there?
G: 10 : = 30, there were 30 children.
I: Now suppose that every child got of a cake, namely each child
got 2 times as before, how many children there are now, fewer
or more?

(I did not ask directly “how many times fewer”, just “fewer
or more”, letting her ask the questions “how many times” by
herself.)

G: 2 times fewer, because each child gets a portion that sufficed

before for 2 children. So, there were 15 children.
I: so, what is 10 : ?
G: 15.
I: How did we get to this answer?
G: We multiplied by 3, and then divided by 2.
I: Can you tell me the rule, what happens when you divide by a
fraction?
G: Yes, you divide by the numerator, and multiply by the
denominator.
Example: .

Calculate: .
Part 3
Negative Numbers

Ask me a simpler question

When my daughter was young and was still ready to listen to
mathematical questions, she taught me an important lesson. When
she couldn’t solve a problem, she would tell me — “ask me a
simpler question”. She did not mean a totally different question,
but a stair, an intermediate step, a simpler question of the same
type. Finding such stairs is one of the secrets of teaching.

Reality or Imagination?
Until about 200 years ago, even professional mathematicians were
suspicious of negative numbers. Carnot, a member of the French
academy, wrote in 1803 that “a negative number is obtained by
deducting from a non-existing entity, a plain absurdity”. Toward the
end of the 19-th century a French educationalist blamed the
problems of French education on the teaching of negative numbers.
August De Morgan, a well known English mathematician, claimed
that if a negative number appears as an answer to a question, it
only means that we did not ask the right question. For example,
consider the following problem.
John is 8 years old, and his brother Dick is 5. In how
many years will John be twice as old as Dick?

The answer is (−2) (the parentheses are there to clarify that this
is a minus sign, and not a dash). In (−2) years, John will be (that is,
was) 6, twice the age of Dick, who was 3. Many of today’s children
are familiar with the idea that “in (−2) years time” means “2 years
ago”. De Morgan claims that we did not formulate the problem
correctly. We should have asked “how long ago was John twice the
age of Dick?”
How to solve De Morgan’s problem? Ask a simpler question.
Deborah is 2 years old, and her sister Anabel has just been born.
When will Deborah be twice the age of Anabel? Of course, in 2
years time, when Deborah is 2 + 2 and Anabel is 2. In general,
when person A is k years older than B, when B is k years old A is
2k years old, twice the age of B. In our case, the difference in ages
between John and Dick is 3, so when Dick was 3 John was 6, twice
Dick’s age. And this happened 2 years ago, or in terms of negative
numbers, in (−2) years’ time.

Here is another age problem with a negative answer:

Ben is 15, and his father 39. When will the father be 3
times older than Ben?

Solution: When this happens, the difference between their ages

will be 2 times Ben’s age (see illustration). Since the difference is 24
years, this “will” happen when Ben is 12, namely 3 years ago,
namely in (−3) years time.

The use of negative numbers spread in Europe only in the 14-th

century. In India this happened 700 years earlier. For the
mathematician of today, negative numbers are no less real than
positive numbers. They denote real things. But the difficulty with
which negative numbers were accepted shows that their
understanding demands abstraction.
Positive and negative numbers are called together “directed
numbers”. The name comes from the representation on the real line:
positive numbers are directed right, negative numbers are directed
left.
Introducing Negative Numbers by Sequences
A good way of introducing negative numbers is through sequences.
Sequences whet the appetite for finding regularity. Look at the
sequence 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, and try to continue it. The next element is of
course 0. Even in first grade you will find children who know the
next number, (−1) (as already noted, the parentheses clarify that
this is not a dash). This is 1 below zero. Next comes 2 below zero,
which is (−2), and then (−3).
Now try to continue the sequence 7, 5, 3, 1. Since in every step
the elements decrease by 2, the next element is (−1), to be followed
by −3, −5, −7.
Continue the sequences: a. 20,1 5, 10, _, _, _, _, b. 13,
8, 3, _, _, _, _ c. 50, 40, 30 _, _, _, _, _ d. 500, 400,
300, _, _, _,

The numbers 1,2,3,4, . . . are called “positive”, the numbers − 1,

−2, −3, −4, . . . “negative”. Zero is neither positive nor negative.

So as not to discriminate the positive numbers, they are also

given a sign, “+”. Instead of 4 we may write “+4”.

Opposite Numbers
10 and (−10) are called “opposite”. Generally, the opposite of a
number is obtained by reversing the sign. The opposite of a number
x is denoted by (−x). For example, (−(−3)) is the opposite of (−3),
which is 3.
The opposite of the opposite of a number is the number itself.
The opposite of a number a is also called “minus a”.
Is there a number that is the opposite of itself?
What is the opposite of the opposite of the opposite of
(−5)?
The Three Different Meanings of the “−” Sign
The “−” sign has three different meanings. In the expression 4 − 3 it
denotes the binary (two numbers) operation of subtraction. In (−3)
it denotes direction, and in (−(−3)) the left sign denotes “opposite”,
namely it reverses the sign of (−3). In the last meaning, it is an
operation on one number, a “unary” operation. This is a bit
confusing, and indeed there are suggestions of changing the
notation, writing for (−3). But it is hard to change a 600 years old
notation, and humanity is probably stuck with this notation for a
while.

The minus sign works hard. It is used to denote three different

things:

a. subtraction.
b. negative numbers
c. the opposite of a number.

This is not totally illogical. The three meanings are closely related.

Minus Minus is Plus

In a thank you letter of 7-th graders at the end of the academic
year, a student wrote “we did not not enjoy your classes”. “Not not”
is “yes”, and likewise “minus minus” is plus. −(−a)= a.
Genny said: I did not not not bring a sandwich to school
today”. Did she bring a sandwich or not?

An odd number of no’s is “no”, and an even number of no’s is a

yes. Likewise, an odd number of minuses is a minus, and an even
number of minuses is a plus.
What is “yes yes”? What is +(+a)?
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The Project Gutenberg eBook of
Historical record of the Eighty-seventh

Regiment, or the Royal Irish Fusiliers

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Historical record of the Eighty-seventh Regiment, or the Royal

Irish Fusiliers
Containing an account of the formation of the regiment in
1793, and of its subsequent services to 1853

Author: Richard Cannon

Release date: April 17, 2024 [eBook #73415]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Parker, Furnivall & Parker, 1853

Credits: Brian Coe, John Campbell and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL

RECORD OF THE EIGHTY-SEVENTH REGIMENT, OR THE
ROYAL IRISH FUSILIERS ***
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been placed at
the end of each major section.
Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
BY COMMAND OF His late Majesty WILLIAM THE IVTH.
and under the Patronage of
Her Majesty the Queen.

HISTORICAL RECORDS,
OF THE

British Army
Comprising the
 History of every Regiment
IN HER MAJESTY’S SERVICE.
By Richard Cannon Esqre.
Adjutant General’s Office, Horse Guards.
London.
Printed by Authority.
 GENERAL ORDERS

HORSE GUARDS,
1st January, 1836.
His Majesty has been pleased to command that, with the view of
doing the fullest justice to Regiments, as well as to Individuals who
have distinguished themselves by their bravery in Action with the
Enemy, an Account of the Services of every Regiment in the British
Army shall be published under the superintendence and direction of
the Adjutant-General; and that this Account shall contain the
following particulars, viz.:—

—— The Period and Circumstances of the Original Formation of

the Regiment; The Stations at which it has been from time to time
employed; The Battles, Sieges, and other Military Operations in
which it has been engaged, particularly specifying any
Achievement it may have performed, and the Colours, Trophies,
&c., it may have captured from the Enemy.
—— The Names of the Officers, and the number of Non-
Commissioned Officers and Privates Killed or Wounded by the
Enemy, specifying the Place and Date of the Action.
—— The Names of those Officers who, in consideration of their
Gallant Services and Meritorious Conduct in Engagements with
the Enemy, have been distinguished with Titles, Medals, or other
Marks of His Majesty’s gracious favour.
—— The Names of all such Officers, Non-Commissioned Officers,
and Privates, as may have specially signalized themselves in
Action.
And,
—— The Badges and Devices which the Regiment may have
been permitted to bear, and the Causes on account of which such
Badges or Devices, or any other Marks of Distinction, have been
granted.

By Command of the Right Honorable

GENERAL LORD HILL,
Commanding-in-Chief.

John Macdonald,
Adjutant General.
 PREFACE.

The character and credit of the British Army must chiefly depend
upon the zeal and ardour by which all who enter into its service are
animated, and consequently it is of the highest importance that any
measure calculated to excite the spirit of emulation, by which alone
great and gallant actions are achieved, should be adopted.
Nothing can more fully tend to the accomplishment of this
desirable object than a full display of the noble deeds with which the
Military History of our country abounds. To hold forth these bright
examples to the imitation of the youthful soldier, and thus to incite
him to emulate the meritorious conduct of those who have preceded
him in their honorable career, are among the motives that have given
rise to the present publication.
The operations of the British Troops are, indeed, announced in the
“London Gazette,” from whence they are transferred into the public
prints: the achievements of our armies are thus made known at the
time of their occurrence, and receive the tribute of praise and
admiration to which they are entitled. On extraordinary occasions,
the Houses of Parliament have been in the habit of conferring on the
Commanders, and the Officers and Troops acting under their orders,
expressions of approbation and of thanks for their skill and bravery;
and these testimonials, confirmed by the high honour of their
Sovereign’s approbation, constitute the reward which the soldier
most highly prizes.
It has not, however, until late years, been the practice (which
appears to have long prevailed in some of the Continental armies)
for British Regiments to keep regular records of their services and
achievements. Hence some difficulty has been experienced in
obtaining, particularly from the old Regiments, an authentic account
of their origin and subsequent services.
This defect will now be remedied, in consequence of His Majesty
having been pleased to command that every Regiment shall, in
future, keep a full and ample record of its services at home and
abroad.
From the materials thus collected, the country will henceforth
derive information as to the difficulties and privations which chequer
the career of those who embrace the military profession. In Great
Britain, where so large a number of persons are devoted to the
active concerns of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and
where these pursuits have, for so long a period, been undisturbed by
the presence of war, which few other countries have escaped,
comparatively little is known of the vicissitudes of active service and
of the casualties of climate, to which, even during peace, the British
Troops are exposed in every part of the globe, with little or no
interval of repose.
In their tranquil enjoyment of the blessings which the country
derives from the industry and the enterprise of the agriculturist and
the trader, its happy inhabitants may be supposed not often to reflect
on the perilous duties of the soldier and the sailor,—on their
sufferings,—and on the sacrifice of valuable life, by which so many
national benefits are obtained and preserved.
The conduct of the British Troops, their valour, and endurance,
have shone conspicuously under great and trying difficulties; and
their character has been established in Continental warfare by the
irresistible spirit with which they have effected debarkations in spite
of the most formidable opposition, and by the gallantry and
steadiness with which they have maintained their advantages
against superior numbers.
In the Official Reports made by the respective Commanders,
ample justice has generally been done to the gallant exertions of the
Corps employed; but the details of their services and of acts of
individual bravery can only be fully given in the Annals of the various
Regiments.
 These Records are now preparing for publication, under His
Majesty’s special authority, by Mr. Richard Cannon, Principal Clerk
of the Adjutant-General’s Office; and while the perusal of them
cannot fail to be useful and interesting to military men of every rank,
it is considered that they will also afford entertainment and
information to the general reader, particularly to those who may have
served in the Army, or who have relatives in the Service.
There exists in the breasts of most of those who have served, or
are serving, in the Army, an Esprit de Corps—an attachment to
everything belonging to their Regiment; to such persons a narrative
of the services of their own Corps cannot fail to prove interesting.
Authentic accounts of the actions of the great, the valiant, the loyal,
have always been of paramount interest with a brave and civilized
people. Great Britain has produced a race of heroes who, in
moments of danger and terror, have stood “firm as the rocks of their
native shore:” and when half the world has been arrayed against
them, they have fought the battles of their Country with unshaken
fortitude. It is presumed that a record of achievements in war,—
victories so complete and surprising, gained by our countrymen, our
brothers, our fellow-citizens in arms,—a record which revives the
memory of the brave, and brings their gallant deeds before us,—will
certainly prove acceptable to the public.
Biographical Memoirs of the Colonels and other distinguished
Officers will be introduced in the Records of their respective
Regiments, and the Honorary Distinctions which have, from time to
time, been conferred upon each Regiment, as testifying the value
and importance of its services, will be faithfully set forth.
As a convenient mode of Publication, the Record of each
Regiment will be printed in a distinct number, so that when the whole
shall be completed the Parts may be bound up in numerical
succession.
 INTRODUCTION
TO

THE I N F A N T R Y.

The natives of Britain have, at all periods, been celebrated for innate
courage and unshaken firmness, and the national superiority of the
British troops over those of other countries has been evinced in the
midst of the most imminent perils. History contains so many proofs of
extraordinary acts of bravery, that no doubts can be raised upon the
facts which are recorded. It must therefore be admitted, that the
distinguishing feature of the British soldier is Intrepidity. This
quality was evinced by the inhabitants of England when their country
was invaded by Julius Cæsar with a Roman army, on which
occasion the undaunted Britons rushed into the sea to attack the
Roman soldiers as they descended from their ships; and, although
their discipline and arms were inferior to those of their adversaries,
yet their fierce and dauntless bearing intimidated the flower of the
Roman troops, including Cæsar’s favourite tenth legion. Their arms
consisted of spears, short swords, and other weapons of rude
construction. They had chariots, to the axles of which were fastened
sharp pieces of iron resembling scythe-blades, and infantry in long
chariots resembling waggons, who alighted and fought on foot, and
for change of ground, pursuit or retreat, sprang into the chariot and
drove off with the speed of cavalry. These inventions were, however,
unavailing against Cæsar’s legions: in the course of time a military
system, with discipline and subordination, was introduced, and
British courage, being thus regulated, was exerted to the greatest
advantage; a full development of the national character followed, and
it shone forth in all its native brilliancy.
The military force of the Anglo-Saxons consisted principally of
infantry: Thanes, and other men of property, however, fought on
horseback. The infantry were of two classes, heavy and light. The
former carried large shields armed with spikes, long broad swords
and spears; and the latter were armed with swords or spears only.
They had also men armed with clubs, others with battle-axes and
javelins.
The feudal troops established by William the Conqueror consisted
(as already stated in the Introduction to the Cavalry) almost entirely
of horse: but when the warlike barons and knights, with their trains of
tenants and vassals, took the field, a proportion of men appeared on
foot, and, although these were of inferior degree, they proved stout-
hearted Britons of stanch fidelity. When stipendiary troops were
employed, infantry always constituted a considerable portion of the
military force; and this arme has since acquired, in every quarter of
the globe, a celebrity never exceeded by the armies of any nation at
any period.
The weapons carried by the infantry, during the several reigns
succeeding the Conquest, were bows and arrows, half-pikes, lances,
halberds, various kinds of battle-axes, swords, and daggers. Armour
was worn on the head and body, and in course of time the practice
became general for military men to be so completely cased in steel,
that it was almost impossible to slay them.
The introduction of the use of gunpowder in the destructive
purposes of war, in the early part of the fourteenth century, produced
a change in the arms and equipment of the infantry-soldier. Bows
and arrows gave place to various kinds of fire-arms, but British
archers continued formidable adversaries; and, owing to the
inconvenient construction and imperfect bore of the fire-arms when
first introduced, a body of men, well trained in the use of the bow
from their youth, was considered a valuable acquisition to every
army, even as late as the sixteenth century.
 During a great part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth each company
of infantry usually consisted of men armed five different ways; in
every hundred men forty were “men-at-arms,” and sixty “shot;” the
“men-at-arms” were ten halberdiers, or battle-axe men, and thirty
pikemen; and the “shot” were twenty archers, twenty musketeers,
and twenty harquebusiers, and each man carried, besides his
principal weapon, a sword and dagger.
Companies of infantry varied at this period in numbers from 150 to
300 men; each company had a colour or ensign, and the mode of
formation recommended by an English military writer (Sir John
Smithe) in 1590 was; the colour in the centre of the company
guarded by the halberdiers; the pikemen in equal proportions, on
each flank of the halberdiers; half the musketeers on each flank of
the pikes; half the archers on each flank of the musketeers, and the
harquebusiers (whose arms were much lighter than the muskets
then in use) in equal proportions on each flank of the company for
skirmishing.[1] It was customary to unite a number of companies into
one body, called a Regiment, which frequently amounted to three
thousand men; but each company continued to carry a colour.
Numerous improvements were eventually introduced in the
construction of fire-arms, and, it having been found impossible to
make armour proof against the muskets then in use (which carried a
very heavy ball) without its being too weighty for the soldier, armour
was gradually laid aside by the infantry in the seventeenth century:
bows and arrows also fell into disuse, and the infantry were reduced
to two classes, viz.: musketeers, armed with matchlock muskets,
swords, and daggers; and pikemen, armed with pikes from fourteen
to eighteen feet long, and swords.
In the early part of the seventeenth century Gustavus Adolphus,
King of Sweden, reduced the strength of regiments to 1000 men. He
caused the gunpowder, which had heretofore been carried in flasks,
or in small wooden bandoliers, each containing a charge, to be made
up into cartridges, and carried in pouches; and he formed each
regiment into two wings of musketeers, and a centre division of
Pikemen. He also adopted the practice of forming four regiments into
a brigade; and the number of colours was afterwards reduced to
three in each regiment. He formed his columns so compactly that his
infantry could resist the charge of the celebrated Polish horsemen
and Austrian cuirassiers; and his armies became the admiration of
other nations. His mode of formation was copied by the English,
French, and other European states; but so great was the prejudice in
favour of ancient customs, that all his improvements were not
adopted until near a century afterwards.
In 1664 King Charles II. raised a corps for sea-service, styled the
Admiral’s regiment. In 1678 each company of 100 men usually
consisted of 30 pikemen, 60 musketeers, and 10 men armed with
light firelocks. In this year the King added a company of men armed
with hand grenades to each of the old British regiments, which was
designated the “grenadier company.” Daggers were so contrived as
to fit in the muzzles of the muskets, and bayonets, similar to those at
present in use, were adopted about twenty years afterwards.
An Ordnance regiment was raised in 1685, by order of King James
II., to guard the artillery, and was designated the Royal Fusiliers
(now 7th Foot). This corps, and the companies of grenadiers, did not
carry pikes.
King William III. incorporated the Admiral’s regiment in the second
Foot Guards, and raised two Marine regiments for sea-service.
During the war in this reign, each company of infantry (excepting the
fusiliers and grenadiers) consisted of 14 pikemen and 46
musketeers; the captains carried pikes; lieutenants, partisans;
ensigns, half-pikes; and serjeants, halberds. After the peace in 1697
the Marine regiments were disbanded, but were again formed on the
breaking out of the war in 1702.[2]
During the reign of Queen Anne the pikes were laid aside, and
every infantry soldier was armed with a musket, bayonet, and sword;
the grenadiers ceased, about the same period, to carry hand
grenades; and the regiments were directed to lay aside their third
colour: the corps of Royal Artillery was first added to the Army in this
reign.
About the year 1745, the men of the battalion companies of
infantry ceased to carry swords; during the reign of George II. light
companies were added to infantry regiments; and in 1764 a Board of
General Officers recommended that the grenadiers should lay aside
their swords, as that weapon had never been used during the Seven
Years’ War. Since that period the arms of the infantry soldier have
been limited to the musket and bayonet.
The arms and equipment of the British Troops have seldom
differed materially, since the Conquest, from those of other European
states; and in some respects the arming has, at certain periods,
been allowed to be inferior to that of the nations with whom they
have had to contend; yet, under this disadvantage, the bravery and
superiority of the British infantry have been evinced on very many
and most trying occasions, and splendid victories have been gained
over very superior numbers.
Great Britain has produced a rate of lion-like champions who have
dared to confront a host of foes, and have proved themselves valiant
with any arms. At Crecy, King Edward III., at the head of about
30,000 men, defeated, on the 26th of August, 1346, Philip King of
France, whose army is said to have amounted to 100,000 men; here
British valour encountered veterans of renown:—the King of
Bohemia, the King of Majorca, and many princes and nobles were
slain, and the French army was routed and cut to pieces. Ten years
afterwards, Edward Prince of Wales, who was designated the Black
Prince, defeated at Poictiers, with 14,000 men, a French army of
60,000 horse, besides infantry, and took John I., King of France, and
his son, Philip, prisoners. On the 25th of October, 1415, King Henry
V., with an army of about 13,000 men, although greatly exhausted by
marches, privations, and sickness, defeated, at Agincourt, the
Constable of France, at the head of the flower of the French nobility
and an army said to amount to 60,000 men, and gained a complete
victory.
During the seventy years’ war between the United Provinces of the
Netherlands and the Spanish monarchy, which commenced in 1578
and terminated in 1648, the British infantry in the service of the
States-General were celebrated for their unconquerable spirit and
firmness;[3] and in the thirty years’ war between the Protestant
Princes and the Emperor of Germany, the British Troops in the
service of Sweden and other states were celebrated for deeds of
heroism.[4] In the wars of Queen Anne, the fame of the British army
under the great Marlborough was spread throughout the world;
and if we glance at the achievements performed within the memory
of persons now living, there is abundant proof that the Britons of the
present age are not inferior to their ancestors in the qualities which
constitute good soldiers. Witness the deeds of the brave men, of
whom there are many now surviving, who fought in Egypt in 1801,
under the brave Abercromby, and compelled the French army, which
had been vainly styled Invincible, to evacuate that country; also the
services of the gallant Troops during the arduous campaigns in the
Peninsula, under the immortal Wellington; and the determined
stand made by the British Army at Waterloo, where Napoleon
Bonaparte, who had long been the inveterate enemy of Great Britain,
and had sought and planned her destruction by every means he
could devise, was compelled to leave his vanquished legions to their
fate, and to place himself at the disposal of the British Government.
These achievements, with others of recent dates, in the distant
climes of India, prove that the same valour and constancy which
glowed in the breasts of the heroes of Crecy, Poictiers, Agincourt,
Blenheim, and Ramilies, continue to animate the Britons of the
nineteenth century.
The British Soldier is distinguished for a robust and muscular
frame,—intrepidity which no danger can appal,—unconquerable
spirit and resolution,—patience in fatigue and privation, and cheerful
obedience to his superiors. These qualities, united with an excellent
system of order and discipline to regulate and give a skilful direction
to the energies and adventurous spirit of the hero, and a wise
selection of officers of superior talent to command, whose presence
inspires confidence,—have been the leading causes of the splendid
victories gained by the British arms.[5] The fame of the deeds of the
past and present generations in the various battle-fields where the
robust sons of Albion have fought and conquered, surrounds the
British arms with a halo of glory; these achievements will live in the
page of history to the end of time.
 The records of the several regiments will be found to contain a
detail of facts of an interesting character, connected with the
hardships, sufferings, and gallant exploits of British soldiers in the
various parts of the world where the calls of their Country and the
commands of their Sovereign have required them to proceed in the
execution of their duty, whether in active continental operations, or in
maintaining colonial territories in distant and unfavourable climes.
The superiority of the British infantry has been pre-eminently set
forth in the wars of six centuries, and admitted by the greatest
commanders which Europe has produced. The formations and
movements of this arme, as at present practised, while they are
adapted to every species of warfare, and to all probable situations
and circumstances of service, are calculated to show forth the
brilliancy of military tactics calculated upon mathematical and
scientific principles. Although the movements and evolutions have
been copied from the continental armies, yet various improvements
have from time to time been introduced, to ensure that simplicity and
celerity by which the superiority of the national military character is
maintained. The rank and influence which Great Britain has attained
among the nations of the world, have in a great measure been
purchased by the valour of the Army, and to persons who have the
welfare of their country at heart, the records of the several regiments
cannot fail to prove interesting.
 FOOTNOTES:

[1] A company of 200 men would appear thus:—

20 20 20 30 20 30 20 20 20
Harquebuses. Muskets. Halberds. Muskets. Harquebuses.
Archers. Pikes. Pikes. Archers.
The musket carried a ball which weighed 1/10th of a pound; and
the harquebus a ball which weighed 1/25th of a pound.
[2] The 30th, 31st, and 32nd Regiments were formed as Marine
corps in 1702, and were employed as such during the wars in the
reign of Queen Anne. The Marine corps were embarked in the
Fleet under Admiral Sir George Rooke, and were at the taking of
Gibraltar, and in its subsequent defence in 1704; they were
afterwards employed at the siege of Barcelona in 1705.
[3] The brave Sir Roger Williams, in his Discourse on War, printed
in 1590, observes:—“I persuade myself ten thousand of our
nation would beat thirty thousand of theirs (the Spaniards) out of
the field, let them he chosen where they list.” Yet at this time the
Spanish infantry was allowed to be the best disciplined in Europe.
For instances of valour displayed by the British Infantry during the
seventy Years’ War, see the Historical Record of the Third Foot,
or Buffs.
[4] Vide the Historical Record of the First, or Royal Regiment of
Foot.
[5] “Under the blessing of Divine Providence, His Majesty
ascribes the successes which have attended the exertions of his
troops in Egypt to that determined bravery which is inherent in
Britons; but His Majesty desires it may be most solemnly and
forcibly impressed on the consideration of every part of the army,
that it has been a strict observance of order, discipline, and
military system, which has given the full energy to the native
valour of the troops, and has enabled them proudly to assert the