Teacher Education and Acquisition of Numeracy Skills

TEACHER EDUCATION AND ACQUISITION OF NUMERACY SKILLS
BY PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN KINONDONI DISTRICT,

DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA
VERONICA NJAMBI MBURU
E55/CE/25084/2014
A RESEARCH THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE DEGREE OF MASTER (EARLY CHILDHOOD STUDIES) IN THE
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION KENYATTA UNIVERSITY.
OCTOBER, 2018
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented in any
other University/institution for consideration of any certification. This thesis has
been complemented by referenced sources duly acknowledged. Where text, data ,
graphics, pictures or tables have been borrowed from other sources, including the
Internet, these are specifically accredited and references cited using current APA
system and in accordance with anti-plagiarism regulations.
Signature: ____________________ Date: __________________
Veronica Njambi Mburu Reg. No : E55/CE/25084/2014
Department of Early childhood Studies
Superviser
We confirm that this thesis has been submitted for appraisal with our approval as
University Supervisor(s).
Signature: _________________________Date: __________________
Dr. Mary Ndani
Signature: _________________________ Date: __________________
Dr. Wanjohi Githinji
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to the Almighty God who gave me the impetus to carry on
and complete this study. Secondly, to all pre-primary children out there who
deserve to have access to quality teaching and learning experiences to enable
them achieve their full potential.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First, I would like to express my heart felt gratitude to my most able supervisors
Dr. Ndani Mary and Dr. Githinji Wanjohi for providing unwavering and
unconditional support throughout the process. Your advice, guidance and support
were much appreciated. Without you this work would not have been possible.
May the Almighty God bless you and refill your cisterns.
Secondly, to my most loved parents Peter Mburu and Lydia Nyambura and my
sibling; Magdalene, David and Samuel for providing social and moral support
throughout the process.
Special gratitude goes to Dr. Karanja Michael who worked with me helping to
analyze and interpret the findings. Your support was much appreciated.
Finally, I acknowledge the support received from my employer The Aga Khan
Education Services – East Africa during the study period.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION...................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ x
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. xi
ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS ............................................................. xii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ xiv
CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .... 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background of the Study ............................................................................... 1
1.3 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 7
1.4 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................... 9
1.5 Objectives of the Study ................................................................................. 9
1.6 Research Hypothesis ................................................................................... 10
1.7 Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 10
1.8 Limitations of the study............................................................................... 12
1.9 Delimitations of the Study........................................................................... 12
1.10 Assumptions of the Study ......................................................................... 13
1.11Theoretical Framework .............................................................................. 13
1.11.1 Zone of Proximal Development ............................................................. 13
1.11.2 More Knowledgeable Other ................................................................... 14
1.11.3 Scaffolding ............................................................................................. 15
1.12 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................. 17
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1.13 Operational Definition of Terms ............................................................... 19
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ....................... 21
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 21
2.2 Teacher’s Level of training and Children's Performance in Schools .......... 21
2.3 Duration of teacher training and children's acquisition of numeracy skills 26
2.4 Mode and type of teacher education and children's Acquisition of Numeracy
Skills .................................................................................................................. 28
2.5 Curriculum Used for teacher training and children's acquisition of

Numeracy skills ................................................................................................. 32
2.6 Teacher Factors that Influence Acquisition of Numeracy Skills ................ 36
2.7 Summary ..................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ....... 40
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 40
3.2 Research Design .......................................................................................... 40
3.3 Variables...................................................................................................... 41
3.3.1 Independent Variables .......................................................................... 41
3.3.2 Dependent Variable .............................................................................. 43
3.4 Research Locale .......................................................................................... 43
3.5 Target Population ........................................................................................ 44
3.6 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques ...................................................... 44
3.6.1 Sampling Techniques ........................................................................... 44
3.6.2 Sample Size .......................................................................................... 45
3.7 Research Instruments .................................................................................. 45
3.7.1 Questionnaires for the Teachers ........................................................... 46
3.7.2 Self- Constructed Tests for the Pupils ...................................................... 46
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3.8 Pilot Study ................................................................................................... 47
3.8.1 Reliability of the Research Instruments ................................................ 47
3.8.2 Validity of the Research Instruments ................................................... 48
3.9 Data Collection ............................................................................................ 49
3.9.1 Pre-Visit to the Sampled Schools ....................................................... 49
3.9.2 The Actual Study Visit ......................................................................... 49
3.10 Logistical and Ethical Considerations ....................................................... 50
3.10.1 Logistical Considerations ................................................................... 50
3.10.2 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................ 50
3.11 Data Analysis ......................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS, INTERPRETATION

AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 54
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 54
4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the respondents ........................................ 55
4.3 Relationship between Duration of Teacher Training and Pupils’ Acquisition

of Numeracy Skills ............................................................................................ 57
4.4 Relationship between Level of Teacher Training and Pupils’ Acquisition of

Numeracy Skills ................................................................................................ 64
4.5 Relationship between Curriculum Used for Teacher Training and Pupils’
Acquisition of Numeracy Skills ........................................................................ 71
4.6 Mode of Teacher Training and Acquisition of Numeracy Skills in Pre-

primary .............................................................................................................. 76
4.8 Teacher-related Factors and Numeracy Achievements at Pre-primary

School Level ...................................................................................................... 82
4.9 Summary ..................................................................................................... 87
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARRY, CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS
............................................................................................................................... 88
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 88
5.2 Summary of the findings ............................................................................. 88
5.2.1 Duration of Teacher Training and Numeracy Achievement .................... 88
5.2.2 Level of Teacher Training and Numeracy Achievement ......................... 89
5.2.3 Curriculum used for Teacher Training and Numeracy Achievement ...... 89
5.2.4 Mode of Teacher Training and Numeracy Achievement ......................... 90
5.2.5 Numeracy Achievement ........................................................................... 90
5.2.7 Teacher-related Factors impacting on Numeracy Achievement .............. 91
5.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 91
5.4 Recommendations ....................................................................................... 92
5.4.1 Recommendations for Ministry of Education .......................................... 92
5.4.2 Recommendations for Curriculum Developers ........................................ 93
5.4.3 Recommendations for Curriculum Implementers .................................... 93
5.4.4 Recommendations for Teacher Training Institutions ............................... 94
5.4.5 Recommendations for Further Research .................................................. 95
REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 96
APPENDICES …………………………………………………………...……106
Appendix I: Questionnaire for the Teachers ....................................................... 106
Appendix II: Self-Constructed Numeracy Test for Pupils .................................. 109
Appendix III: Mtihani wa Hisabati wa Watoto Wa Chekechea ......................... 111
Appendix IV: Teacher’s Consent Form .............................................................. 113
Appendix V: Researcher's Letter To Schools ..................................................... 114
Appendix VI: Authorization Letter from Kenyatta University........................... 115
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Appendix VII: Research Authorization Letter .................................................... 116
Appendix VIII: Research Permit ........................................................................ 117
Appendix IX: Research Permit-Tanzania ........................................................... 118
Appendix X: Table of Multiple Correlations for Study Variables ..................... 119
Appendix XI : Kinindoni District Map (Study Locale) ...................................... 132
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Teacher Education Diploma Course in Primary Education ................. 33
Table 2.2: Teacher Education Diploma Course in Early Childhood Education ... 34
Table 4.1: Demographic characteristics of the respondents ................................. 56
Table 4.2: Mean Scores of Pupils Numeracy Achievement in Kinondoni District
....................................................................................................................... 58
Table 4.3: Means and Standard Deviations of Numeracy scores as per the
Duration of Teacher Training ........................................................................ 59
Table 4.4 : ANOVA of Duration of Training and Pupils’ Numeracy achievements
....................................................................................................................... 61
Table 4.5: Post Hoc Tests for Numeracy Achievements versus the Duration of
Training ......................................................................................................... 62
Table 4.6: Relationship between Duration of Teacher Training and Numeracy
Achievement per Strand ................................................................................ 64
Table 4.7 : Means and Standard Deviations of Numeracy scores as per the Level
of Training ..................................................................................................... 65
Table 4.8: ANOVA Table for Level of training as per Numeracy Scores ........... 67
Table 4.9 : Post Hoc Test for Numeracy Achievement versus the level of
Training ......................................................................................................... 68
Table 4.10: Relationship between Level of Teacher Training and Numeracy
Table 4.11: Means and Standard Deviations of Numeracy scores as per
Curriculum used for Training ........................................................................ 71
Table 4.12: ANOVA Table for Curriculum used for Teacher Training versus
Numeracy Scores ........................................................................................... 73
Table 4.13: Post Hoc Test for Numeracy Achievement according to the
Curriculum Used for Teacher Training ......................................................... 74
Table 4.14: Relationship between Curriculum Used for Teacher Training and
Numeracy Achievement per Strand ............................................................... 75
Table 4.15: Means and Standard Deviations of Numeracy scores according to the
Mode of Teacher Training ............................................................................. 77
Table 4.16: ANOVA for the Mode of Teacher Training versus Numeracy Scores
....................................................................................................................... 79
Table 4.17: Post Hoc Test for Mean Differences versus the Mode of Teacher
Training ......................................................................................................... 80
Table 4.18: Relationship between Mode of Teacher Training and Numeracy
Table 4.19: Teacher-related Factors and Numeracy Achievement in Pre-primary
Schools........................................................................................................... 82
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development ...................................... 16
Figure 1.2:Conceptual framework showing the relationship between teacher
education and acquisition of numeracy skills ............................................... 18
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ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS
ANERA American Near East Refugee Aid
CDA Development Associate
CPR Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
DEO District Education Office
DTE Diploma in Teacher Education
ECD Early Childhood Development
ECE Early Childhood Education
ECDE Early Childhood Development Education
ETP Education Training and Policy
GeSCI Global e-Schools and Communities Initiative
IBP Institutional Based Programme
MKO More Knowledgeable Other
MOEST Ministry of Education Science and Technology
NAEYC National Association for the Education of Young Children
NCES National Center for Education Statistics
NCLB No Child Left Behind
NCTM The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
NEA National Education Assessment
NEC National Education Commission
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NFER National Foundation for Educational Research
NNRR National Numeracy Review Report
OECD Organization for Economic Corporation and Development
ODEL Open and Distance Learning
PTE Primary Teacher Education
SDGs Strategic Development Goals
TET Technical Education Training
TFA Teach For America
TIE Tanzania Institute of Education
TIMSS The Trends in International Maths and Science Study
USA United States of America
ZPD Zone of Proximal Development
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ABSTRACT
Numeracy skills enable logical reasoning, which leads to better comprehension of
the world around us. Developing a mentally organized way of thinking is critical
for the holistic development of children. To make this happen, there is need to
provide high-quality numeracy education at an early age. In Tanzania, the level of
numeracy achievement at the lower primary school continues to linger way below
the average despite the efforts by the Tanzania government through provision of
financial support to the education sector. This situation comes at a time when
numeracy achievements are appreciated globally for its role in the national and
even global development. The purpose of this study was to examine the
relationship between teacher education and numeracy achievement in the pre-
primary level. The study was guided by five objectives; to find out whether the
duration of teacher training, the level of teacher training, the curriculum used in
training the pre-primary teachers and the mode of teacher-training influences the
pre-primary pupils' numeracy achievements. This study was grounded on Lev
Vygotsky’s Social cultural and employed mixed methods research design where
descriptive survey and correlational research designs were used. The dependent
variable was pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievement and the independent
variable was teacher education. The study was conducted in Kinondoni, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania. The target population was both public and private pre-primary
schools in the district. Purposeful, stratified, simple random and systematic
sampling techniques were employed. The sample included; 16 pre-primary
schools, 160 pupils and 16 pre-primary teachers. Self-constructed numeracy tests
for pupils and questionnaires for pre-primary teachers are the research instruments
that this study used. Content validity was used to ensure the validity of the
instruments while split-half technique was used to determine the reliability of the
instrument. Inferential and descriptive statistics were used to summarize and
analyze the data. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test the null
hypotheses at a significance level of 0.05. Post Hoc tests were ran to confirm
where the differences occurred between groups. The findings of this study
revealed pupils taught by Diploma teachers performed better than all the others.
Pupils taught by Montessori trained teachers outperformed their counterparts
taught by other teachers. Further, ODEL trained teachers registered the highest
numeracy achievement. The study recommended development of policies that
guide on the harmonization of the curriculum used for training, orientation
workshops on the implementation of the new curriculum, Diploma training for all
pre-primary teachers and incorporation of key elements of Montessori curriculum
in the other curricula used to train pre-primary teachers to maximize learning.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the background information with regard to the acquisition of
the numeracy skills in different parts of the world. The research problem and the
objectives of the study are also highlighted. Further, the purpose and the
significance of the study are stated. Theoretical and conceptual framework on
which this study is grounded is also presented.
1.2 Background of the Study
Numeracy is a vital skill that is very useful in all spheres of life; that is, at home,
work and in school. In order to live independently, have adaptive social and
recreational interactions, and to be successfully employed, people must possess
some degree of mathematic skills (Patton, Cronon, Bassett, and Koppel, 1997). In
support of this premise, the National Science Board (2003) stipulated that the
various occupations with the highest degree of growth need to have people with
high level of numeracy achievement .This makes numeracy skills to be very
important in our day to day activities. Michael (2012) observed that a better
understanding and ability to work with numbers are important skills that help
people to be effective and productive members of a society. People may need to
identify, transform, manipulate, interpret or evaluate numbers in order to work
meaningfully with them. In this regard, Schoenfeld (1995) refers to numeracy
1
skills as the ‘new literacy’ and urged that for one to function optimally in his/her
daily life, he/she ought to have numeracy skills.
Mathematics is necessary in and out of school. Ginsburg and Allardice (1984)
advanced that acquisition of early numeracy skills laid a solid base for subsequent
mathematical learning. They argued that one’s ability to do well or poorly in
numeracy at an early level can significantly affect later learning of mathematical
concepts. Pre-primary school pupils with significantly good numeracy skills are
more likely to have better operation skills when they get to class three as
highlighted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2004).
Globally, East Asia has continued to excel in numeracy achievements for over
two decades .According to the 2016 report by The Trends in International Maths
and Science Study (TIMSS), Singapore, Hong Kong, Republic of South Korea,
China and Japan were ranked as the top five countries in terms of numeracy
achievement with over three quarters of school going children functioning above
the average level of competence. According this report, Singapore primary 4
pupils, who were assessed against pupils from 63 other education systems in the
world, emerged the best. This report further showed that not only were Singapore
pupils top in their scoring but also in their positive attitude towards learning.
In Europe, England has continued to improve in terms of their numeracy
achievement as reported by Van Luit (1999). For the past one decade, England
has had a 12% increase in the numeracy achievement at the primary level. Jerrim
and Nikki (2016) report on numeracy achievement highlighted those children who
2
less than 15 years continue to perform well in mathematics than science. This
report further showed that most of those pupils were found in day schools where
they had support from both home and school.
Regionally, most African countries continue to perform way below the average
level of numeracy competency with South Africa and Morocco being ranked in
the bottom five countries in terms of numeracy achievement in the world. The
2016 TIMSS report indicated that the levels of numeracy achievement in South
Africa are significantly low but this varies across various districts in the country.
Further, this report showed that three quarters of children in Limpopo and Eastern
Cape districts in South African were functioning below the expected level of
numeracy competency. This report further showed that socio-economic indicators
such as parents’ level of education and the number of books in a child’s home
were positively related to the child’s achievement in school. Those with more
resources had higher mathematics scores.
In comparison to East African countries at similar developmental level,
Tanzania’s effort to provide quality Early childhood development services has
made substantial achievement (Uwezo, 2011). That notwithstanding the newly
generated information on the status of numeracy and literacy across East Africa,
(Uwezo, 2011) report has been widely publicized and has triggered an array of
reactions across the education stakeholders including the teachers, curriculum
developers and parents. Going by the reports shared by the communication media
and discussions with different stakeholders in this sector, there is increased
3
awareness on the poor state of learning in the Pre-primary schools in Tanzania.
Uwezo's fourth annual survey of 2014 on the status of learning in the primary
schools in Tanzania reported that the numeracy achievements in the lower
primary school are still low with only 3 out 10 pupils in standard 3 being able to
solve simple standard 2 multiplication problem. This report has further shown that
by the time these children get to standard 7, about 3 out of 10 pupils cannot solve
standard 2 multiplications. Uwezo has chosen to focus on National Educational
Assessment (a simple measure of children’s literacy and numeracy levels) as a
key trigger for public action.
However, assessment alone does not address the issues that Tanzanian children
are experiencing in the schools today in terms of the acquisition of the numeracy
skills. Much more needs to be done to identify the root cause of this problem and
the interventions that could help to address this issue.
A number of studies have pointed out that poor early mathematics development is
predictive of later delays in numeracy achievements (Jordan, Kaplan, Locuniak,
and Ramineni, 2007; Mazzocco and Tompson, 2005) and higher risk for negative
adult outcomes (Delazer, Girelli, Grana, and Domahs, 2003). Similarly,
longitudinal studies have shown that children’s early numeracy skills predict their
performance in mathematics in the later years of school (Aunola 2004; Jordan
2007; Passolunghi, Vercelloni, and Schadee, 2007).Hence, the need to ensure that
our children are getting the right teaching and learning experiences to promote
their optimal growth and development. The proper foundations of these important
4
skills are best laid in the early years and with practice it becomes part and parcel
of the daily life. Therefore, the early experiences and stimulation that children are
provided with should be geared towards promoting their numeracy skills to make
them effective and functional members of their communities. The caregivers and
the teachers should therefore be equipped with appropriate knowledge and skills
to ensure they provide a well-structured learning environment to promote
acquisition of the numeracy skills.
A study on early numeracy development in Europe that was carried out by Van
Luit, Van and Pennings (1994) suggested that the teacher's attitude towards the
teaching and learning of numeracy skills at pre-primary level is significantly
related to the children's numeracy achievements. However, the study also
suggested that only a small percentage (24%) of the children's numeracy
achievements could be attributed to the teacher's attitude and therefore there are
other factors that could be related to numeracy achievements at pre-primary level.
This study aimed at exploring the existence of a relationship between the teacher
education and numeracy achievements at the pre-primary level.
Studies have also shown that the home numeracy and literacy practices can
predict the numeracy achievements of pre-primary pupils. A study by Blevins and
Baroody (2008) suggested that parents with high frequency of direct numeracy
practice have children with higher numeracy skills. This study also revealed that
those parents were more likely to be good at mathematics and enjoyed
5
mathematics themselves. Further, direct parent’s practices seem to be more
important in helping children acquire numeracy skills (Lefevre, 2009).
Despite of all these research findings, the undesirable situation has persisted.
Various teacher-related factors have been explored with an aim of putting this
phenomenon in to perspective. Among the factors include the teacher's beliefs
about teaching and learning mathematics at pre-primary level which studies have
highlighted could account for 10% of the numeracy achievements at the pre-
primary level. Children's verbal competence has also been viewed as having a role
to play in the numeracy achievement of the pre-primary pupils. Studies have
highlighted that children with high verbal competence are likely to do well in
their numeracy activities because they ask and answer questions more often and
verbally express their reasoning and arguments. However, there could be other
teacher related factors that could account for the numeracy achievements at the
pre-primary level and among them is the teacher's education. Teachers’
competence in the teaching and learning process could be attributed to the
kind/type of education she/he acquired. This study aimed at exploring the
relationship between teacher education in terms of level of training, duration and
mode of training and the type of the curriculum used for training and the pre-
primary pupil's numeracy achievements in Kinondoni District.
6
1.3 Statement of the Problem
Globally, the world is facing mathematics crisis. This observation was made out
of poor ranking of developing countries and emerging economies in international
learning assessment. Learning report (2012) highlighted that children in most
developing countries take until class six to reach the basic mathematics
competencies that their peers from developed countries have acquired by the end
of class two or three as also supported by UWEZO (2014) study on “Are our
children learning”.
Tanzania has made quite substantial progress as far as basic education is
concerned in the past ten years. There have been reports on high enrollment rates
in both early childhood education and in the primary school education. The
Ministry of Education in Tanzania is doing its best to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) related to education access and gender parity.
Remarkable efforts to achieve these goals are evident with quite a good number of
educational infrastructures being constructed and a good number of teachers being
recruited. The government has demonstrated its commitment to achieve the SDGs
by increasing its budgetary allocations to the education sector now amounting to
over a billion dollars every year which is about 20% of its budget on education.
However, in spite of all these investments in the education sector, Uwezo has
reported that early literacy and numeracy levels in Tanzania are still low. While
the study by Uwezo (2014) highlighted inadequacies in acquisition of numeracy
skills in lower primary schools, the report did not indicate the various factors that
7
contribute to the inadequacy. Moreover, Uwezo survey focused on the lower
primary school level and hence the need to explore the state of affairs at the pre-
primary school level.
Mwoma (2005) study on pre-school teachers’ attitude and mathematics learning
in Kasarani Division highlighted that most of the pre-school teachers in the field
at that time were not adequately trained. The findings showed that 89% of the
teachers were form four leavers while 10.1% were primary school leavers. The
findings of this study also suggested that 21% of the teachers had scored a grade
of ‘C’ in KCSE while 79% of the teachers had scored grade ‘D’ and below. The
findings also revealed that only 44.4% of the teachers were trained while 56.4%
were undergoing training. 69.9% of the teachers were also found to have a
positive attitude towards mathematics teaching while 32.1% were found to have a
negative attitude. Whereas Mwoma (2005) study was on the teacher attitude and
mathematics learning, the current study explores teacher education and training
and its relationship with numeracy achievement at the pre-primary level.
Regardless of all these findings from various studies, the unpleasant situation has
prevailed over years. Our children still continue having challenges with
mathematics learning. Low grades in the report cards continue to haunt our
children and this impact on their subsequent learning. This study intended to
examine teacher education in terms of level of training, duration and mode of
training and the type of curriculum used for training has not been given much
8
attention and may partly account for the pre-primary pupil's numeracy
achievements in Kinondoni district. An in-depth examination of teacher
education and its relationship with the pre-primary pupil’s numeracy achievement
was carried out with an aim of putting this phenomenon into perspective.
1.4 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine whether a relationship exists between
teacher education and the acquisition of numeracy skills in preschoolers.
1.5 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study were:
(a) To find out whether the duration of teacher training has a relationship with
pre-primary pupils' acquisition of numeracy skills.
(b) To determine whether there is a relationship between the level of teacher
training and the acquisition of numeracy skills at pre-primary school level.
(c) To find out whether the curriculum used in training the pre-primary
teachers influences the pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievements.
(d) To establish whether the mode of teacher-training influences the pre-
primary pupils' numeracy achievements.
(e) To explore other teacher factors that influence acquisition of numeracy
skills.
9
1.6 Research Hypothesis
The hypotheses of this study were;
H1: There is a relationship between the duration of teacher-training and the
H2: There is a significant relationship between the level of teacher-training
and the pre-primary pupils' numeracy achievements.
H3: There is a significant relationship between teacher-training curricula and
the pre-primary pupils' numeracy achievements.
H4: There is a significant relationship between the mode of teacher-training
and pre-primary pupils' numeracy achievements.
1.7 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study may provide vital information on the extent to which
teacher education influences pre-primary numeracy achievement. Policy makers
in the Ministry of Education might find the findings of this study useful while
developing various policies in relation to the teacher education and teaching and
learning of numeracy skills in the pre-primary schools. The findings of this study
may guide them in coming up with appropriate guidelines on the mode and
duration of training for the pre-primary school teachers.
10
Curriculum developers might also find the recommendations of this study useful
while developing pre-primary school teacher curriculum in Tanzania, especially
in the teaching of mathematics and numeracy. Guided by the findings of this
study, they might be able to come up with age appropriate experiences and
learning engagements that will promote acquisition of numeracy skills in
preschoolers.
The curriculum implementers who are the teachers might also benefit from the
findings of this study in the sense that they will be guided on the appropriate
numeracy skills that the pre-primary children should be equipped with. They
might also be able to understand the relationship that exists between the teacher
education and the acquisition of the numeracy skills in the pre-primary school
children and hence accord teacher education the importance it deserves.
The institutions offering teacher education might benefit from the findings of this
study and use them as a reflection point on their practices. The findings of this
study could be used to inform the teaching pedagogy in mathematics. These
findings might help them to review their practices and align them with the needs
of the teacher trainees. They might review the duration of training and even the
type of training they give to their teachers.
The pre-primary school pupils may also benefit from the findings of this study in
the sense that their teachers might benefit from the various curriculum reforms in
11
their training eventually making them effective teachers and following good
teaching and learning practices.
1.8 Limitations of the study
The study locale was vast and the distance between schools is quite long, which
might make the researcher spend quite some time while collecting data. The
researcher overcame this challenge by visiting the schools that were near each
other the same day. Limited prior research studies on this problem in the district
was also a limiting factor as the review of previous literature helps to lay a
foundation of understanding the research problem at hand. Finally, the language
of instruction in Tanzania is Swahili and the research instruments written in
English Language had to be translated to Kiswahili Language to ensure that the
items in the instruments are clear to all the respondents.
1.9 Delimitations of the Study
This study was conducted in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania.
Specifically, this study was delimited to pre-primary school pupils in public and
private schools in Kinondoni District. This is because the researcher wanted to
establish whether there is a relationship between teacher education and acquisition
of numeracy skills at the pre-primary level. Although there could be several
factors that may influence the acquisition of numeracy skills at the pre-primary
this study focused on the teacher education because it is likely to have a
considerable influence on pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievement.
12
1.10 Assumptions of the Study
The study was guided by the following assumptions: That all the respondents
would cooperate and provide reliable information and that during the lesson
observation sessions, the presence of the researcher would not influence the norm
in the instruction process. The study also assumed that all the respondents would
have undergone some form of teacher-training before embarking on helping
children to acquire the desired numeracy skills. Lastly, the researcher assumed
that all the research instruments used to collect required data were valid and
reliable and that the findings of this study would be useful numeracy curriculum
development and implementation.
1.11Theoretical Framework
This study was grounded on Lev Vygotsky’s Social Cultural Theory (1978). This
theory proposes that there are three essential elements of learning the pupils
should be provided with;
1.11.1 Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to the difference between what a
child can do independently and what he/she can do with assistance. Children who
are in the zone of proximal development for a specific task can almost perform
the task independently, but not quite there yet. However, with an appropriate
amount of assistance, these children can accomplish the task successfully.
13
The lower limit of a child’s zone of proximal development is the level of analysis
and problem solving reached by that child without any help from the caregivers or
teachers. The upper limit, on the other hand is the level where that child is capable
of doing what he was not able to do without help, but this time round the child
receives support from the teacher of caregiver. Therefore, it is very important to
ensure that teachers and caregivers are adequately equipped with appropriate
skills to ensure they are in a position to help the pupils achieve their maximum
potential.
As pupils receive instructions from their teachers on how to perform specific
tasks, they organize the new information received in their mental schemas in
order to assist them in the ultimate goal performing the task effectively and
independently. Therefore, it is very importance to ensure that teachers are well
trained to help bridge the gap between what pupils can do alone and what they
can do with support.
1.11.2 More Knowledgeable Other
According Vygotsky, children are entrenched in a sociocultural backdrop for
example at home or school, in which social interaction with significant adults,
such as the parents and teachers, plays a crucial factor that affects their learning.
These adults need to direct and organize the learning experiences to ensure that
the children can master and internalize the learning. This theory purports that any
person who possesses a higher skill level than the learner with regard to a
14
particular task or concept is called a More Knowledgeable Other or MKO. This
person may be a teacher, parent, an older adult, a coach or even a peer. It is from
this premise that this study explored the role of the teacher in helping children to
function at their optimal level.
1.11.3 Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is closely related to the concept of the zone of
proximal development. Scaffolding refers to the temporary support given to a
child by More Knowledgeable Others, usually parents or teachers that enable the
child to perform a task until such time that the child can already perform the task
independently.
Scaffolding entails changing the quality and quantity of support provided to a
child in the course of a teaching session. The teacher adjusts the level of guidance
needed in order to fit the student’s current level of performance. For novel tasks,
the instructor may utilize direct instruction. As the child gains more familiarity
with the task and becomes more skilled at it, the instructor may then provide less
guidance.
15
Source: Presentation on Social Constructivism – Lev Vygotsky
Figure 1.1: Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
The above diagram shows the Zone of Proximal Development where the role of
the teacher is very important. According Piaget, children construct their own
knowledge and perspective that is supported by Vygotsky. However, as they
interact with new concepts they come across challenges that they need to be
assisted. The teacher comes in in this context to scaffold in an attempt assist
children do what they are unable to do independently.
16
1.12 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework shows the variables at play in determining the
numeracy achievements in pre-primary schools. There are various variables that
could be attributed to the level of numeracy achievement in pre-primary school.
Teacher education which entails professional qualification, level of training, and
mode and duration of training could be some of the factors that have led to low
achievement in numeracy in Kinondoni District. The conceptualized relationship
between the variables in this study is illustrated in Figure 1.2
17
Figure 2 Figure 1.2: Conceptual framework showing the relationship between teacher education and acquisition of
numeracy skills
18
1.13 Operational Definition of Terms
Achievement: Refers to accomplishment of something or being able to do
something successfully. In this context, numeracy achievement implies the
students’ ability to successfully carry out numeracy activities expected of him/her.
Acquisition: Refers to learn or to develop a new skill or an ability to do a specific
task or activity. In this study acquisition refers to students’ ability to develop a
specific skill in numeracy.
Duration of training: Refers to the number of years spent in a teacher training
college to equip the teachers with appropriate teaching skills.
Early Childhood Development and Education teacher: Refers to teaching
personnel in a pre-primary school.
Level of training: Refers to the value attained out of any training. For example
Certificate, Diploma, Degree or Masters.
Mode of training: Refers to pre-service (full-time) or in-service training that is
institutional based or open and distance learning.
Numeracy: Refers to the students’ ability to confidently solve simple number
operations with addition and subtraction, ability to draw and name basic shapes,
recognize and form numbers properly and complete simple patterns.
19
Numeracy skill: Refers to the ability to perform a given numeracy activity for
instance, write numbers in proper sequence, perform simple addition and
subtraction and drawing and naming basic shapes.
Pre-primary school: Refers to an educational center that equips children aged 5
– 6 years with desired knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Pre-primary school pupils: Refers to children aged 5 – 6 years enrolled in a
pre-primary school class and who go through a formal education system with a
formal curriculum and trained teachers
Scaffold: Refers to assisting the learners to be more independent and be able to
do on their own what they would not have done independently earlier.
Teacher education: Refers to the duration of training, level of training,
curriculum used for training and the duration used for training.
20
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents review of related literature. These are studies on numeracy
achievements at the pre-primary level and issues related to the teacher education
in terms of level of training, mode and duration of training and the type of
curriculum used for training the teachers. Understanding the early development
of numeracy skills can provide the teachers with the tools they need to nurture
mathematical thinking (Bisanz, 2011). This chapter also presents the summary of
literature on teacher education and pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievement.
2.2 Teacher’s Level of training and Children's Performance in Schools
The quality of student's education achievements depends on the hard work,
dedication and the ability of the teacher (Fazal, 2011). The National Education
Policy (2010) supported this premises and highlighted that a teacher who fails to
keep in touch with the rapid educational and scientific developments is likely to
become ineffective and inefficient in the teaching and learning process. This
policy further suggested that the teacher is the most important factor in
implementing the instructional reforms in the education sector. Similarly, the
Commission on National Education (1959) stipulated that the teacher's academic
qualification, knowledge of the subject matter, competence and skills impacts on
the teaching and learning process.
21
Several studies have indicated the need for proper training of teachers and its
impact on the students learning and academic achievements. A study on teacher's
professional development suggested that teacher training is aimed at developing
professional knowledge and skills which might in turn lead to improvement of
students learning outcomes (Asu, 2004) .The study further suggested that there
are several outcomes that come with effective teacher training which include;
improved teacher's basic knowledge, change of the teacher's attitude toward
learning , improved teaching practice and most of all is the improvement of the
students learning achievements.
The rationale of teacher training is to enable them to select and create a learning
environment that promotes the best practice in students optimizing their learning
achievements in and out of classroom (Pearson and Hoffman, 2004). They also
summarized the findings from Metcalf and Cruikshank (1990) and purported that
there are critical elements in teacher training that should be given due attention in
order to make the teachers fully functional in the education sector. Among the
critical elements highlighted included establishing clear performance goals that
are shared between the teachers and the students to work collaboratively towards
their achievement. Another critical element was the establishment of essential
agreements and rules at an early stage of learning to ensure that the learning takes
place without any hitches. One other critical element suggested by the two was
the emphasis on the teacher to make use of the students’ prior knowledge before
introduction of any new concept or skill. This element emphasized on the need of
22
the teacher to pre-assess the students to find out how much they know about a
particular concept before teaching them.
Another study on the quality of teacher and students achievement by the National
Commission on teaching (1996) purported that the importance of a well-trained
teacher is not a secret. This study conducted an analysis of the impact of teacher
training on primary students from different backgrounds. The study included
students from different states in America like Tennessee and Texas and come up
with the following findings: there was positive association between the quality of
the teacher and the students learning outcomes. The statistics from this study
suggested that 25% of students taught by the properly trained teachers had better
score scores than their counterparts who were not taught by the qualified teachers
who seemed to rag behind especially in the skills. The study findings from Texas
with included 10 million students in secondary schools had similar outcomes that
clearly shown the existence of a relationship between teacher quality and the
learning achievements.
Similarly, a study by Rivkin and Kain (2005) supported the above findings and
reported that the differences in levels of teacher training could explain the
differences in reading and mathematics achievements. As in Texas findings,
Jordan (1997) reported that the students who had a chance to be taught by three
consecutive effective teachers in terms of their level of training had better grades
than those who did not have properly trained teachers. The statistics from this
study showed that the students who were taught by properly trained teachers had a
23
34 percentile points in reading and 49 percentile in mathematics compared to the
others who had 13percentile in reading and 17 percentile in mathematics.
In recent studies, ( Raymond, 2001, Darling-Hammond, 2005, Goldhaber and
Brewer ,2000) have sought to establish whether teacher training impacts on the
student's learning outcomes and they compared teachers who had different types
and modes of training. Their findings confirmed properly trained teachers
produced better students especially in maths and that they outperformed the
students who were taught by the untrained teachers.
Researchers has continually shown that the quality of the teacher whether
measured in terms of professional qualification, knowledge of the subject matters
and experience is strongly related to students achievements. In other words, the
literature seems to suggest that well trained teachers produce better students with
high academic achievements. However, questions still remains for the research to
fill with most teacher effectiveness studies focusing on primary level and few on
the high schools. Much more needed to be done especially at the early years of
learning-pre-primary level to state the premise with confidence that there is a
significant relationship between teacher education and students achievements. In
addition, the contradicting findings on the effectiveness of teachers who have
undergone different modes of training needed to be clarified especially with the
current influx of different modes of training like Institutional Based Learning and
open and distance learning as opposed to the traditional full time training.
24
Kenya’s Vision 2030 which is a blue print for a long term national development
aims at providing competitive quality education at all levels of learning in Kenya.
Early childhood education which caters for children between 3 – 8 years is very
critical in laying a firm foundation for the subsequent learning. Therefore, the
teaching and learning experiences at this level matters a lot. The teachers who are
assigned the responsibility of teaching these children should therefore be
equipped with the right skills to ensure they meet the needs of these learners.
Based on this understanding, the Kenyan Early childhood syllabus is structured in
such a way that the needs of these learners are met.
In numeracy, the syllabus puts more emphasis on helping children to acquire the
desired skills and knowledge and not just mare memorization of facts. The teacher
education syllabus at this level is also structured in a way that the teachers are
equipped with the appropriate skills to meet the needs of their learners. The
syllabus is divided into two; year one and year two. During the first year, 157
hours (70%) out of 224 hours are allocated to the learning of mathematics with
emphasis laid on the teaching methods. In the second year, 67 hours (30%) are
allocated to mathematics learning with emphasis being put on the understanding
of the subject matter. This in turn impacts on the teaching and learning of our
children in schools today.
25
2.3 Duration of teacher training and children's acquisition of numeracy skills
The teacher's duration of training has been associated with children's performance
in the early years of school. There is growing consensus among scholars that
effective teacher education should be interactive and that it requires enough
period of time. Quite a substantive literature on teacher education called for it to
be sustained over time. The duration (meaning the length), frequency, and span of
teacher-training activities were all linked to intellectual and pedagogical teacher
change. The literature also suggested that longer duration of training comes with
more opportunity to learn new content and skills and try out other classroom
practices that makes the teacher effective eventually leading to improved students
learning achievements.
Various studies has provided literature supporting the need for teacher training to
take enough time while other studies have disqualified the fact that there could be
differences in students achievements based on the duration of teacher training.
Jacob (2004) stated that the various reforms in the teacher training sector that
have brought on board different short and long courses for teachers should be
supported. He says that the teachers who are already in the field should not be
denied the opportunity to improve their skills regardless of the fact whether these
skills will improve student’s achievements or not. He continues to argue that
marginal increase in teacher education whether in workshops, conferences or
projects have no statistically or academically effect on reading and numeracy
achievements of the primary students.
26
Harris (2008) in his study on teacher training, teacher quality and students
achievements highlighted that only two forms of the teacher training programs
were significantly related with the students achievements that is the pre-service
and the in-service programs. Further, this study suggested that effective in-
service teacher education that focuses on the content and knowledge of the subject
matter is positively associated with the students learning achievements in maths at
the middle and high school levels. On the other hand, Harris argues that there is
no evidence that pre-service trained teachers influences or is related to the
students’ achievements in maths at the same level.
Some earlier studies on teacher effectiveness based on their duration of training
have given us findings that seem to support the premise that there is a significant
relationship between the duration of teacher education and their student's learning
outcomes (Hanushek, 1986). However, subsequent generation of findings from
other studies have used students achievements to determine whether there is any
difference that could be attached to the duration of teacher training and have
given conflicting findings that have suggested that there is no significant
difference in academic achievements based on teacher's duration of training (
Wayne and Young, 2003) .
More recent studies have continued to evaluate the teachers effectiveness based
on the students learning achievements employing the concept commonly known
as the gain approach ( Aaronson, 2007). This approach implies that the more
effective the teacher is, the better score will his/her students get and vice versa.
27
However, the bulk of the recent research findings (Michael, 2012) has shifted
from this approach and seems to consider other innate student's factors as playing
a role in their academic achievements. Among the unobserved characteristics
provided by literature is the student's ability and motivation which has been
considered as having a major role to play in the student's learning achievements
(Clotfelter, 2006).
In contrast with the in-service training, the pre-service teacher training which
seems to take longer time have not been given much attention in the recent
studies. Studies by Kane (2006) and Clotfelter ( 2007) have considered the pre-
service teacher training and found that there is little or no relationship between
this mode of training and the student's learning outcomes at the primary and high
school levels. However, very little attention has been given to the pre-primary
level to establish whether the situation in the primary and high school level is
similar or varies from that of the pre-primary level. The need to investigate the
state of affairs in the pre-primary level is there bearing in mind the important role
played by the teacher at this level as supported by Vygotsky's concept of a More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
2.4 Mode and type of teacher education and children's Acquisition of

Numeracy Skills
Equipping the teachers with proper training provides them the knowledge, skill,
and ability that enable them to carry out their duties with confidence and have
28
greater achievement in their professional life. Effective teacher training helps to
molds the teacher’s personality through reshaping their attitudes, reforming their
habits and reconstructing their personality. Training is of two types.
(a) Pre-service training
Pre-service training refers to the training provided before employment of teachers
and is generally a pre requisite for it. Pre-service training is aimed at providing
for professional growth of the teacher and is organized and provided in such a
way that it leads to the development of a positive attitude towards education and
towards improving own performance in terms of better student learning.
Studies on this mode of training have purported that pre-service educational
programs make use of highly qualified faculty , research-based books and field
experiences to facilitate students’ learning (Epstein and Sandars, 2006; Gibbs and
Hedges, 2005). These studies further suggest that pre-service approach to teacher
education facilitates informational learning by students and hence leading to
increased productivity in their learning. However, all these studies have again
focused on the primary and secondary levels ignoring what is happening in the
pre-primary school.
A Canadian based group of researcher led by Tardif (2005) attempted to explore
the concept of pre-service teacher training and aimed at establishing the outcomes
of the recent reforms and new trends in the pre-service teacher training programs.
The findings of this study highlighted that there is need to ensure that pre-service
29
teacher training programs are designed in a manner that address the needs of a
21st century teacher and student to ensure they yield appropriate outcomes. The
findings further suggested that there is a positive relationship between pre-service
teacher training and students learning outcomes at the primary level.
(b) In-service training
In-service training is an ongoing learning process that goes on continuously
throughout the educational life of a teacher. The teacher undertakes this form of
training while in the field teaching. It is aimed at equipping the teachers with
appropriate skills, knowledge of the subject matter and concepts that will make
that teacher to be effective in the teaching and learning process. It is also aimed at
maximizing the teacher's professional competence which in turn translates to high
academic achievement of the students. The emergence of the lifelong learning
approach has seen many teachers enroll to these programs to improve their
professionalism. The new technological advancement in the education sector have
also come in as a challenge to many teachers compelling them to enroll to these
in-service programs to match the market demands.
The in-service course range from those that run for few hours (seminars and
workshops) to those that takes a longer period of time to be completed. Some of
these programs are discussed below:
Refresher courses: Just like the name suggests, refresher courses are aimed at
giving strength or vigor to the efficiency and output of the already employed
teacher. These courses are of high value regarding the achievement of the
30
teacher's daily practice in the teaching and learning process. These courses help
the teacher to familiarize with the new educational plans and programs.
Workshops: Workshop is a period of discussion and practical work on a
particular topic/subject, when groups of people share their knowledge and
experiences. During the workshops sessions, members discuss and exchange
views and ideas on a various issues and concepts. The duration of the workshop
may be from three to ten days depending upon the gravity and nature of the
problem.
Seminars: Seminars are organized to addresses a small group of people where
they meet to discuss an issue or a concept and each participant has the opportunity
to gain knowledge and experience. Just like workshops, seminars do not take
longer period of time and they could run for hours or few days. Teachers make
use of seminars to meet and share their views, concepts and perspective on
various issues in their day to day professional life.
Conference: Conference refers to a meeting for discussion aimed at exchanging
ideology and perspectives on how to address and deal with the emerging issues.
Normally, the conference of teachers and other stakeholders in the education
sector aims at broadening their professional horizons and cultivating the
professional team spirit.
Studies on the impacts of this mode of teacher training on the teachers’
effectiveness in the learning process have suggested that there is a significant
31
relationship between the two. The history of in-service teacher education could be
traced back from early 60s when the National Education Commission (1964)
recommended that large-scale programs of in-service education to be provided to
teachers. The commission also recommended that every teacher to receive at least
two or three months of in-service education in every five years of service so as to
remain relevant and be able to meet the diverse needs of learners.
However, the report of the National Commission on Teachers (1983) indicated the
absence of clear-cut policies and priorities for in-service education. This has led
to different stakeholders in the education sector reviewing the structure and
policies around the in-service teacher education which have taken a new shape in
the recent decades. Universities and other tertiary institutions have reconstructed
these programs to meet the needs of the teacher trainees allowing for great
flexibility in the way these programs are run. This has eventually led to an
increase in the number of teachers enrolled in the in-service programs to improve
their professional status.
2.5 Curriculum Used for teacher training and children's acquisition of

Numeracy skills
The Tanzania Institute of Education in support of the Education Training and
Policy (1995) recommended that the curriculum for Diploma in Teacher
Education should be reviewed regularly to ensure it is in line with Tanzania’s
vision 2025 which aims at producing citizens that are self-reliant and that can
32
match effectively in the needs of the society. It also aims at promoting creativity
and problem solving as a means of improving the lives of the community
members. Therefore, it is assumed that if the curriculum used to train teachers is
sufficient, then the students taught by those teachers will also be competent and
match the societal demands.
Tanzania has a clearly laid structure of how the Diploma training curriculum for
primary and Early Childhood teachers should look like. Both the curricula are
organized around three (3) broad areas; Professional studies, Academic courses
and teaching methods and general courses. Table 1 clearly outlines the specific
areas covered.
Table 1 Table 2.1: Teacher Education Diploma Course in Primary Education

Broad Areas Specific Areas
Curriculum and teaching for primary(CT)

Foundations of Primary Education(FOE)
Psychology and Counseling for Primary
Education
Professional Studies
Research Evaluation and
Measurement(REM)
Core Subject I(Content and teaching
methods) for Primary
Academic Courses and Core Subject II( Content and teaching
Teaching Methods methods) for Primary
Development Studies
Information and Communication
Technology(ICT)
Educational Media and Technology
Communication Skills
Project Work
General Courses Religion
Source: Tanzania National Curriculum Guideline for Teachers
33
Table 2 Table 2.2: Teacher Education Diploma Course in Early Childhood
Education
Broad Areas Specific Areas
Curriculum Studies for Early Childhood
Professional Studies Education Foundations for Early Childhood
Early Childhood Psychology and counseling
Educational Research and Measurement for
ECE
Academic Courses and Core Subject I(Content and teaching
Teaching Methods methods) for ECE
Core Subject II( Content and teaching
methods) for ECE
Development Studies
General Courses Information and Communication
Technology(ICT)
Educational Media and Technology
Communication Skills
Project Work
Religion
Source: Tanzania National Curriculum Guideline for Teachers
Studies (Bruce and Showers, 2002) on the teacher training curriculum and
learners academic achievements have provided a lot of literature on this issue.
The quality of the teacher is has been viewed in earlier studies as a determinant in
the students learning outcomes. There has been a shift in schools and
communities searching for good teachers in the belief that their students' success
depend on it. Darling-Hammond (1999) argues that although there could be other
factors influencing students' achievements, the teacher related factors could be the
major contributor in this. The findings of his study seemed to suggest that there
was 20 percent variation in students achievement for those taught by untrained
and those taught by trained teachers. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
34
underscores the importance of the key teacher quality which seems to have a great
impact on the students learning outcomes.
Kain (2005) study on the impact of teacher quality on students' achievement
provides empirical evidence that teachers make substantial influence in students’
academic achievements. In his study, he argues that the quality of the teacher
accounted for the largest portion of variations in students' numeracy
achievements. The study monitored two groups of students for three consecutive
years where one group had an opportunity to be taught by highly qualifies
teachers(degree holders) while the other group was taught by low-qualified
teachers( certificate holders).The study findings provided great variations in their
achievements that could be related to the quality of the teacher.
Conflicting research findings on Teach For America (TFA) study by Holtzman,
Heilig and Gatlin (2005) suggested that the differences in students achievement
scores could be attributed to the teaching experience and not majorly the quality
of the teacher. They studied teachers in Houston and found out that TFA teachers
had a positive impact on the students learning outcomes compared to the newly
recruited teachers with similar qualifications in the same state. Further, Darling-
Hammond (2005) analyzed the same data and confirmed that the students taught
by TFA teachers performed better than those taught by the untrained teachers
confirming the premise that there is a positive relationship between quality of
teacher and students learning achievements.
35
Critics of teacher training programs however stem from the wide range of
variations in courses that are offered in those programs. The lack of a properly
harmonized teacher training program in different parts of the world makes it
difficult for the researchers to have assertive empirical evidence that confirms the
existence of a relationship between the quality of teacher and the students learning
outcomes.
The available studies (Hammond, 2000) have focused on the teacher quality as
measured by experience, knowledge of the subject matter, training and
certification and its impact on the students learning achievement in general. This
study purports that teacher preparation and certification are by far the strongest
correlates of student achievement in reading and mathematics. However, this
study has not clearly outlined those teachers qualities and their sources and hence
the need to focus on teacher education which could be attributed to the teacher
qualities. Many of the reviewed studies also focused on the students from the
primary and high school leaving out the pre-primary level. This current study
aimed at examining whether the curriculum used in training the pre-primary
teachers could be related with the pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievement.
2.6 Teacher Factors that Influence Acquisition of Numeracy Skills
An Australian based National Numeracy Review Report (NNRR) (2008)
reviewed various national and international studies and reported that the
numeracy skills, knowledge and understanding that people need today are not just
36
simple algorithms and mathematical routines but practical skills that will help the
students to approach and solve problems creatively and learn how to reason
logically. Application of the acquired skills and knowledge in the right contexts is
also emphasized, making appropriate assumptions and making reasonable
judgments. For this and more to happen, the Australian government had laid
emphasis on the need to provide students with the appropriate home and school
environment to nurture those skills. This comes in recognition of the important
role played by the learning environment. Schools are the most formal structures
that students attend to access their learning experiences that will enable them to
be numerate citizens. Moving to East Africa and specifically Tanzania, teaching
and learning environment is still lacking with classrooms being congested with an
average teacher-student ratio of 1:50. This minimizes effectiveness in teaching
and learning and could be one of the factors contributing to low academic
achievements as highlighted by Uwezo (2014) and hence the need to explore the
state of affairs in the Tanzania pre-primary schools.
A 2007 survey on parents' attitude towards students’ numeracy achievements and
the school curriculum provided findings that triggered an array of reactions
among the education stakeholders. The survey employed a telephone based
random sample of 2000 parents of primary school pupils to gather the required
data. The biggest percentage of the parents (91.2%) believed that the school
curriculum plays a major role in students’ numeracy achievements. What could
be surprising is the fact that only a small percentage of the sample (8.8%) were of
37
a different opinion. This survey therefore highlights that the numeracy curriculum
used in schools could account for some percentage of the variations in pupils'
numeracy achievement. However, this study only targeted the primary school
parents and therefore there is need to explore this issue further to find out whether
it replicates in the pre-primary level or it’s different.
Since 2009, Uwezo has carried out surveys annually to find out what our students
are learning is school. These surveys are based in East Africa that is Kenya,
Uganda and Tanzania mainland. The reports from these surveys have continually
highlighted the decline in the numeracy and literacy achievements in the primary
schools. Jones (2012) conducted an analysis of these Uwezo surveys in Kenya
and highlighted that most of the challenges facing the teachers in schools include;
students and teachers absenteeism, large class sizes beyond the recommended size
of forty pupils per class. School retention was another challenge that was
highlighted especially in the arid and semi-arid areas. However, Jones (2012) did
not implicitly relate the highlighted challenges with evidenced low numeracy
achievements in the schools. Therefore the need to explore these factors further to
find out whether there a correlation between them and the numeracy
achievements. Further, these factors were singled out from the primary school
level and hence the need to find out whether the same factors prevail in the pre-
primary level.
38
2.7 Summary
The reviewed literature focused on the importance of teacher education and the
impact it has on the teaching and learning process and precisely the acquisition of
numeracy skills. Equipping teachers with the appropriate skills helps them to
deliver the content in the appropriate manner hence making the students benefit
fully from these learning experiences and improving their learning outcomes.
Available studies have focused on the teacher education and its importance in
predicting student academic outcomes at the primary and secondary levels. Very
little literature existed on the role of teacher education and its impact on pre-
primary pupils learning outcomes and hence the need to explore this area to find
out the state of affairs in the pre-primary level notwithstanding the importance of
this phase of learning in life.
Studies on the teacher education and the acquisition of numeracy skills focused on
teacher education and general academic achievements of the students. The few
studies that focused on the teacher effectiveness and numeracy skills focused on
the primary and secondary levels consequently having very little literature on
teacher education and acquisition of numeracy skills at the pre-primary level. It is
therefore necessary to explore this phenomenon at the pre-primary level to bring
to book the state of affairs as they are in this level.
39
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the procedure used in the study. It describes the research
design, the study locale, the target population, the study variables, sample and
sampling techniques. In addition, instruments to be used to collect data are
described and justified. Further, methods of establishing validity and reliability of
the instruments, data analysis and presentation are also addressed. The researcher
has also highlighted the logical and ethical considerations adhered to in the
research process.
3.2 Research Design
The study was a mixed-method research adopting a correlational and descriptive
survey research designs. The mixed method approach was deemed appropriate
for the study because it allowed the researcher to explore the problem at hand in
multiple ways. Correlational research design enabled the researcher to show the
nature of the relationship between teacher education and acquisition of numeracy
skills while descriptive design was used to describe that relationship. Kothari
(1990) purports that use of descriptive survey research design enables the
researcher to establish and intensively examine the relationship between variables
which in this case are teacher education and numeracy achievement at the pre-
primary level.
40
3.3 Variables
This study had two levels of variables. Independent variable included teacher
education comprising of teachers' level of training, duration of training, mode of
training and the curriculum used for teacher training. The dependent variable was
the level of acquisition of numeracy skills by pre-primary school pupils. The
measurement and scoring of these variables is detailed in section 3.3.1 and 3.3.2.
3.3.1 Independent Variables
There were four independent variables. These were related to teacher education in
pre-primary school. They include:
(a) Level of training - The level of training referred to the professional
qualification of the pre-primary teacher. Teacher’s professional
qualification was measured in terms of the highest professional
qualification the teacher has attained. This included ECDE certificate,
diploma in ECDE, bachelor’s degree and master’s degree. The numeracy
achievements of pre-primary pupils taught by teachers with different
levels of training were correlated using the Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) to see whether there is any significant difference at .05 level of
confidence. The correlation attained was attributed to the level of training
and not any other variable.
(b) Mode of Training-This variable was explored from two perspectives; the
pre-service and the in-service. The pre-service teachers included those
41
teachers who had undergone a full time teacher training course while the
in-service teachers were those who took the training while still teaching.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to establish whether there was
any significant correlation between pupils’ numeracy achievement and
teachers’ mode of training significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
(c) Duration of Training- This was measured in terms of the length of time
the teacher was on training which included, training period of less than
one year, between 1 to 2 years, between 2 to 4 years and more than four
years. The pupils’ achievement in numeracy skills were measured against
different durations of training to examine whether there is any significant
correlation between different durations of teacher training and numeracy
achievement. Analysis of Variance was done at 0.05 level of confidence.
(d) Curriculum used for Training- This variable was examined with
reference to the various teacher training curricula in Tanzania. There are
pre-primary teachers that are trained using the Technical Education
Training (TET) curriculum, the Montessori curriculum trained teachers,
private colleges/institutions trained teachers and the Universities trained
teachers. Analysis of Variance was done to examine whether there was
any significant correlation in pupils’ numeracy achievement based on the
curriculum used to train their teachers at 0.05 level of confidence.
42
3.3.2 Dependent Variable
The dependent variable in this study was the pre-primary pupils' level of
numeracy skills. The pre-primary pupils' competency in numeracy was assessed
through a self-constructed test administered by the researcher. Various numeracy
strands were featured in the test and scored as follows; number formation (50
marks), shapes (12 marks), addition and subtraction (12 marks), fractions
(4marks), patterns (6 marks), number value (8 marks) and number names (8
marks).
3.4 Research Locale
This study was carried out in Kinondoni district in Dar es Salaam. The district is
one of the three districts in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Kinondoni is one of the
Northernmost districts compared to the other two which are Ilala and Temeke.
There are various formal and informal pre-primary schools in the district that
follow different curriculum. The pre-primary teachers in the district have acquired
their training from different institutions and for different periods of time. There
are those who went to the privately owned colleges while others went to the
University for training. There was no harmony in the teacher education with some
teachers having gone through pre-service training while others had undergone the
in-service training. Pre-primary schools in the ward used different numeracy
curriculum depending on their sponsorship. Most of the public pre-primary
schools for example used the national curriculum while most of the privately
43
owned pre-primary schools use a localized curriculum. The levels of training also
varied among the pre-primary school teachers with some being certificate holders,
diploma and others are degree holders. Figure 3 show the study locale.
This district was targeted because according Uwezo’s report of 2013 the literacy
and numeracy skills were below the expected standards and the lowest compared
to the other two districts. Further, the group was targeted because of the
importance of this level of child’s education which is said to lay the foundation
for future education and social success (Wanjohi, 2014).
3.5 Target Population
The target population for this study included all pre-primary pupils and their
teachers in Hananasif Ward, Kinondoni district Dar es Salaam. The target
population comprised of 160 pre-primary schools and 160 pre-primary teachers in
the Ward. With each school having an average of 40 pupils, the total number of
pre-primary pupils targeted was therefore approximately 6400.
3.6 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques
The techniques and sample size for the study are described in sub-sections below.
3.6.1 Sampling Techniques
The researcher employed multistage sampling technique. The technique entailed
proportionate sampling in various stages from the target population. Kinondoni
district was purposively selected due to the fact that it has the largest number of
44
pre-primary school pupils according to 2012 census. Simple random sampling
was employed to select 16 out of 160 schools which formed 10% of the pre-
primary schools in the district. The teachers to be sampled were automatically the
class teachers of the sampled schools. Systematic sampling was used to get ten
pre-primary pupils from each of the 16 schools. The 16 teachers were given the
questionnaires and were required to complete them the same day as the pupils sit
for the teacher constructed numeracy test. The test was marked by the researcher
and the worksheets taken for data analysis.
3.6.2 Sample Size
The study was carried out in 16 pre-primary schools; eight of them were private
and the other eight were public. One teacher from each of the sampled pre-
primary schools took part in the study. This gave a total of 16 pre-primary
teachers. 160 pupils took part in this study; 10 from each of the 16 schools
sampled. Gay (1992) has shown that the sample size of 10% to 30% of the total
population is adequate for descriptive research. Table 4 presents the sample of the
study.
3.7 Research Instruments
The researcher used a questionnaire and self-constructed test to gather the
required data.
45
3.7.1 Questionnaires for the Teachers
Semi-structured questionnaire was used with the pre-primary school teachers to
gather data in this study. The questionnaire contained both closed ended and
open- ended questions to elicit the required response from the respondents. The
questionnaire was divided into four sections; section one was the introduction and
specific instructions to the respondents, section two was general information of
the respondents, section three was specific information for objectives one to four
and section four was open-ended questions addressing objective five and six.
The questionnaire was used because of the non-bias status since the researcher
was not present when the respondents were filling them in. Hence, the
respondents filled them freely without fear of being intimidated.
3.7.2 Self- Constructed Tests for the Pupils
Self-constructed test was used by the researcher to find out the numeracy level of
the pre-primary pupils in this study. The test aimed at measuring the pupils’
knowledge and understanding on different numeracy skills. The researcher
followed a systematic process during the construction of the test. First, the
researcher had to look at the numeracy syllabus at the pre-primary level to
establish the content and objectives to be covered at this level. In consultation
with the pre-primary teachers and other experts from the Open University of Dar
es Salaam, a simple numeracy test was constructed. The teachers were given a
chance to go through the items in the test before the final draft is made. The
46
researcher selected some items covering all the areas of numeracy skills at the
pre-primary level as given in the syllabus. A test comprising of eight
questions/items was finally ready for use by the pre-primary pupils during the
study. This test was piloted before use and any necessary amendments made
before the actual study.
3.8 Pilot Study
A pilot study was carried out in four pre-primary schools (two public and two
private) with four pre-primary teachers and forty pre-primary pupils to identify
the items that could be inadequate and ambiguous and make necessary
adjustments. Simple random sampling was used to select ten pupils from each of
the four classes. Class teachers of the identified classes were automatically
sampled. Piloting aimed at assessing the reliability and the validity of the research
instruments.
3.8.1 Reliability of the Research Instruments
The researcher used the split half method to establish the internal consistency of
the instrument and assess the reliability of the research instruments. This
technique required only one session of testing and involved splitting the test
scores into two parts (odd and even numbers) and finding the correlation between
the halves. Spear-man-Brown Ranking Method of testing correlation was used.
The test was only reliable if the scores from the two halves have a high positive
association, which is above 0.7. The researcher also assessed the consistency of
47
responses in the instruments to find out whether the questionnaires provided
reliable information.
Secondly, triangulation which entailed the cross-examination of the data from
different respondents was also used to establish reliability.
3.8.2 Validity of the Research Instruments
To ensure the validity of the research instruments, the researcher ensured that all
the objectives of the study are addressed in the items contained in the instruments.
To strengthen the validity, the researcher had the content of the questionnaire
examined by experts including the supervisors to evaluate the clarity of items in
the instruments. This ensured appropriate wording, vocabularies, sentence
structure and the suitability of the items to the respondents.
The researcher also did an item analysis of the variables relating to the teacher
education; level of teacher training, mode and duration of training and finally the
type of the curriculum used in training the teachers. The aim of item analysis was
to ensure that the items in the instrument represented the independent and the
dependent variables under this study.
To corroborate the data provided in the instruments, the researcher used the
triangulation technique in trying to find out how different subjects responded to
the same items in the instrument. The researcher compared the responses from
different respondents and assessed the consistency in their responses. If the
48
variation in the responses was high, then the instrument was reviewed and
necessary adjustment made.
3.9 Data Collection
This was done in two stages:
3.9.1 Pre-Visit to the Sampled Schools
The researcher had a prior visit to the sampled schools to familiarize herself with
the respondents. The researcher informed the respondents of her expectations and
the purpose of the study. This was aimed at reducing anxiety and developing a
rapport. During this familiarization visit, the researcher carried out activities
similar to those that were carried out during the study. Some of these activities
included classroom visits during the numeracy lessons. This helped them to feel
free during the actual study. The researcher responded to any questions raised by
the respondents during her visit.
3.9.2 The Actual Study Visit
During this phase, the questionnaires were administered to the teachers in
envelops in which to enclose the completed questionnaires to ensure
confidentiality. The researcher went through the head teachers’ office to report
her presence. She then proceeded to the classrooms to give the questionnaires to
the teachers. Personal delivery of questionnaires enabled the researcher to clarify
issues and get immediate feedback. The researcher allowed enough time to the
respondents to fill in the questionnaires and collected them in person. As the

49
teachers completed the questionnaires, the researcher administered the numeracy
test to the pupils and also allowed them enough time (one hour) to answer the
questions from the self-constructed test. Once completed, the researcher collected
both the questionnaires and the test worksheet for data analysis.
3.10 Logistical and Ethical Considerations
This study considered following ethical and logistical issues:
3.10.1 Logistical Considerations
Before embarking on this study, the researcher sought permission from the
relevant authorities. A letter of authorization from the graduate school, Kenyatta
University was sought and thereafter a research permit was obtained from the
Tanzania Ministry of Education through the Kinondoni District Education Office
(D E O). Permission from the head teachers of the 16 schools included in the
sample was sought too.
3.10.2 Ethical Considerations
The researcher ensured that the principle of free and voluntary participation was
adhered to. This principle requires that the respondents or the subjects are not
coerced into participating in any research. The researcher ensured that she
explained the purpose and the benefits of taking part in this study which is in line
with the principle of the informed consent. The respondents were made aware of
how the results of this study were to be used. The researcher also assured the
respondents that their identity would not be disclosed to any person who is not
50
involved in this study hence observing the principle of anonymity. The
respondents also were assured of the total confidentiality in the sense that any
information that they shared was handled with confidence and not to be disclosed
to anyone who is not part of the study. The respondents were also notified that
they are free to withdraw from the study at any point if they feel they are not
comfortable to continue.
3.11 Data Analysis
The data analysis was guided by the objectives of the study. These were: to find
out whether the duration of teacher training has a relationship with pre-primary
pupils' acquisition of numeracy skills; to determine whether there is a relationship
between the level of teacher training and the acquisition of numeracy skills at pre-
primary school level; to assess whether the curriculum used in training the pre-
primary teachers influences the pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievements; to
establish whether the mode of teacher-training influences the pre-primary pupils'
numeracy achievements; to identify areas in which teachers with different
curriculum backgrounds feel inadequate/challenging while teaching numeracy
skills to the pre-primary students and finally to explore school factors that
influence acquisition of numeracy skills.
The data was analyzed using both the qualitative and quantitative data analysis
approaches. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics according
to objective one to four. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine any
51
significant relationship between the variables of the study. The one-way analysis
of variance was because it enabled the researcher to determine whether there were
any statistically significant differences between the means of four sub-categories
of independent variables. Descriptive statistics that were calculated included
frequencies mean scores and percentages and were used in presenting the
findings.
Using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) the study hypotheses; Ho1, Ho2, Ho3 and
Ho4 stated below were tested at the significance level of 0.05:
Ho1: There is no relationship between the duration of teacher-training and
the pre- primary pupils' acquisition of numeracy skills at .05 level of
confidence using ANOVA.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between the level of teacher-
training and pre-primary pupils' numeracy achievements at .05 level of
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between teacher-training curricula and
the pre-primary pupils' numeracy achievements at .05 level of confidence
using ANOVA.
Ho4: There is no significant difference in numeracy achievements between pre-
primary pupils taught by teachers who went through the pre-service
training and those that were trained while in-service at .05 level of
52
Qualitative data collected through questionnaires was summarized and
categorized according to objective five and six. The categorization helped to bring
out the results into common themes, trends and patterns that formed the base for
discussions of findings. These results were presented descriptively.
Post Hoc Tests were ran to confirm where the differences occurred between
groups.
53
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS, INTERPRETATION AND

DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings, interpretations and discussion as per the
objectives and hypotheses of the study. To reiterate the objectives this study were:
(a) To find out whether the duration of teacher training has a relationship with
(b) To determine whether there is a relationship between the level of teacher
training and the acquisition of numeracy skills at pre-primary school level.
(c) To assess whether the curriculum used in training the pre-primary teachers
influences the pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievements.
(d) To establish whether the mode of teacher-training influences the pre-
primary pupils' numeracy achievements.
(e) To explore teacher factors that influence acquisition of numeracy skills.
The hypotheses formulated and tested in this study were:
Ho1: There is no relationship between the duration of teacher-training and
the pre- primary pupils' acquisition of numeracy skills.
54
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between the level of teacher-
training and pre - primary pupils' numeracy achievements.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between teacher-training curricula and
the pre-primary pupils' numeracy achievements.
Ho4: There is no significant difference in numeracy achievements between pre-
primary pupils taught by teachers who went through the pre-service
training and those that were trained while in-service.
4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the respondents
Information regarding the respondents ‘education level, duration of training,
curriculum used for training and mode to training was collected through the
questionnaire and presented using frequencies and percentages as shown in the
table below.
55
Table 4.1: Demographic characteristics of the respondents
Variables Frequency Percentage
Level of training Cert in ECE 8 50.0
Dip in ECE 6 37.5
Cert in PTE 1 6.3
B. ed 1 6.3
Duration of Below 1 year 2 12.5

Training 1-2 years 11 68.8
2 – 4 years 2 12.5
Over 4 years 1 6.3
Curriculum used TET 7 43.8

for teacher Montessori 1 6.3
training Private college 7 43.8
University 1 6.3
Mode of training Pre-service(full 10 62.5

time)
IBP 5 31.3
ODEL 1 6.3
Results in Table 4.1 shows that majority (50 %) of the teachers had Certificate in
Early Childhood Education as their highest level of training .Quite a significant
number (37.5%) of teachers were diploma holders in ECE. In terms of the
duration of training, it was observed that majority (68.8%) of the teachers had
their training for a period of one to two years. This could possibly be explained by
the fact that most of them were certificate holders where most of certificate
courses take two years before their completion. In terms of the curriculum used
for training, there was quite a balance between teachers who preferred to go
through TET and private colleges’ curriculum both having 43.8%. Full time
training was the most popular mode of training with 62.5% of the sampled
56
teachers having gone through it. Institutional Based Program was also preferred
by a significant number of teachers at 31.3%.
4.3 Relationship between Duration of Teacher Training and Pupils’

Acquisition of Numeracy Skills
The first objective of this study was to find out whether there is a relationship
between the duration of teacher training and the acquisition of numeracy skills in
the pre-primary level in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam. To compute the
duration of teacher training, teachers were required to indicate how long their
training lasted on the provided questionnaire.
The frequencies and percentages of the scores were calculated. Each category of
duration of training was correlated with the mean scores of numeracy
achievements of pupils taught by those teachers. Any difference in the numeracy
achievement was assumed to be related to the duration of teacher training with all
the others determinants held constant. Table 4.2 shows the overall numeracy
achievement for the 16 schools.
57
Table 4.2: Mean Scores of Pupils Numeracy Achievement in Kinondoni
District
Public School Mean Score in Private School Mean Score in
Numeracy Numeracy
1 65.4 A 72.4
2 58.0 B 86.0
3 77.0 C 90.4
4 65.6 D 93.2
5 64.8 E 91.6
6 70.3 F 99.4
7 73.2 G 94.6
8 60.6 H 97.6
Mean score 66.8 90.7
Table 4.2 shows that pupils’ achievement in numeracy skills was above average
in most of the schools. However, as clearly shown from their performance, the
pupils from the private schools performed better than their public schools
counterparts. This could be caused by a string of factors like competition,
remuneration, availability of teaching and learning resources, teacher -pupil ratio
among others. Table 4.3 presents the results of pupils’ numeracy achievement
according to teachers’ duration of training.
58
Duration of Teacher Training
95%
Confidence
Interval for
Mean
Std. Lower Upper
N Mean Deviation Bound Bound Minimum Maximum
Below 1
20 69.40 16.61 61.63 77.17 26.00 90.00
year
1-2 year 110 79.71 19.16 76.09 83.33 20.00 100.00
2-3 year 20 74.80 22.93 64.07 85.53 26.00 100.00
Over 4
10 94.60 9.24 87.99 101.21 70.00 100.00
year
Average 160 78.74 19.54 75.69 81.79 20.00 100.00
Results in Table 4.3 illustrate the mean differences among the four levels. A
comparison of means in numeracy achievement as per the four levels of training
indicated a difference in numeracy scores based on different durations of teacher
training. Teachers with the highest duration of training (over 4 years) had the
highest numeracy achievement with the pupils earning a mean score of 94.6. This
could possibly be due the much knowledge and skills they have gained in school
translating to higher content coverage eventually leading to better numeracy
achievements for their students.
Teachers whose training lasted between 1-2 years had their pupils attain a
significantly high (79.7) mean score in numeracy. This group could possibly be
the diploma or certificate holders. Their relatively high numeracy achievement
could be based on the fact that they are trying to apply all the techniques they
learnt in college and possibly this translated to better numeracy achievements for
59
their pupils.
Following closely with a mean score of 74.8 were the teachers whose training
lasted between 2-3 years. Arguably, this group would be expected to perform
better than previous discussed group (1-2 years).If longer duration of teacher
training translated to high numeracy achievement, then this group would be
ranked in the second position. However, there could be other factors that probably
caused this scenario. Maybe, these teachers could be demotivated comparing the
number of years they spent in training and their remuneration. This could possibly
be one but not the only factor causing this phenomenon.
The least trained teachers in the district registered the lowest numeracy
achievement with a mean score of 69.4. This group of teachers could possibly be
those who went through short-courses through induction and sent to work in the
pre-primary schools. Notably, all these teachers were found to be working in the
public pre-primary schools. Further, it was observed that these teachers had
stayed in those schools for more than ten years. Therefore, their low numeracy
achievement could be related to the above premise but also it could be due to lack
of adequate skills and exposure, fatigue, low remuneration, teacher pupil ratio
among other factors.
The above findings are supported by Harris (2008) whose study on teacher
training revealed that there is a correlation between the duration of teacher
training and the students’ achievements in their learning. This perspective is also
60
supported by Hanushek (1986) who also argued that the effectiveness of the
teacher is based on the duration of training hence the longer the duration of
training, the more efficient and effective a teacher is leading to better results.
Findings in Table 4.3 illustrate that there were mean differences in numeracy
achievements among the four levels. Further analysis was done to find out
whether the relationship between duration of teacher training and acquisition of
numeracy skills was significant leading to formulation of the following
hypothesis.
Ho1: There is no relationship between the duration of teacher-training
and the pre- primary pupils' acquisition of numeracy skills.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to establish whether the relationship
between duration of teacher training and acquisition of numeracy skills was
significant and the results are presented in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: ANOVA of Duration of Training and Pupils’ Numeracy

achievements
Asymp.
Sum of Sig.(2-
Squares Df Mean Square F sided)
Between Groups 4673.88 3 1557.96 4.339 .006
Within Groups 56011.09 156 359.05
Total 60684.98 159
As shown in Table 4.4 above, it is clear that there is a significance relationship
between duration of teacher training and numeracy achievement (F= 4.339, P<
61
0.05). The F value is significant at 95% confidence limit. The results suggest that
teachers with the longest duration of training produced better numeracy scores.
Therefore, the null hypothesis that stated there is no significant relationship
between the duration of training and numeracy achievement is rejected since the
significance was < 0.05 and the alternative hypothesis accepted. This means that
there is a significant relationship between the duration of teacher training and
acquisition of numeracy skills in pre-primary.
Post Hoc comparison technique was used to determine the exact durations where
significant differences existed and the results are shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Post Hoc Tests for Numeracy Achievements versus the Duration
of Training
95% Confidence
Mean Interval
(I) Duration of (J) Duration of Difference Lower Upper
training training (I-J) Sig. Bound Bound
Below 1 year 1-2 year
-10.30909* .027 -19.4075 -1.2107
2-4 year -5.40000 .369 -17.2360 6.4360
Over 4 year -25.20000* .001 -39.6961 -10.7039
1-2 year Below 1 year 10.30909* .027 1.2107 19.4075
2-4 year 4.90909 .288 -4.1893 14.0075
Over 4 year -14.89091* .019 -27.2532 -2.5286
2-4 year Below 1 year 5.40000 .369 -6.4360 17.2360
1-2 year -4.90909 .288 -14.0075 4.1893
Over 4 year -19.80000* .008 -34.2961 -5.3039
Over 4 year Below 1 year 25.20000* .001 10.7039 39.6961
1-2 year 14.89091* .019 2.5286 27.2532
2-4 year 19.80000* .008 5.3039 34.2961
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
62
Post Hoc Test results on Table 4.5 indicate a significant difference between
numeracy achievement for teachers trained below 1 year and for those trained
between 1-2 years, with latter having a higher mean (P = 0.027). It also indicated
a significant difference for those trained below 1 year and those trained over 4
years with latter having a higher mean(P = 0.001). These results suggest that
teachers with longer duration of training produced better numeracy scores than
those with shorter training periods. No significant difference was found between
numeracy achievements for pupils trained by teachers below 1 year and those
trained for 2-4 years. This could be because the freshly trained teachers are highly
motivated in their new career but it could be argued that as they progress in their
training they get demotivated due to other factors such as low remuneration and
maybe desire to change career. Those trained over 4 years had significantly
higher mean score than all the others with lower duration of training (P = 0.001).
This is not surprising because they could be more skilled and probably more
settled in their career hence their pupils have higher numeracy achievement.
To develop a better understanding of which specific numeracy strand had a higher
significance than the other on the duration of teacher training, Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient was done .The results are presented in Table 4.6.
63
Table 4.6: Relationship between Duration of Teacher Training and
Numeracy Achievement per Strand
Numeracy Strand Pearson Correlation ( r ) Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Number formation .079 .324
Shape .315** .000
Addition .142 .074
Subtraction .111 .161
Fraction .145 .065
Pattern .084 .290
Number value -0.091 .251
Number names -0.027 .738
** The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level.
The findings in Table 4.6 shows that shape had the highest significance with the
duration of training(r = 0.315**, P < 0.05). This means that teachers with the
various durations of training experienced some challenges in teaching shapes than
the other numeracy strands. All the other strands were found not significant to the
duration of training as P > 0.05. This could mean that increase in the duration of
teacher training leads to increase in numeracy achievement especially in shapes.
4.4 Relationship between Level of Teacher Training and Pupils’ Acquisition

of Numeracy Skills
The second objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between
level of teacher training and numeracy achievements. Teachers’ responses to the
items in the questionnaire ranged from certificate in ECE, diploma in ECE, degree
in ECE and certificate in PTE. To establish the relationship between the level of
teacher training and pupils’ numeracy achievement, the teachers’ levels of
training and pupils numeracy scores were computed as shown in Table 4.7.
64
Level of Training
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Std. Lower Upper
Cert
80 71.93 17.80 67.96 75.89 24.00 100.00
ECE
Dip
60 93.53 8.90 91.23 95.83 54.00 100.00
ECE
Cert
10 58.00 19.91 43.76 72.24 26.00 82.00
PTE
B Ed 10 65.20 22.18 49.34 81.06 20.00 92.00
Total 160 78.74 19.54 75.69 81.79 20.00 100.00
The findings in Table 4.7 indicate that pupils who were taught by teachers with
Diploma in ECE had the highest numeracy achievement with a mean score of
93.5 while those pupils taught by teachers with certificate in Primary Teacher
Education(PTE) registered the lowest mean score(58.0). These findings suggest
that specialization in ECE gives teachers advantage in handling pre-primary
classes since even those teachers with certificate in ECE registered better results
than those with a degree in Primary Education.
The above findings are supported by the Commission on National Education
(1959) report which highlighted that the teachers’ academic qualification,
knowledge of the subject matter, competence and skills impacts on the teaching
and learning process consequently influencing the students learning outcomes.
Asu (2004) supported the same premise arguing that teachers’ professional
65
development improves their performance hence leading to better students learning
outcomes.
The study also found that pupils who were taught by teachers with certificate in
ECE had significantly high numeracy scores registering a mean score of 71.9.
Majority of these teachers were found to have interest in continuing with studies
in ECE. The relatively high numeracy scores by this category of teachers could be
related to their motivation in their career path hence giving it their best.
Pupils taught by teachers with Bachelors of Education (primary option) came in at
third position with a mean score of 65.2. This is relatively low compared to those
taught by teachers with Diploma in ECE whose mean score was 93.5. This could
be possibly explained by the reasoning that these graduates prefer to teach in
tertiary colleges as opposed to pre-primary schools. It could also be explained by
the fact that ECE teachers remuneration is still on the lower edge and these
teachers feel demotivated. Studies on teacher motivation and remuneration have
demonstrated that poor teacher remuneration positively impacts on their
performance. Gritz and Theobold (1996) found compensation to be the most
important influence on the decision to remain in the job for teachers. Similarly,
Tuck and Hawe (1999, cited by Buckley, 2004) reported that financial rewards
and work overload to be among the main causes of stress among teachers in New
Zealand impacting negatively on their performance. The status quo could also
came in play here where these teachers feel that graduates are not meant for this
kind of job.
66
To establish whether the differences in numeracy achievement based on levels of
training was significant; the following hypothesis was formulated and tested.
Ho2: There is no relationship between the level of teacher-training and the
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the relationship between
level of teacher training and acquisition of numeracy skills was significant and the
results are presented in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8: ANOVA Table for Level of training as per Numeracy Scores
Asymp.
Sum of Mean Sig. ( 2-
Squares df Square F sided)
Between Groups 22980.89 3 7660.30 31.694 .000
Within Groups 37704.08 156 241.69
Total 60684.98 159
The findings in Table 4.8 show that there is a significance relationship between
level of teacher training and numeracy achievement (F= 31.694, P< 0.05). The F
value is significant at 95% confidence limit. Therefore, the null hypothesis that
stated there was no significant relationship between the level of training and
numeracy achievement was rejected while the alternative hypothesis which
stated that there is a significant relationship between teachers’ level of training
and pupils’ numeracy achievement was accepted. These findings imply that
pupils taught by teachers with different levels of training are likely to produce
67
different results. However, it would be expected that teachers with Bachelors of
Education produce better results than those with Diplomas and Certificate which
was not the case in this study. Probably the difference could be attributed to the
type of course undertaken as those teachers with high numeracy scores
specialized in ECE while those with Bachelors of Education specialized in
primary education.
Post Hoc Test was used to determine the exact levels of training where the
significant difference existed. The findings were as shown in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9: Post Hoc Test for Numeracy Achievement versus the level of
Training
95% Confidence
Interval
Mean
(I) Level of (J) Level of Difference Lower Upper
Cert ECE Dip ECE -21.60833* .000 -26.8529 -16.3638
Cert Pry 13.92500* .008 3.6250 24.2250
B Ed 6.72500 .199 -3.5750 17.0250
Dip ECE Cert ECE 21.60833* .000 16.3638 26.8529
Cert Pry 35.53333* .000 25.0443 46.0224
B Ed 28.33333* .000 17.8443 38.8224
Cert Pry Cert ECE -13.92500* .008 -24.2250 -3.6250
Dip ECE -35.53333* .000 -46.0224 -25.0443
B Ed -7.20000 .302 -20.9334 6.5334
B Ed Cert ECE -6.72500 .199 -17.0250 3.5750
Dip ECE -28.33333* .000 -38.8224 -17.8443
Cert Pry 7.20000 .302 -6.5334 20.9334
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Post Hoc Test results from Table 4.9 indicated a significant difference between
68
numeracy achievement for pupils taught by teachers with certificate in ECE and
for those taught by teachers with Diploma in ECE with latter having a higher
mean(P < 0.05). The study also found out that there was a significant difference in
numeracy achievement for pupils taught by teachers with certificate in ECE and
those taught by teachers with certificate in PTE with the latter having a mean of
p=.008. However, no significant difference was found in numeracy achievements
for certificate in ECE holders and the Bachelors of Education holders with the
latter having p = 0.199.
For the Diploma in ECE, there was a relatively high significance with all the other
levels of training where all of them recorded a mean of p<.05. These results seem
to suggest that diploma in ECE trained teachers produces better numeracy
achievements compared to all the other levels of education. The results also
indicate that there was a significant difference in numeracy achievement for
teachers who had a certificate in PTE and those with certificate in ECE with the
latter having a higher mean (p=.008). A high significant difference also existed
between teachers with certificate in PTE and those with Diploma in ECE with the
latter having P < 0.05.
significance than the other on the level of teacher training, Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient was used .The results are presented in Table
4.10.
69
Table 4.10: Relationship between Level of Teacher Training and Numeracy
Achievement per Strand
Numeracy Strand Pearson Correlation ( r Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
)
Number formation -0.076 .342
Shape -0.198* .012
Addition -0.051 .526
Subtraction -0.091 .252
Fraction .122 .125
Pattern -0.143 .710
Number value -0.128 .018
Number names -0.171* .031
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
The findings in Table 4.10 shows that shape had the highest significance with the
level of training (r = -0.198*, p = 0.012). This means that teachers with various
levels of training experienced some challenges in teaching shapes than the other
numeracy strands. Number names was also found to have a significant
relationship with level of training (r = -0.171*, P = 0.031). These findings
suggests that there a significantly low negative correlation between level of
training and number names. Meaning, the variations in numeracy achievements of
pupils taught by teachers with different levels of training could be traced to their
understanding and performance in number names. All the other strands were
found not significant to the level of teacher training as P > 0.05. This could mean
that increase in the level of teacher training leads to increase in numeracy
achievement especially in shapes and number names.
70
4.5 Relationship between Curriculum Used for Teacher Training and Pupils’
Acquisition of Numeracy Skills
The third objective of this study was to find out whether there was any significant
relationship between curriculum used for teacher training and pupils’ numeracy
achievement. Teachers’ responses to the items in the questionnaire ranged from
Tanzania Education Training (TET), Montessori curriculum, Private colleges
curriculum and the university curriculum. Curriculum used for training was
established from the questionnaires administered to the pre-primary teachers and
measured against pupils’ numeracy scores as shown in table 4.11.
Table 4.11: Means and Standard Deviations of Numeracy scores as per

Curriculum used for Training
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Std. Lower Upper
TET 70 71.69 18.28 67.33 76.05 24.00 98.00
Montessori 10 94.60 9.24 87.99 101.21 70.00 100.00
Private
70 85.46 17.62 81.23 89.66 26.00 100.00
college
University 10 65.20 22.17 49.34 81.06 20.00 92.00
Total 16 78.74 19.54 75.69 81.79 20.00 100.0
The findings in Table 4.11 show that pupils who were taught by Montessori
trained teachers had the highest numeracy achievement with a mean of 94.60.
This could be explained by Montessori’s philosophy that advocates for children to
be provided with hands-on activities and experiences to help them concretize their
learning.
71
Teachers who were trained using the Private college curriculum had their pupils
acquire significantly high numeracy scores with a mean of 85.46. These results
suggest that children who were taught by Private college trained teachers are
likely to have better numeracy achievement than those taught by teachers trained
through Tanzania Education Training (TET) curriculum whose mean score was
71.69.
Surprisingly, pupils who were taught by university curriculum trained teachers
recorded the lowest numeracy scores with a mean of 65.20. This confirms the
earlier findings where pupils taught by Bachelor degree holders performed poorer
than the lower levels of training. The reasons to this scenario could be similar
with those discussed or others therefore calling for more research in this field.
Further analysis was done to find out whether the relationship between curricula
used for teacher training and acquisition of numeracy skills was significant. To
test the result, the following hypothesis was formulated and tested.
Ho3: There is no relationship between the curriculum used for teacher-
training and the pre- primary pupils' acquisition of numeracy skills.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was done to find out whether the relationship
between the curricula used for teacher training and acquisition of numeracy skills
was significant and the results are presented in Table 4.12.
72
Table 4.12: ANOVA Table for Curriculum used for Teacher Training versus
Numeracy Scores
Sum of Mean Asymp. Sig. (

Squares df Square F 2-sided)
Between Groups
10990.52 3663.51 11.50 .000
3
Within Groups 49694.46 156 318.55
Total 60684.98 159
Results in Table 4.12 show that there is a significance relationship between the
curriculum used for teacher training and numeracy achievement (F = 11.50, P<
0.05). The F value is significant at 95% confidence limit. Therefore, the null
hypothesis that stated there was no significant relationship between the
curriculum used for teacher training and pre-primary pupils numeracy
achievement was rejected. These results suggest that the differences in pre-
primary pupils’ numeracy achievement could be traced back to the curriculum
used to train their teachers. Post Hoc Tests were used to determine the exact
levels where the significant difference exists as shown in Table 4.13.
73
Table 4.13: Post Hoc Test for Numeracy Achievement according to the
Curriculum Used for Teacher Training
95% Confidence
Mean Interval
(J) Difference Lower Upper
(I) Curriculum Curriculum (I-J) Sig. Bound Bound
TET Montessori -22.91429* .000 -34.8327 -10.9959
Private
-13.77143* .000 -19.7306 -7.8122
college
University
6.48571 .284 -5.4327 18.4041
college
*
Montessori TET 22.91429 .000 10.9959 34.8327
Private
9.14286 .132 -2.7755 21.0613
college
University
29.40000* .000 13.6334 45.1666
college
Private TET 13.77143* .000 7.8122 19.7306
college Montessori -9.14286 .132 -21.0613 2.7755
University
20.25714* .001 8.3387 32.1755
college
University TET -6.48571 .284 -18.4041 5.4327
college Montessori -29.40000* .000 -45.1666 -13.6334
Private
-20.25714* .001 -32.1755 -8.3387
college
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Post Hoc Test results from Table 4.13 indicate a significant difference between
numeracy achievement for pupils taught by TET trained teachers and for those
taught by Montessori trained teachers with latter having a higher mean (P < 0.05).
The study also found out that there was a significant difference in numeracy
achievement for pupils taught by TET trained teachers and the Private college
trained teachers with the latter having a mean of p < 0.05. However, no
significance was found in numeracy achievements for TET trained teachers and
the University trained teachers with the latter having a mean of p = 0.284.
74
A significant difference was also found between the Montessori trained teachers
and those trained using the private college curriculum and the TET trained
teachers (p < 0.05). No significance was found between Montessori Curriculum
and the private college curriculum with the latter having a mean of p = 0.132.
Private college curriculum was found to have a significant difference with the
university curriculum with the latter having a mean score of p < 0.05.
significance than the other on the curriculum used for teacher training, Pearson
Product Moment correlation Coefficient was used .The results are presented in
Table 4.14.
Table 4.14: Relationship between Curriculum Used for Teacher Training

and Numeracy Achievement per Strand
Numeracy Strand Pearson Correlation( r ) Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Number formation 0.108 0.174
Shape 0.345** 0.000
Addition 0.108 0.175
Subtraction 0.141 0.075
Fraction 0.264** 0.001
Pattern 0.071 0.375
Number value 0.046 0.564
Number names -0.132 0.095
75
The results in Table 4.14 shows that shape had the highest significance with the
curriculum used for teacher training (r = 0.345**, p < 0.01). These results imply
that there is a significant correlation between the curriculum used for training and
pupils’ numeracy achievement especially in shapes. A significant relationship
existed between curriculum used for training and pupils numeracy achievement
specifically in fractions(r = 0.264**, p = 0.01).
All the other strands were found not significant to the level of teacher training at p
> 0.05. This could mean that any variation in the curriculum used for teacher
training could lead to increase in numeracy achievement especially in shapes and
fractions.
4.6 Mode of Teacher Training and Acquisition of Numeracy Skills in Pre-

primary
The fourth objective of this study was to explore the probability of existence of a
relationship between the mode of teacher training and pre-primary pupils
numeracy achievement. The numeracy achievements of pupils taught by teachers
from the three modes of study were analyzed to establish whether there was any
significance. The findings are presented in Table 4.15.
76
Table 4.15: Means and Standard Deviations of Numeracy scores according to
the Mode of Teacher Training
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Std. Lower Upper
Pre-
service 100 69.86 18.80 66.13 73.59 20.00 100.00
In
service 50 92.36 9.317 89.71 95.01 54.00 100.00
IBP
In-
service 10 99.40 .97 98.72 100.09 98.00 100.00
ODEL
Total 160 78.74 19.54 75.69 81.79 20.00 100.00
The results in Table 4.15 show that the Open and Distance Learning teachers had
the highest numeracy achievements with a mean score of 99.40. These findings
suggest that pupils taught by teachers who went through the ODEL mode of study
were likely to outperform other pupils taught by teachers who went through other
modes of study. This could be explained by the unlimited amount of time these
teachers have since they do not have to leave their schools in order to learn, and
the fact that most of them possessed portable technology devices which they
could use to access course content and supportive materials anywhere there is
internet connectivity Furthermost these teachers were found to be working in
private schools where their job security was a function of the results they
produced and therefore they had to work even harder.
77
Institutional Based trained teachers came in second with their pupils having
relatively high numeracy scores with a mean of 92.36. The high score could be
attributed to the constant refreshment of skills when they attend their program.
Probably, they learn new ways of teaching from other colleagues in their program
and when they go back to their work stations they implement them. Some of these
teachers were working in the private schools where competition and demand is
very
Pre-service trained teachers recorded the lowest numeracy achievement with their
pupils having a mean score of 69.86. These findings suggest that the pre-service
mode of training produced the lowest numeracy achievements. This scenario
could be explained by many factors but one of them could be lack of exposure to
refresh their skills. All the pre-service trained teachers were found to be working
in the public schools and probably they felt that there was no need to upgrade as
they had job security.
Further analysis was done to explore whether the relationship between mode of
teacher training and acquisition of numeracy skills was significant. To test the
result, the following hypothesis was formulated and tested.
Ho4: There is no relationship between the mode of teacher-training and
pre- primary pupils' acquisition of numeracy skills
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to find out whether the relationship
78
between the mode of teacher training and acquisition of numeracy skills was
significant and the results are presented in Table 4.16.
Table 4.16: ANOVA for the Mode of Teacher Training versus Numeracy
Scores
Sum of Mean Asymp. Sig. (2-

Squares df Square F sided)
Between Groups 21429.02 2 10714.51 42.85 .000
Within Groups 39255.96 157 250.04
Total 60684.98 159
Results in Table 4.16 show that there is a significance relationship between the
mode of teacher training and pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievement (F =
42.852, P < 0.05). The F value is significant at 95% confidence limit. Therefore,
the null hypothesis that stated there was no significant relationship between the
mode of teacher training and pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievement was
rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted. Post Hoc Test was used to
determine the exact areas where the significant difference exists as shown in
Table 4.17.
79
Table 4.17: Post Hoc Test for Mean Differences versus the Mode of Teacher
Training
95% Confidence
Interval
Mean
(I) Mode of (J) Mode of Difference Lower Upper
Pre-service In service * - -
-22.50000 .000
IBP 27.9097 17.0903
In-service * - -
-29.54000 .000
ODEL 39.8988 19.1812
In service Pre-service 22.50000* .000 17.0903 27.9097
IBP In-service -
-7.04000 .201 3.7794
ODEL 17.8594
In-service Pre-service 29.54000* .000 19.1812 39.8988
ODEL In service
7.04000 .201 -3.7794 17.8594
IBP
Post Hoc Test results from Table 4.17 indicate a significant difference between
numeracy achievement for pupils taught by pre-service trained teachers and the
IBP teachers with latter having a higher mean (P < 0.05). The study also found
out that there was a significant difference in numeracy achievement for pupils
taught by teachers pre-service trained teachers and the ODEL trained teachers
with the latter having a mean of p < 0.05. These findings suggest that the
variations in numeracy achievement of pre-primary pupils could be attributed to
the mode of study their teachers took with the ODEL trained teachers having the
highest numeracy achievement.
significance than the other on the mode of teacher training, Pearson Product
80
Moment Correlation Coefficient was used .The results are presented in Table
4.18.
Table 4.18: Relationship between Mode of Teacher Training and Numeracy

Achievement per Strand
Numeracy Strand Pearson Correlation ( r ) Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Number formation 0.330** 0.000
Shape 0.677** 0.000
Addition 0.255** 0.001
Subtraction 0.237** 0.003
Fraction 0.354** 0.000
Pattern 0.553** 0.000
Number value 0.010 0.903
Number names 0.240** 0.002
The results in Table 4.18 show that the mode of study had a great significance
with all the most of the specific numeracy strands. However, shape and pattern
had the highest correlation coefficient with the mode of study at r = 0.677** and r
= 0.553** respectively. Number value had the lowest correlation(r = 0.010) with
the mode of study where p = 0.903.
81
4.8 Teacher-related Factors and Numeracy Achievements at Pre-primary
School Level
The fifth objective of this study was to explore teacher-related factors that could
impact on the acquisition of numeracy skills by the pre-primary school pupils. To
achieve this objective, the researcher used the open –ended questionnaires to
collect the required information. Table 4.19 presents the findings.
Table 4.19: Teacher-related Factors and Numeracy Achievement in Pre-

primary Schools
Teacher-related Factors Frequency Percentage
Teacher- Pupil ratio 8 50
Teaching and learning 13 81.3
resources
New syllabus 9 56.3
Teaching methods 8 50
Learning environment 7 43.8
N of valid cases was 16
As shown in Table 4.19 different teacher-related factors were highlighted by the
teachers as having an impact on numeracy achievement in pre-primary. Most
teachers (81.3%) in the district felt that availability of teaching and learning
resources is very important while teaching numeracy skills. The few of the
resources that were found in the classes were improvised by the teachers and
many of them highlighted that the school administration was not very supportive
in terms of teaching and learning resources. However, the issue was more
pronounced in the public schools than private schools. This could be attributed to
the high teacher-pupil ratio making it difficult for the teachers in the public
schools unable to make enough resources for all the pupils.
82
Adeogun (2001) studied the relationship between instructional resources and
academic performance and his findings are consistent to the finding of this study.
According to Adeogun, schools endowed with more resources performed better
than schools with fewer resources. Therefore, limited resources could be one of
the determinants of low academic achievement as purported by Adeogun. Mutai
(2006) asserted the same by emphasizing that learning is strengthened when there
are enough teaching and learning resources.
Whitebread (2012) argued that play in all its rich variety is one of the highest
achievement of human species, alongside language, culture and technology. He
added that without play none of the other achievement would be possible. The
value of play is increasingly recognized by researchers within the policy arena for
adults as well as children as the evidence mounts of its relationship with
intellectual achievement and emotional well-being. Therefore, there is need to
ensure that we provide conducive play environment for our children as a boaster
for their academic achievement. Similarly, Smilansky (1990) echoed the same
points of view that play provide intellectual stimulation as well as social growth
as reported by Waithaka (2009).
With the inception of the new curriculum in Tanzania in 2016, many teachers
have continued to experience challenges in the whole process of teaching and
learning. New curriculum was highlighted by 56.3 % of the teachers as one of the
school factors hindering numeracy achievement. Many teachers argued that they
were not provided with adequate orientation on how to implement the new
83
curriculum and consequently this could have impacted on the way they teach
numeracy skills eventually affecting the numeracy achievement of the pupils.
These findings are in harmony with Litshani (2013) who highlighted that one of
the areas that teachers feel inadequate during teaching and learning process is in
the implementation of different educational policies brought about by change in
curriculum. According to the findings of this study, inadequate resources, skills
and knowledge and lack of pre-planning on new curriculum development
adversely affect the teaching and learning in schools. It is therefore recommended
that the proposed curriculum development and reform be piloted before it is
implemented as proposed in the model for the preparation of effective curriculum
changes and development. Also, it is important to have functional curriculum
support forums and workshops at school level to support the curriculum
implementers.
Palumbo, A. and Kramer, L. (2012) in their study on America's unyielding
academic achievement gap suggested that institutions should embrace a culture of
success and follow an academic curriculum that is grounded in core knowledge
and the needs of its consumers. Further, they suggested that curriculum reviews
should be done often to assess whether it is compatible with the needs of the
students. Based on this premise, the Tanzania government reviewed its education
curriculum and incorporated the needs of its students. However, one important
thing was overlooked and that was the orientation of the curriculum implementers
who are the teachers. Consequently, this was the reason why most teachers in the
84
district felt that the new curriculum had a role to play in the numeracy
achievements of the pupils hence the need to ensure that the orientation happens
as soon as possible.
Teacher-pupil ratio was another school factor identified by 50% of the teachers
especially from public school. It was observed that some classes had a very high
(1:60) teacher-pupil ratio which could have impacted on the numeracy
achievement of the pupils. These findings are consistent with Kaloki (2012) who
stipulated that teacher-pupil ratio extensively influences pupils’ performance
negatively. Similarly, Njagi (2013) advanced that large class size (40 and above
pupils) and medium size class (12-39) performed significantly lower than small
classes (<29>). Reducing class size and teacher- student ratio to increase student
achievement is an approach that has been tried, debated, and analyzed for several
decades. The premise seems logical: with fewer students to teach, teachers can
coax better performance from each of them. The Project STAR carried out in
1980s in some states in the US focused strictly on class size and teacher –student
ratio reduction and the findings suggested that small classes with an average of
20:1 teacher ratio performed better than larger classes with over 30:1 teacher
student ratio.
Conducive physical and social learning environment was the least popular school
factor at 43.8 %. Some teachers felt that the immediate school environment
directly impacted on the pupils’ academic achievement. It was observed that there
85
were some schools especially private ones which were built next to social clubs
where loud music was played most of the time interfering with the pupils’
concentration. Similarly, it was observed that most of the public schools allowed
people to hawk things within the school compound. Many canteens were found to
operate within the school compound making them accessible to pupils even
during class time. This really impacted on learning and academic achievement at
large.
Fothergill (2016) advanced that learning environments play a significant role in
student success. The study showed how much influence environments have on
student success. Its findings showed that students who learn in positive
environments effectively receive a month and a half more math instruction than
those in poor learning environments. These findings are consistent with Odeh
(2015) who echoed the same advancing that the importance of school/learning
environment in schools today in particular cannot be overemphasized. This is
because, school environment has tremendous influence in the quality of teaching
students receives and the extent of attention they pay to lesson in school. This
implies that schools that fail to provide the necessary learning facilities and create
a conducive atmosphere for teaching and learning may hardly put in the best in
their students especially in the area of academic achievement.
86
4.9 Summary
In this chapter, the findings of the study have been presented and discussed. The
study revealed that there is a significant relationship between teacher education
and numeracy achievements of the pupils. The specific summary of the findings
per objective is presented in chapter five, and conclusions and recommendations
based on the findings are made.
87
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARRY, CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary of findings, conclusions and
recommendations. All the findings and conclusions are drawn from the study.
5.2 Summary of the findings
This study found that there was a significant relationship between teacher
education and pupils’ acquisition of numeracy skills at the pre-primary school
level. It was observed that the numeracy achievements in the studied schools
differed from one school to another based on various teacher education factors
under study. The study findings are presented as follows.
5.2.1 Duration of Teacher Training and Numeracy Achievement
The results from this study show that there was a significant relationship between
the duration of teacher training and pre-primary pupils’ numeracy achievement (F
= 4.339, P < 0.05). The results further revealed that majority (68.8%) of the pre-
primary teachers in the district were trained for a period of 1 – 2 years, 12.5% of
the teachers were trained for a period of 2 -3 years and below 1 year. Teachers
whose training was beyond 4 years were the minority at 6.3%. In terms of
numeracy achievement, teachers whose training was above 4 years had the
highest achievement with a mean score of 94.6. They were followed closely by
teachers whose training was between 1-2 years and 2 – 3 years whose numeracy
88
means were 79.7 and 74.8 respectively. Teachers with the shortest duration of
training (below 1 year) had the least numeracy achievement with a mean score of
69.4.
5.2.2 Level of Teacher Training and Numeracy Achievement
With regard to the relationship between the level of teacher training and numeracy
achievement in the district, the results revealed that there was a significant
relationship between the level of training and numeracy achievement (31.694, P <
0.05). The pre-primary teachers in the district were found to have been trained at
different levels with the certificate in ECE holders being the majority (50%).
Diploma in ECE trained teachers comprised of 37.5% of the sampled population.
Certificate in PTE and degree holders were the minority at 6.3% each. Comparing
that to the numeracy achievement, diploma in ECE holders produced the best
results with a mean score of 93.5 followed by the certificate in ECE with a mean
score of 71.9. Degree holders followed at a distant third position with a mean
score of 65.2 while certificate in PTE had the lowest numeracy scores with a
mean of 58.0.
5.2.3 Curriculum used for Teacher Training and Numeracy Achievement
The curriculum used for teacher training was found to significantly influence
numeracy achievement (F = 11.50, P <0.05). This means that teachers with
different curriculum background produced different scores in terms of numeracy
achievements. Teachers trained using the TET curriculum and those from the
89
private colleges were the majority at 43.8% each. Montessori and University
curriculum trained teachers were the least comprising of 6.3 % each from the
sampled population. In terms of numeracy achievement, Montessori trained
teachers produced the highest scores (94.6) followed closely by their counterparts
from the private curriculum with a mean score of 85.5. TET trained teachers were
in the third position with a mean score of 71.7 while the university trained
teachers registered the lowest numeracy achievement with a mean score of 65.2.
5.2.4 Mode of Teacher Training and Numeracy Achievement
This study established that there was a significant relationship between the mode
of teacher training and numeracy achievement in pre-primary level (F = 42.852, P
<0.01). In other words, teachers trained through different modes of studies
produced varied results in terms of numeracy achievements. Pre-service trained
teachers were the majority in the district comprising of 62.5% while IBP trained
teachers followed at a distant 31.3%. ODEL trained teachers had the least
population at 6.3%. In terms of numeracy achievement, ODEL trained teachers
registered the highest scores (99.4) followed closely by the IBP trained teachers
with a mean score of 92.4. Pre-service trained teachers had the lowest numeracy
score with a mean of 69.9.
5.2.5 Numeracy Achievement
Overall, private schools (90.7) performed better than public schools (66.8) in
numeracy achievement. It is also worth to mention that there was quite a high
90
standard deviation in public schools (18.7) than private schools (11.5). Meaning,
there was a wide range in performance in public schools with one group of pupils
having quite high scores and another group with significantly low scores. It is
worth to note that the difference in numeracy achievement was statistically
significant (t = 9.719, P < 0.01).
5.2.7 Teacher-related Factors impacting on Numeracy Achievement
Various school factors were pointed out by teachers as influencing the numeracy
achievement in the pre-primary schools. Among the factors mentioned included;
teacher- pupil ratio was mentioned by 50% of the teachers, teaching and learning
resources by 81.3%, playground and play equipment was mentioned by 75% of
the teachers, new curriculum and poor learning facilities like classrooms and
toilets by 56.3 % of the teachers. In addition, learning time was mentioned by
50% of the teachers and conducive learning environment by 43.8% of the
teachers.
5.3 Conclusions
The findings from this study have clearly indicated that teacher education in terms
of duration of training, level of training, curriculum used for training and mode of
training has a significant relationship with the numeracy achievement of the pre-
primary pupils. This study revealed that teachers with Diploma in ECE were the
best in terms of teaching numeracy skills. Montessori trained teachers emerged
the best in the way they teach and use of teaching and learning materials. This
91
study also revealed that the longer the duration of training, the better in terms of
helping children acquire the desired numeracy skills. Finally, ODEL trained
teachers seemed to outperform their counterparts in pre-service and IBP training
programs.
5.4 Recommendations
Enhancing teacher education is necessary in order to promote numeracy
achievements for the pre-primary pupils. The following are the recommendations
for various categories of stakeholders.
5.4.1 Recommendations for Ministry of Education
There is need for the Ministry of Education to provide guidelines on each of the
following key areas;
New Curriculum Orientation: This study shows that 56.3% of the teachers
highlighted new curriculum as one of the school factors hindering numeracy
achievement. Provision of orientation workshops for the teachers to ensure they
have a better understanding of what is expected of them is one way of addressing
this issue. Orientation seminars/workshops for the teachers would ensure that the
whole intention of having new curriculum is achieved.
Business permit: The findings of this study shows that 43.8% of the te achers
highlighted unconducive learning environment caused by various businesses
carried out within the school compound. The Ministry should develop policies
92
that will help to regulate the nature and type of businesses carried out in the
school premises. The ministry should also provide guidance on what is to be
allowed in the school canteen and what should not be allowed.
5.4.2 Recommendations for Curriculum Developers
The findings of this study shows that different teacher training institution have
different curriculum used to train their teachers that was attributed to the
variations in numeracy achievement. Therefore, there is need for the curriculum
developers to work together and come up with a general guideline of what is to be
taught at what level of training, or better still come up with a final draft of
curriculum that is to be implemented at all the levels of teacher training to ensure
that the teachers are equipped adequately for the task ahead of them.
5.4.3 Recommendations for Curriculum Implementers
This study also revealed that 56.3 % of the teachers struggled to implement the
new curriculum, while 81.3 % highlighted inadequate teaching and learning
resources. This study therefore recommends:
The curriculum implementers who are the teachers should put efforts in
understanding the new curriculum through attending workshops and seminars
prepared for them. Based on the findings that only 6.3% of the teachers in the
district had a university degree in teaching, it is also recommended that the
teachers enroll for further studies to gain for competence in their profession.
93
In terms of the teaching and learning resources, the teachers should improvise
from the locally available materials to ensure that learning takes place without and
hindrances. They could use the immediate school and class environment as a
resource for learning. They could also involve the pupils in bringing some junk
materials from home that could be used to make different teaching and learning
resources.
5.4.4 Recommendations for Teacher Training Institutions
This study also revealed that different teacher training institutions had their own
curriculum used to train teachers which was attributed to the variations in
numeracy achievements. Therefore:
The teacher training institutions should work together with the Ministry of
Education and the University to ensure that there is a harmonized curriculum used
to train teachers. There should be a common curriculum for training teachers to
ensure that the teachers sent to the field are equipped adequately to facilitate
learning for the students.
The study also revealed that ODEL trained teachers produced the highest
numeracy achievement. Therefore, more institutions should initiate this mode of
study as it was observed that only one university in Tanzania offered it. This will
enable teachers to further their studies and at the same time produce better
numeracy scores as they will have most of the time with the pupils.
94
5.4.5 Recommendations for Further Research
It emerged from this study that apart from teacher education, there could be other
factors influencing the acquisition of numeracy skills. Therefore, there is need to
explore any other factors that could be attributed to the numeracy achievements of
the pre-primary school pupils. Various aspects of teacher education were explored
and the findings showed that there is a significant relationship between pupils’
numeracy achievement and teacher education. Therefore, there is need to find out
any other factors either pupil, teacher or school and their impact on the acquisition
of numeracy skills by the pre-primary school pupils.
This study was carried out in Kinondoni District which is one of the three districts
in Dar es Salaam. There is need to replicate this study in other parts of this district
or in other parts of world to find out whether the situation is similar or different.
95
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APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE TEACHERS
Section 1: Introduction
To the respondents,
The responses to the items in this questionnaire are purely for the academic
pursuits of the researcher. The researcher has no intention whatsoever to avail the
information collected for use by any other party. The research is a partial
requirement for the award of Masters of Education Degree of Kenyatta
University. All the information collected shall be treated with the highest level of
confidentiality. Your co-operation and assistance will be highly appreciated.
Instructions
 Please fill all the parts of this questionnaire truthfully.
 Do not write your name on the questionnaire.
 In the questions with a list of items, tick (√) once on the appropriate box.
Section 2: General Information
1. Name of the
school___________________________________________________
2. School sponsorship (a) Public ( )
(b) Private ( )
106
Section 3: The level, mode, duration of teacher training and type of
curriculum used during training
(i) What is your highest completed level of training?
Level of training Response (√)

 Certificate in Early
Childhood Education
 Diploma in Early
Childhood Education
 Degree in Early Childhood
Education
 Masters in Early Childhood
Education
 Certificate in primary
teacher Education
 Diploma in teacher
Education
 Degree in Education
(ii) What mode of training did you undergo?
Mode of training Response (√)

 Pre-service( full
time training)
 In-service  Institutional Based
Programme
 Open and Distance
learning
107
(iii) How long did you training take?
Duration of training Response (√)

 Below 1 year
 Between 1-2 Years
 Between 3- 4 Years
 Over 5 years
(iv)What type of curriculum was used during your training?
Type of Curriculum Response (√)

 Tanzania Education and
Training (TET)
 Montessori Curriculum
 Private Colleges Curriculum
 University Curriculum
Section 4: General questions
(a) What teacher related factors hinder your effective teaching of numeracy
skills?
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
(b) Do you have any suggestions on how to address these teacher-related factors?
Thank you for your co-operation
108
APPENDIX II: SELF-CONSTRUCTED NUMERACY TEST FOR PUPILS
Instructions: Please answer all the questions
1. Write down numbers 1-50
2. Draw and name six shapes
1. Add the following numbers
5+5= 6+3= 7+2=
4. Take away the following numbers
7–5= 9–4= 10 – 5 =
109
5. Write half or whole
6. Complete the patterns
7. Draw objects according to the number.
Number Objects
7
6
9
4
8. Write the following numbers in words
Number Number names

5
4
3
7
110
APPENDIX III: MTIHANI WA HISABATI WA WATOTO WA
CHEKECHEA
Maagizo: Jibu maswali yote kwenye mtihani huu
1. Andika nambari 1-50
2. Chora na utaje maumbo sita
3. Jumlisha
5+5= 6+3= 7+2=
4. Toa
7–5= 9–4= 10 – 5 =
111
5. Taja akisami zifuatazo (Nzima au nusu)
6. Kamilisha miundo ifuatayo
7. Chora picha kuambatana na nambari uliyopewa
Idadi Picha
7
6
9
4
8. Andika nambari hizi kwa maneno
Nambari Nambari kwa maneno

5
4
3
7
112
APPENDIX IV: TEACHER’S CONSENT FORM
This is to certify that I ___________________________________________ a
teacher in ______________________________________________ pre-primary
school have been informed of the purpose of this study and I voluntarily accept to
take part filling in the questionnaires and classroom observations. I have been
assured confidentiality and anonymity and I promise to be as honest as I can as I
provide the required information. I have been informed that I am free to withdraw
from this study during or even before it starts.
1. Teacher’s name ___________date ________ signature _________
2. Researcher ______________ date ________ signature _________
3. Witness _______________ date _________ signature ___________
113
APPENDIX V: RESEARCHER'S LETTER TO SCHOOLS
Veronicah Njambi Mburu,
Department of Early Childhood Education,
Kenyatta University,
P. O. Box 43844- 00100,
Nairobi.
To The Head of School,

________________________________ Pre-primary/Primary School,
P.O. Box _____________________,
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Thru'
District Education Officer,
Kinondoni District.
REF: REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH IN
YOUR SCHOOL
Kindly refer to the above reference and allow me to carry out this research study
in your school. The District Education Officer is aware of the proposed study and
has allowed me to visit the selected schools. The purpose of this study is
academic for the award of Master’s degree from Kenyatta University. The
research will entail observing the pre-primary teacher and pupils during
mathematics lesson and filling of questionnaires by the same teachers. I will be
available to discuss the logistics of this study as well as meeting with the teachers
and pupils who will take part in this study.
Looking forward to your consideration and positive response.
Thank you in advance,
Veronica Njambi Mburu.
114
APPENDIX VI: AUTHORIZATION LETTER FROM KENYATTA
UNIVERSITY
115
APPENDIX VII: RESEARCH AUTHORIZATION LETTER
116
APPENDIX VIII: RESEARCH PERMIT
117
APPENDIX IX: RESEARCH PERMIT-TANZANIA
118
APPENDIX X: TABLE OF MULTIPLE CORRELATIONS FOR STUDY
VARIABLES
Nu Nu Dur Le Mo
mbe Nu mb atio vel de
r mb er n of of of
for Sh Ad Subtr Fra Pat er na trai trai Curri trai
mati ap diti actio ctio ter val me nin nin culu nin
on es on n n n ue s g g m g
Num Pears
ber on -
.42 .49 .380* .29 .29 .16 .34 .07 .33
form Corr 1 ** .07 .108
3 7** *
1** 7** 8* 5** 9 0**
ation elatio 6
n
Sig.
(2- .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .00 .32 .34 .00
.000 .174
tailed 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 2 0
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Shap Pears
es on -
.423 .31 .294* .38 .39 .11 .18 .31 .345* .67
Corr ** 1 .19
1** *
7** 3** 1 8* 5** *
7**
elatio 8*
n
Sig.
(2- .00 .00 .00 .16 .01 .00 .01 .00
.000 .000 .000
tailed 0 0 0 2 7 0 2 0
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Addit Pears
ion on -
.497 .31 .428* .25 .25 .23 .44 .14 .25
Corr ** 1 .05 .108
1** *
9** 5** 0** 0** 2 5**
elatio 1
n
119
Sig.
(2- .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .07 .52 .00
.000 .000 .175
tailed 0 1 1 3 0 4 6 1
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Subtr Pears
actio on -
.380 .29 .42 .18 .22 .20 .29 .11 .23
n Corr ** 1 .09 .141
4** 8** 0* 3** 9** 8** 1 7**
elatio 1
n
Sig.
(2- .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .16 .25 .00
.000 .075
tailed 0 0 3 5 8 0 1 2 3
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Fract Pears
ion on
.291 .38 .25 * .19 .12 .29 .14 .12 .264* .35
Corr ** ** ** .180 1
7 9 8* 1 9** 5 2 *
4**
elatio
n
Sig.
(2- .00 .00 .01 .12 .00 .06 .12 .00
.000 .023 .001
tailed 0 1 2 7 0 7 5 0
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Patte Pears
rn on - -
.297 .39 .25 .223* .19 .32 .08 .55
Corr ** 1 .03 ** .14 .071
3** 5** *
8* 3 4 3**
elatio 7 3
n
Sig.
(2- .00 .00 .01 .64 .00 .29 .07 .00
.000 .005 .375
tailed 0 1 2 7 0 0 1 0
)
120
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Num Pears
ber on - - -
.168 .11 .23 .209* .12 .25 .01
value Corr * .03 1 ** .09 .12 .046
1 0** *
1 0 0
elatio 7 1 8
n
Sig.
(2- .16 .00 .12 .64 .00 .25 .10 .90
.033 .008 .564
tailed 2 3 7 7 1 1 8 3
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Num Pears
ber on - -
.345 .18 .44 .298* .29 .32 .25 .24
name Corr ** 1 .02 .17 -.132 **
8* 0** *
9** 3** 0** 0
s elatio 7 1*
n
Sig.
(2- .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .73 .03 .00
.000 .000 .095
tailed 7 0 0 0 1 8 1 2
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Durat Pears
ion on - -
.31 .14 .14 .08 .22 .320* .16
of Corr .079 ** .111 .09 .02 1
5 2 5 4 2** *
6*
traini elatio 1 7
ng n
Sig.
(2- .00 .07 .06 .29 .25 .73 .00 .03
.321 .161 .000
tailed 0 4 7 0 1 8 5 6
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
121
Level Pears
of on - - - - -
- .12 .22 .623* .00
traini Corr .19 .05 -.091 .14 .12 .17 1
.076 2 2** *
0
ng elatio 8* 1 3 8 1*
n
Sig.
(2- .01 .52 .12 .07 .10 .03 .00 1.0
.342 .252 .000
tailed 2 6 5 1 8 1 5 00
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Curri Pears
culu on -
.34 .10 .26 .07 .04 .32 .62 .30
m Corr .108 ** .141 ** .13 1
5 8 4 1 6 0** 3** 4**
elatio 2
n
Sig.
(2- .00 .17 .00 .37 .56 .09 .00 .00 .00
.174 .075
tailed 0 5 1 5 4 5 0 0 0
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
Mod Pears
e of on
.330 .67 .25 .237* .35 .55 .01 .24 .16 .00 .304*
traini Corr ** 1
7** 5** *
4** 3** 0 0** 6* 0 *
ng elatio
n
Sig.
(2- .00 .00 .00 .00 .90 .00 .03 1.0
.000 .003 .000
tailed 0 1 0 0 3 2 6 00
)
N 16 16 16 16
160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
0 0 0 0
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
122
Pearson Correlation of Duration of Training and Numeracy Achievement
Dura Num Num Sha Addi Subtra Frac Patt Nu Nu
tion eracy ber pes tion ction tion ern mbe mbe
of form r r
train ation valu nam
ing e es
Pearso
n .31 .08 - -
1 .196* .079 ** .142 .111 .145
Durati Correl 5 4 .091 .027
on of ation
trainin Sig.
.00 .29
g (2- .013 .321 .074 .161 .067 .251 .738
0 0
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Pearso
n .196 .860* .70 .630 ** .486 .53 .279 .527
* 1 * ** ** .528 **
Correl 9 5** ** **
Nume ation
racy Sig.
.00 .00
(2- .013 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
0 0
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Pearso
n .42 .497 ** .291 .29 .168 .345
.079 .860** 1 ** ** .380 **
Numb Correl 3 7** * **
er ation
format Sig.
.00 .00
ion (2- .321 .000 .000 .000 .000 .033 .000
0 0
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Pearso
*
n .315 ** .423 .311 ** .387 .39 .188
** .709 * 1 ** .294 ** ** .111 *
Correl 3
Shape ation
s Sig.
.00
(2- .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .162 .017
0
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
123
Pearso
n .497* .31 .259 .25 .230 .440
.142 .630** * 1 .428**
Correl 1** **
5** ** **
Additi ation
on Sig.
.00 .00
(2- .074 .000 .000 .000 .001 .003 .000
0 1
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Pearso
n .380* .29 .428 .180 .22 .209 .298
.111 .528** * 1
Correl 4** ** *
3** ** **
Subtra ation
ction Sig.
.00 .00
(2- .161 .000 .000 .000 .023 .008 .000
0 5
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Pearso
n ** .291* .38 .259 .19 .299
.145 .486 * .180* 1 * .121
Correl 7** **
8 **
Fracti ation
on Sig.
.00 .01
(2- .067 .000 .000 .001 .023 .127 .000
0 2
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Pearso
n .297* .39 .255 ** .198 - .323
.084 .535** * ** ** .223 * 1 **
Correl 3 .037
Patter ation
n Sig.
.00
(2- .290 .000 .000 .001 .005 .012 .647 .000
0
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Pearso
Numb -
n - ** * .11 .230 ** .250
er .279 .168 ** .209 .121 .03 1 **
Correl .091 1
value 7
ation
124
Sig.
.16 .64
(2- .251 .000 .033 .003 .008 .127 .001
2 7
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
Pearso
n - .345* .18 .440 ** .299 .32 .250
.527** * * ** .298 ** 1
Correl .027 8 3** **
Numb ation
er
Sig.
names .01 .00
(2- .738 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .001
7 0
tailed)
N 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
125
ANOVA for Numeracy Achievement and Level of Teacher Training
Sum of df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
Between
22980.892 3 7660.297 31.694 .000
Groups
Numeracy
Within Groups 37704.083 156 241.693
Total 60684.975 159
Between
2188.967 3 729.656 7.501 .000
Number Groups
formation Within Groups 15174.933 156 97.275
Total 17363.900 159
Between
2338.575 3 779.525 71.189 .000
Groups
Shapes
Within Groups 1708.200 156 10.950
Total 4046.775 159
Between
34.817 3 11.606 4.349 .006
Groups
Addition
Within Groups 416.283 156 2.668
Total 451.100 159
Between
42.975 3 14.325 3.321 .021
Groups
Subtraction
Within Groups 673.000 156 4.314
Total 715.975 159
Between
81.042 3 27.014 8.457 .000
Groups
Fraction
Within Groups 498.333 156 3.194
Total 579.375 159
Between
Pattern 316.492 3 105.497 28.186 .000
Groups
126
Within Groups 583.883 156 3.743
Total 900.375 159
Between
6.242 3 2.081 .980 .404
Number Groups
value Within Groups 331.133 156 2.123
Total 337.375 159
Between
82.767 3 27.589 4.563 .004
Number Groups
names Within Groups 943.133 156 6.046
Total 1025.900 159
127
ANOVA for Numeracy Achievement and curriculum used for Teacher
Training
Sum of Df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Between
10990.518 3 3663.506 11.500 .000
Groups
Numeracy Within
49694.457 156 318.554
Groups
Total 60684.975 159
Between
838.414 3 279.471 2.638 .052
Groups
Number
Within
formation 16525.486 156 105.933
Groups
Total 17363.900 159
Between
1487.632 3 495.877 30.228 .000
Groups
Shapes Within
2559.143 156 16.405
Groups
Total 4046.775 159
Between
22.757 3 7.586 2.763 .044
Groups
Addition Within
428.343 156 2.746
Groups
Total 451.100 159
Between
52.146 3 17.382 4.085 .008
Groups
Subtraction
Within
663.829 156 4.255
Groups
128
Total 715.975 159
Between
75.204 3 25.068 7.756 .000
Groups
Fraction Within
504.171 156 3.232
Groups
Total 579.375 159
Between
78.832 3 26.277 4.990 .002
Groups
Pattern Within
821.543 156 5.266
Groups
Total 900.375 159
Between
9.661 3 3.220 1.533 .208
Groups
Number value Within
327.714 156 2.101
Groups
Total 337.375 159
Between
36.586 3 12.195 1.923 .128
Groups
Number
Within
names 989.314 156 6.342
Groups
Total 1025.900 159
129
Sum of Df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
21429.01 10714.50 42.85 .00
Between Groups 2
5 8 2 0
39255.96 15
Numeracy Within Groups 250.038
0 7
60684.97 15
Total
5 9
10.31 .00
Between Groups 2016.220 2 1008.110
3 0
Number 15347.68 15
Within Groups 97.756
formation 0 7
17363.90 15
Total
0 9
87.44 .00
Between Groups 2132.415 2 1066.208
2 0
15
Shapes Within Groups 1914.360 12.193
7
15
Total 4046.775
9
.00
Between Groups 33.620 2 16.810 6.322
2
15
Addition Within Groups 417.480 2.659
7
15
Total 451.100
9
.01
Between Groups 40.335 2 20.168 4.686
1
Subtractio 15
Within Groups 675.640 4.303
n 7
15
Total 715.975
9
11.38 .00
Between Groups 73.375 2 36.688
3 0
Fraction
15
7
130
15
Total 579.375
9
38.53 .00
Between Groups 296.455 2 148.228
4 0
15
Pattern Within Groups 603.920 3.847
7
15
Total 900.375
9
.28
Between Groups 5.295 2 2.648 1.252
9
Number 15
value 7
15
Total 337.375
9
Betwee
n 59.260 2 29.630 4.812 .009
Groups
Number
Within 15
names 966.640 6.157
Groups 7
1025.90 15
Total
0 9
131
APPENDIX XI: KININDONI DISTRICT MAP (STUDY LOCALE)
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Teacher Education and Acquisition of Numeracy Skills

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Teacher Education and Acquisition of Numeracy Skills

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TEACHER EDUCATION AND ACQUISITION OF NUMERACY SKILLS

BY PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN KINONDONI DISTRICT,

VERONICA NJAMBI MBURU

A RESEARCH THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

Signature: ____________________ Date: __________________

Veronica Njambi Mburu Reg. No : E55/CE/25084/2014

Department of Early childhood Studies

Signature: _________________________Date: __________________

Dr. Mary Ndani

Department of Early childhood Studies

Signature: _________________________ Date: __________________

Dr. Wanjohi Githinji

Department of Early childhood Studies

deserve to have access to quality teaching and learning experiences to enable

them achieve their full potential.

throughout the process.

Education Services – East Africa during the study period.

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ x

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. xi

ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS ............................................................. xii

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ xiv

CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .... 1

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Background of the Study ............................................................................... 1

1.3 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 7

1.4 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................... 9

1.5 Objectives of the Study ................................................................................. 9

1.6 Research Hypothesis ................................................................................... 10

1.7 Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 10

1.8 Limitations of the study............................................................................... 12

1.9 Delimitations of the Study........................................................................... 12

1.10 Assumptions of the Study ......................................................................... 13

1.11Theoretical Framework .............................................................................. 13

1.11.1 Zone of Proximal Development ............................................................. 13

1.11.2 More Knowledgeable Other ................................................................... 14

1.11.3 Scaffolding ............................................................................................. 15

1.12 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................. 17

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ....................... 21

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 21

2.2 Teacher’s Level of training and Children's Performance in Schools .......... 21

2.3 Duration of teacher training and children's acquisition of numeracy skills 26

2.5 Curriculum Used for teacher training and children's acquisition of

2.6 Teacher Factors that Influence Acquisition of Numeracy Skills ................ 36

2.7 Summary ..................................................................................................... 39

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ....... 40

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 40

3.2 Research Design .......................................................................................... 40

3.3.1 Independent Variables .......................................................................... 41

3.3.2 Dependent Variable .............................................................................. 43

3.4 Research Locale .......................................................................................... 43

3.5 Target Population ........................................................................................ 44

3.6 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques ...................................................... 44

3.6.1 Sampling Techniques ........................................................................... 44

3.6.2 Sample Size .......................................................................................... 45

3.7 Research Instruments .................................................................................. 45

3.7.1 Questionnaires for the Teachers ........................................................... 46

3.7.2 Self- Constructed Tests for the Pupils ...................................................... 46

3.8.1 Reliability of the Research Instruments ................................................ 47

3.8.2 Validity of the Research Instruments ................................................... 48

3.9 Data Collection ............................................................................................ 49

3.9.1 Pre-Visit to the Sampled Schools ....................................................... 49

3.9.2 The Actual Study Visit ......................................................................... 49

3.10 Logistical and Ethical Considerations ....................................................... 50

3.10.1 Logistical Considerations ................................................................... 50

Signature: __ Date:

Signature: _______Date:

Signature: _______ Date: