Experiment No.

4a Date:

Aim: To get acquainted with the elements of visual interpretation of aerial photos / satellite
remote sensing imageries and the process of information extraction

Material: Remote sensing image, Computer (optional)

Theory:

Introduction

Visual image interpretation is a process of identifying features seen on the images by an

analyst/interpreter and communication of information obtained from these images to others
for evaluating their significance. The object or phenomenon recognition develops as the
experience grows by visually inspecting a number of aerial photographs, space-borne images
of different resolutions with ancillary information such as field inventoried maps, reports etc.
Further, the state of complexity about information – direct or derived, also outlays the
growing of image understanding.

Fundamental Elements of Visual Image Interpretation

The interpretation of image or aerial photograph is different from conventional ones in three
different ways where the former is : i) taken from overhead and present a panoramic view ii)
captures the features in multi-wavelength spectrum, apart from visible spectrum and iii)
image and present the features at different scales and resolutions (Campbell and Wynne,
2011).

The characteristics of feature identification are specific for the particular field of application
in which they are applied. However, the basic elements considered for image
interpretation are tone, texture, shape, size, pattern, association, shadow, aspect etc.
These elements are used together, often, in combination. These elements are described here,

Tone

Tone is considered as a basic element for all the image interpretation tasks. The tone is
referred as relative brightness which is influenced by intensity (total brightness) and angle of
illumination. The brightness is actually a result of exposure of distribution and amount of
light in a given wavelength spectrum falling on an object. It is important to mention here that
the degree of brightness is directly related to amount of energy reflected or emitted. The light
or the absence of light relating lightness or darkness can lead to formation of a grey-scale
image where tonal variation could be from black to white.

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Human eye is capable of viewing 40-50 tones. The tone changes when we enhance an image or
when we visualize the features in different bands. In day-to-day life the tone is informally
referred as ‘color‘ which can be arranged from shortest wavelength to longest in the order of V
(violet), I (indigo), B (Blue), G (green), Y (yellow), O (orange) and R (red) or VIBGYOR for
memory aid. It is also important to mention here that the tonal variation is analytically more
noticeable when features are recorded and produced by sensors digitally than conventionally
printed on hard surfaces of paper or plastics.

For example, a 8-bit colored image displayed in a combination of three primary colors (RGB)
can have a total size of 256 possible combination of digital numbers (Lillesand et al., 2008).
Alternatively, the RGB components of a color can be described by intensity (I), hue (H) and
saturation(S). system which are basically the total brightness, dominant or average wavelength of
light and purity of a color, respectively. Sometimes, the RGB to IHS transformation can lead to
tonal or color enhancement for better interpretation of a colored or colored infrared (CIR)
imageries or aerial photographs.

Texture

Texture is the frequency of tonal change on an image or aerial photograph which determines how
smooth or rough the feature’s surface is when visualized. The texture can be coarse or fine,
smooth or rough, even or uneven etc. When an irregular surface is illuminated from an oblique
angle, a pattern of highlighted and shadowed areas are created that give a textural appearance of
feature’s surface (Campbell and Wynne, 2011). The texture is strongly related to the spatial
resolution of the image. As the scale of the image is reduced, the texture of any object or area of
the image becomes progressively finer and ultimately disappear. It is easy for an image
interpreter to discern between objects of similar tone based on their textural differences such as
metallic and non-metallic roads.

Shape

The shape is a general form, configuration or outline of individual objects. In case of

stereoscopic images the objects’s height also defines its shape. The shape is an important sign for
the interpreter. For example, sprinkler’s irrigated fields when seen in an image look circular in
shape. Similarly, road, canal or river appears in a linear shape.

Size

The size of object in an image is important indication for an interpreter for feature discrimination
and estimation of its approximate size. The relative size of an object when compared to its
neighbours provides the interpreter a spontaneous impression about its scale and resolution. In
case where the interpreter has a pre-knowledge about an object visually, it is not very difficult
for him to identify unfamiliar neighbouring objects and estimate its approximate size. For

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example, flourishing cropland area can be easily identifiable when a canal is passing nearby that
serves the water for irrigation purpose. The size act also as a precious interpretation assistance
where the dimensions are in direct relation with the object’s identification or serve as a definite
criteria to identify the object, for example, residential blocks and commercial complexes can
easily be identified based on their size characteristics if other factors are also taken into
consideration.

Pattern

The pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of individual objects in an image or aerial
photograph into visibly distinct repetitive forms. This kind of spatial orderly repeat for both
natural and man-made objects helps the interpreter in recognizing them. For example, an orchard
where trees are present in a form that is distinctly arranged at certain spatial intervals can be
easily discriminated with that of the forest tree stands.

Association

The association refers to the occurrence of certain features in relation to other or more
specifically the relationship between other recognizable objects or features in the neighbourhood
to the object in which the interpreter is interested. For example, the water can be associated with
inhabited or irrigated area. Similarly, the mining activities can be associated with transportation
routes. It is important to note here that the association does not necessarily involve size or
pattern.

Shadow

The shadow is important for interpreters in two opposing respects: i) the shape or outline of a
shadow affords an impression of the profile view of objects (which help in interpretation) and ii)
objects within shadow reflect little light and are difficult to be differentiated on an image (which
raises difficulty in interpretation) (Lillesand et al., 2008). For example, shadow cast by various
tree species or cultural features (bridges, towers) can help in their identification and area
estimation. But, the shadow of a tall building may hinders the delineation of the object on which
the building’s shadow is falling. For an investigator working in the field of forestry, it would be
of much importance for him/her to know which side is sunlit and which side is sun-shadowed of
a hilly region on an image in order to know the spatial distribution of dominant tree species on
both side.

Aspect

The aspect or aspect ratio is the ratio of width of shape to its height or it is the estimation of how
long the object is compared to its width. When the width is larger than its height, the shape of the
object is ‘landscape’ rather than ‘portrait’. The other advantage of aspect of a feature is that the

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continuously long thin features can be easily discernible even when they are narrower than the
spatial resolution of the image, for example roads, streams etc.

Techniques of Image Interpretation

The technique of image interpretation basically involves space images and/or aerial photographs
and collateral materials. The selection of input images or photographs depends entirely on the
user side, largely based on the season, month or even dates and the resolution when other factors
are taken into account. The collateral material or ancillary data contains existing information of
an area, process, and type of facility or object that an interpreter may use as assisting resources
during the interpretation process.

The ancillary information present in the form of text, tables, maps, graphs or even image
metadata such as spatial and radiometric resolution, date of acquisition etc. provide better
definition of the scope, objectives and problems of the given task. Examples are socio-economic
data, forest boundary, tree species diversity, land use map or weather reports. The collateral
materials can be divided into two broad category, interpretation keys and field verification.

Image Interpretation Keys

Different interpretation classes can be described according to the interpretation elements. After
affirming about the features present on the ground, interpretation keys can be constructed based
on which object interpretation can be done (Tempfli et al., 2009).

Thus, the process of image interpretation is tuned with these keys that basically sum up the
complex information stored in the image form. Therefore, the keys are useful in two ways, first it
act as a training tool and second, it provide a reference guide for the interpreter to correctly
identify the information, even for unknown objects, in a planned and steady manner.

A key generally consist of two parts: (a) A collection of annotated or captioned images or
stereograms rendering the object to be identified and (b) a graphic or word description, possible
including sketches or diagrams representing the image recognition characteristics of the object of
interest (Lillesand et al., 2008; Campbell and Wynne, 2011).

Depending upon the way in which the features are organized, two types of keys, Selective keys
and Elimination keys, are generally recognized:

Selective keys

These are basically many example images and/or aerial photographs with the supporting texts
and are arranged in such a way that an interpreter simply selects that example that most closely
corresponds to the object they are trying to identify, e.g. agriculture, forest, industries, lakes etc.

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Elimination Keys

The elimination keys are arranged in such a way that the interpreter follows a precise step-wise
process from broad to the particular that leads to the elimination of all items except the one(s)
that the interpreter is trying to identify. The elimination key is the most commonly used key type
because it can provide more affirmative solutions for an example object in an image than a
selective key. But, if the interpreter is not familiar or is uncertain in making choice between the
two or more image objects, then it may result in a wrong selection of the right object.

The selection of the type of key depend on the number of objects to be identified and the
variability within each feature class within the selected key, for example, variation in texture in
an open area.

Field Verification

Ground verification is a type of collateral material since it is normally conducted to assist the
interpreter in interpreting, classifying and analyzing the image information. Basically, ground
verification help the interpreter in knowing the study area or feature class. This kind of
confirmation is done before interpreting the information in order to develop a visual perception
in a human vision system to match it how an object of interest appears in the field. Further
ground truthing can be done after the interpretation is done to assess the accuracy of information
interpreted. It is important for an investigator to chalk out a proper plan before going to ground
like season, time to be spent, extent of study area, quantity of information to be collected, and
method of data collection.

The amount and type of field work required for a given project generally dependent upon the –
type of analysis involved; image quality including scale, resolution and information to be
interpreted; accuracy requirements for both classification and boundary delineation; experience
of the interpreter and the knowledge of the sensor, area, and subject; terrain conditions, and the
accessibility of the study area; personnel availability and access to ancillary material; and cost
considerations (Estes, 2016).

Procedure:

Follow the procedure:

1. Open the given image in any of the software.

2. Identify the earth features such as vegetation (forest, water bodies, soils, habitations –
buildings, settlement clusters, etc, condition / situation, agricultural areas, etc.
3. Prepare visual interpretation keys for the earth features you have identified in the tabular
format.
4. Write about the significance of interpretation keys and image interpretation.

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Observations:

Element of Interpretation in Significance

Object / Feature addition to colour
1 :- Poorly Dense Marked with yellow colour In the image we can see very poorly densed trees
Trees along with with barren lands. Trees are having dark green
barren lands shade

2 :- Forest Fire Marked with orange colour In the given image, there are marks of black or dark
grey colour due to forest fire
3 :- Dense Trees Marked with Sky blue colour Dense trees having dark shade can be seen,
indicating forest area.
4 :- Vegetation area Marked with light pink colour Some vegetation might be there , as they area small
in height and comparatively light in green shade
5 :- Light green shade Marked with Chocolaty Some trees can be seen with parrot green colour,
trees Boundary which may indicate they are of different types as
compared with surrounding trees or small bushes
6:- Mud roads - Mud roads without any bitumen or concrete
pavement are seen, they may contain subgrades for
stability
7 :- Barren land Marked with dark violet colour There is Barren land between dense forest the
reason for which can not be identified by just
looking an image
8:- Unknown Marked with dark blue colour Some structure different than houses (may be
Structure industrial building) is seen, type of which can not be
identified
9:- Houses Marked with rectangular shape There are houses near to the road are identified.
They are very very less in numbers and they can be
single or duel story.

Country where the picture is taken :- USA

City :-Boulder, Colorado

Date of Picture:- 08 September 2010

Area Where the picture is taken :- Fourmile Canyon Fire

Resolution of given picture :- 0.5m

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Image with markings for Interpretation :-

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Conclusion (Inference) :-
From the given image we can identify the dense forest area. At some places less number of trees are
there. One can quickly identify that forest fire have take placed in this forest. Very less houses are
seen in the forest. At some places vegetation is also seen. I have found information of picture about
its country, city, date, and area given along with the picture. I have divided the picture in 9 different
objects for simplicity, and also drawn boundary with different colours for better interpretation of
image