Unit 5: Magnetic and Superconducting materials

ORIGIN OF MAGNETISM IN MATERIALS

A moving electric charge, is responsible for Magnetism

Unpaired electrons required

Origin of Magnetism Spin of electrons
for net Magnetic Moment

Orbital motion of electrons

Magnetic Moment resultant from the spin of a single unpaired electron

→ Bohr Magneton = 9.273 x 10−24 A/m2

Magnetism arises from the Magnetic Moment or Magnetic dipole of Magnetic Materials.
• When the electrons revolves around the nucleus orbital magnetic moment arises, similarly when the electron
spins, spin Magnetic moment arises.
Origin of Magnetic Moment:
The Magnetic moment in a material originates from the orbital motion and spinning motion of electrons in an
atom.
 Magnetic dipole moment:
The magnetic dipole moment is represented by,
𝝁𝐦 = 𝒎 𝑿 𝟐𝒍
Where, m is pole strength and l is dipole length.
Bohr Magnetron:
Magnetic particle shows very low magnetic moment and it is generally represented by unit Bohr magnetron.
1 Bohr magnetron = eh/4πm

1 Bohr Magneton = 9.273 x 10−24 A/m2

Magnetic moment of electron is known as 1 Bohr magnetron (1β).

 Magnetism has various applications in Industrial electronics, computer industry, and entertainment
electronics.
Magnetism is also important aspect in transformer, motors, generators, recording of sound and pictures
& storage device etc.
Magnetic Induction or Magnetic flux Density (B):
The Magnetic induction in any material is the number of lines of magnetic force passing through unit area
perpendicularly.
Units: Wb/m2 or Tesla.

Magnetic field intensity (H):

The Magnetic field intensity at any point in the magnetic field is the force experienced by an unit north
pole placed at that point. Or
It is defined as the field in which a substance is magnetized. Or
It is measured by the number of unit tubes of force passing normally per unit area.
Units : A/m.
Permeability (µ):
It is define as the ability of magnetic material to conduct the magnetic flux through it.
It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction ‘B’ in the medium to the magnetizing field ‘H’
𝐁
𝛍𝐚 = = 𝛍 𝟎 𝛍𝐫 , unit: henry per meter (H/m)
𝐇

Relative permeability (μr):

It is the ratio of absolute permeability (μa) to permeability of free space (μ0).
𝝁𝒂
μr =
𝝁𝟎
Where, 𝝁𝟎 = permeability of free space/vacuum = 4п x 10-7 H/m

Magnetization:
•Magnetization refers to the process of converting a non-magnetic material into a Magnetic material.
•The intensity of Magnetization is directly related to the applied field H.
Relation between permeability (µ) and susceptibility (χ):-

When a magnetic materials of cross-section area ‘A’ and relative permeability ‘μ r’ is placed in a uniform magnetic
field ‘H’, two types of magnetic induction passes through it, one due to magnetizing field ‘H’ and other due to the
material being magnetized ‘I’.

The flux density ‘B’ will be given as

B = μ0H + μ0 I (1)
B (2)
μa =
H
μa = μ0μr (3)

From eqn (2) and (3)

B
μ0μr =
H
But from eqn (1),

μ0H + μ0 I
μ0μr =
H
 I
μ0μr = μ0 + μ0
H

μ0μr = μ0 + μ0𝛘

𝛍𝐫 = 1 + 𝛘 (4)

μr < 1 - Diamagnetic
μr > 1 - Paramagnetic
μr ≫ 1 - Ferromagnetic.
Types of Magnetic Material
Diamagnetic materials
Properties
• No permanent dipole or magnetic moment is present.
• The external magnetic field produces induced magnetic moment.
• Induced magnetic moment is always in opposite direction of the
applied magnetic field.
• So magnetic induction in the specimen decreases.
• Magnetic susceptibility is small and negative.
• Repels magnetic lines of force.
• Diamagnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature and
applied magnetic field strength.
• Relative permeability is less than one.
• Examples: Bi, Zn, gold, H2O, alkali earth elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr),
superconducting elements in superconducting state.
Paramagnetic materials
Properties
• Possess permanent dipoles.
• In the absence of external mag. Field all dipoles are randomly
oriented so net magnetic moment is zero.
• In presence of magnetic field the material gets feebly magnetized.
• i.e. the material allows magnetic lines of force to pass through it.
• The orientation of magnetic dipoles depends on temperature and
applied field.
• Susceptibility is small and positive.
• Susceptibility is independent of applied mag. field & depends
on temperature
C is Curie constant
• Spin alignment is random.
• The magnetic dipoles do not interact.
• These materials are used in lasers.
• Paramagnetic property of oxygen is used in NMR technique
for medical diagnose.
• Examples: alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb), transition metals, Al,
Pt, Mn, Cr etc.
Ferromagnetic Materials
Properties
• Possess net magnetic moment
• Possess spontaneous magnetization.
• Material shows magnetic properties even in the absence of
external magnetic field.
• Spontaneous magnetization is because of interaction between
dipoles called EXCHANGE COUPLING.
• When placed in external mag. field it strongly attracts magnetic
lines of force.
• All spins are aligned parallel & in same direction.
• Susceptibility is large and positive.

C is Curie constant & θ is Curie temperature.

• When temp is greater than curie temp then the material gets
converted in to paramag.
• They possess the property of HYSTERESIS.
• Material gets divided into small regions called domains.
Examples: Fe, Co, Ni.
 Hysteresis Curve
• Means lagging or retarding of an effect behind the cause of the effect.
• Here effect is B & cause of the effect is H.
• Also called B-H curve.
• Hysteresis in magnetic materials means lagging of magnetic induction
(B) or magnetization (M) behind the magnetizing field (H).
• When applied magnetic field is zero (H=0), magnetic induction is also zero (B=0).
• As H is increases, magnetic induction (B) is also increases along ‘OP’ and
acquires a state of magnetic saturation. (i.e. If H increases beyond point ‘P’ then
magnetic induction cannot increases )
• If magnetic field ‘H’ is decreases slowly then magnetic induction ‘B’ is also
decreases along path ‘PQ’. At point ‘Q’, ‘H’ becomes zero, but ‘B’ does not
become zero and some magnetic induction is remaining inside the specimen which
is known as Remanent Flux Density or Retentivity. In this curve ‘OQ’
represents the remanent flux density.
• If the direction of magnetic field is reversed, magnetic induction decreases along
‘QR’ and it become zero at point ‘R’. “The magnitude of reverse magnetic field to
be applied to reduce remanent flux density to zero is called Coercive Field or
Coercivity”.
• When ‘H’ increases in reverse direction, ‘B’ also increases along ‘RS’ and acquire
saturation.
• If direction of ‘H’ reverses, magnetic induction ‘B’ follows the path ‘STUP’.
• The close curve ‘PQRSTUP’ shows complete cycle of magnetization and known
as “Hysteresis Loop”.
• If the value of ‘H’ increases or decreases further ‘B’ repeats the same curve
again and again.
• Hysteresis loss: The area enclosed by a B-H curve represents the energy loss
per unit volume during each cycle is called Hysteresis loss.
• Retentivity: It is define as the non-zero value of magnetic induction (B≠0)
when magnetic field (H=0) is zero is known as Retentivity or Remanent Flux
Density.
• Coercivity: It is define as the magnitude (value) of reverse magnetic field
required to reduce residual magnetic induction to zero is called Coercive Field
or Coercivity.
Ferromagnetism: Magnetic hysteresis
Hysteresis, Remanence, & Coercivity of Ferromagnetic Materials
“hard” ferromagnetic material “soft” ferromagnetic material
has a large M0 and large Hc. has both a small M0 and Hc.
Differentiate between Soft and Hard magnetic materials:

Soft Magnetic Materials Hard Magnetic Materials

i) Hysteresis loop is narrow.
ii) Low Coercivity (Hc).
iii) Low hysteresis loss.
iv) High permeability.
v) Low retentivity.
vi) Low eddy current loss (localized electric
current induced in a conductor by a varying
magnetic field).
vii) Ex. Silicon steel, Iron-Nickel alloy, soft
ferrite.
Applications:
i) They are used in Transformer cores.
ii) In Telephone diaphragms.
iii) In Electromagnets, Motors and
Generators.
iv) Communication devices, Microwave
devices
i) Hysteresis loop is wide.
ii) High Coercivity (Hc).
iii) High hysteresis loss.
iv) Low permeability.
v) High retentivity.
vi) Eddy current loss is low for ceramics
and high for metallic.
vii) Ex. AlNiCo, Cunite, Ba-ferrite.
Applications:
i) To construct permanent magnets.
ii) Magnetic Tapes.
iii) Computer Memory devices.
iv) Floppy disks.