GEOGRAPHY

uman consumpticitl.

Farming may not be the most obvious

of topics to study in Geography, but farming
cover a large percentage of the world and activities
without farming we would struggle to survive.

other industries.'rn-fact a farm is a system in

that itl

@-thesearethingsthatgointothefarmandmaybesplitintoPhysical
lnputs (e'g' amount of rain, soil)
and Human rnputs (e.g. rabour,
PRocEssEsl(storagd) - these are things
money etc.)
which take place on the farm in order
inpurts to convert the
to outputs
vvlvurr (e.g.
te'ts. sowino
SOWlng, wportino
Weeding, trr-.,^-+:-_
harVeSting etc.
o'urPUTs (lncorne') - these are the products
from the farm (i.e. wheat, barley, cattle).

Geography Departmen[ i
Types of Farmin$: t.
Knowing your k6y terms is important, rnake sure you learn the following:
a) €ommercial Farming - the growing of crops / rearing of animals to make a profit.
b) Subsistence Farmirtg - where there is just sufficient food produced to provide for the farmer's
own family
c)hrable Farming- involves the growing of crops.
d)Pastoral Farmirig - involves the rearing of animals.
e):rlntensive Farming- where the farm size is small in comparison with the large amount of
labour, and inputs of capital, fertilisers etc, which are required.
f)':Extensive Farming- Where the size of a farm is very large in comparison to the inputs of
money, labour. ,. l
g) Shifting or sedentar$ -sedentary farmer stays on the same farm all his life and doesn't
move.... This is very common in the UK and Europe ...The other type of farming which is the
opposite to this is called Nomadic Farming/Shifting which is when a farmer constantly moves
round with his cattle to different places; this is very popular in Africa.
11).'pmxed' furn"tt.q'- Bo fti e{'ci-bt< r,rrd fc}:h-r/11 Llrrr''"3
tommercial farming
Commercial farming involves farming for a profit. The farmer is growing crops or rearing animals
to sell for as much money as possible. Thbse farms can be arable Uust growing crops), pastoral
(just rearing animals) or mixed (both arable and pastoral). lncreasingly farms are becoming more
mixed due to the impact of farming subsidies and regulations. Most of the farming in MEDC's is
commercial farming of one type or another.
The arable farms of East Anglia are a good example of commercial farming, as are the cereal
farms of the central United States and the Canadian Prairies.
L

:subsistence farming '

Subsistence farmers only produce enough to feed themselves and their family, without having
any more to sell for profit. This is the most common form of farming in LEDC's.
Some of them are nomadic, meaningthat they move around the country using a piece of land for
a while and then moving on. This type of subsistence farming is also called shifting
cultivation. The traditional tribes of the Amazon rainforest use system of shifting cultivation.
They chop down a clearing in the trees and use it for a few years before moving on and allowing
the soil and vegetation to recover. For thousands of years this form of agriculture has allowed
the people to live, without the rainforest being unduly damaged.

Arable farming'
Arable farming is the planting and harvesting of crops on arable land. Arable land is land that is

"suitable" for farming. Land that is too dry, too rocky, too sandy, too steep, too wet for farming is

considered non arable.

Pastoral Farming
Pastoral farming (also known in some regions as livestock farming or grazing) is farming aimed at
producing livestock, rather than growing crops. Examples include dairy farming, raising beef
cattle, and raising sheep for wool. Pastoral farming is common in Argentina (where it is

ros€"ovi. P.bonnici Geography Department

Er-:onomically important, Australia, Great Britain, lreland, New Zealand and the Western United
5i.rtes, among other places.

lntensive farrning
lntensive farms generally take up a fairly small area of land, but aim to have a very high output,
through massive inputs of capital and labour. These farms use machines and new technologies to
become as efficient and cost-effective as possible.
lntensive agriculture can be seen in many places around the world, such as the Canterbury Plains
of New Zealand, pig farming in Denmark and rice cultivation in the countries of South East Asia.
All use technology appropriate to their country to enable them to get the highest yields from
their land.

Extensive'farrning
Extensive farming is the direct opposite of intensive farming. The farms are large in comparison
to the money injected into them or the labour used. The cattle ranches of central Australia area
are a good example of extensive agriculture, where often only a few farm workers are
respcnsible for thousands of acres of farmland.
Another example of extensive farming can be seen in the massive cattle ranches of Brazil. These
involve clearing vast areas of rainforest (the trees are often burnt rather than chopped down and
sold) to make way for the cattle ranch. The cattle quickly eat the remaining vegetation and begin
to cause massive problems of soil erosion.

Shifting or sedentary
Manyof the earliestfarmers moved to new land everyfewyears, dueto a reduction in yields and
also reduced success in hunting and gathering supplementary foods. Shifting cultivation is now
limited to a few places where there are low population densities and a limited demand for food;
where soils are poor and become exhausted after three or four years of cultivation. However,
farming over most of the world is now sedentary, that is farmers remain in one place to look
after their crops or to rear their animals.

hactors affecting farming

Farmers are decision makers. Their aim is to make a profit and survive on the land. The$pli1t5iGbt
bhd'hui,iidiitaCtoiSiivfrich affect each farm will influence the farmer's actions and what he can do
with his farm.

Although farming is one of the world's oldest professions, modern farming is affected by
uniquely modern economic factors. Farmers in 2012 compete in a complex economic
environment where customers choose from produ{6 grown all over the world, and governments
provide financial incentives for the production of certain crops rather than others. Although
independently minded growers manage to create markets of their own through direct sales and
other creative strategies, the majority of worlds farmers are still at the mercy of both economic
factors:(tlu."ry,l a nd th

164 $ @Mr. P. Bonnici Geography Department

 r::ry:::?:-
e,PaA'ttrifi'# ntt farms need either human Climate: Temperature a minimum '

labour or machinery to do the work. Some temperature of 6"C is needed for crops to I

farm types use very little labour, e.g. sheep grow. The growing season is the number of r

farming. Others require a large labour months the temperature is over 6"a.
,

force, e.g. rice farming in lndia. Different crops need a different growing :

season, e.g. wheat needs 90 days. Rainfall

- all crops and animals need water.

Market: This is the customer who buys Relief :

farm produce. Farmers need to sell their
crops and animals to make a
profit.Perishable crops such as soft fruits
fetch a high price, but need to be grown
with a short travelling distance of the
market.
Temperatures decrease by L"C
every 160 metres vertical height. Uplands
are more exposed to wind and rain. Steep
slopes also cause thin soils and limit the
use of machinery. Lowland areas are more
easily farmed.

Finance: Profits are used to pay the wages ; Soils: Crops grow best on deep, fertile,
and to re-invest in the farm, e.g. buying : free-draining soils, e.g. the brown earths
seeds, fertiliser, machinery and animals. i found in lowland Britain. Less fertile soils
This is known as feedback within the , prone to water logging are best used for
farming system. pastoralfarming.

Tradition: Farmers may have always Aspect: The direction a slope faces. South-
farmed in a certain way and be unwilling to 1
facing slopes are best for growing crops.
l
change. !
I
t

Politics: Government may provide subsidies and loans to encourage new farming
practices but they may also place limits on production to prevent food surpluses, e.g.
quotas and set-aside in the European Union.

An Example of farming in the UK

t-.... _'. -.' _-

i I Market
i nrable farming Dairying Hill sheep farming
, gardening

: Growing of cereals, Rearing r Growing fruit,

Definition I vegetables and
! of Sheep rearing for
i
;

vegetables
: cattle for milk meat and wool
i
:

: animalfeeds and flowers

, Commercial,
Commercial, Commercial,
Classification r intensive, intensive,
intensive, arable extensive, pastoral
i pastoral arable

iI West of Britain i Upland area3 of South and east

t Britain,
i

East and south east e.g. of England and

Location a nd close to
England, East Anglia i- Pennines, Lake close to large
i larse cities :

District cities
4
165 $ OMr. P. Bonnici Geography Department
7

i flat relief; fertile t

well-drained soils; Gentle relief; High, steep relief;

warm summers; fertile soils; thin infertile soils; Long hours of
rainfall u nder high rainfall high rainfall (over sunshine;
Physical
650mm (some in for Srass 1000mm); low most other
factors
growing season); growth; mild temperatures factors are
winter frosts to winters (over unsuitable for controlled
break up soil and kill 6"C) crops
pests
I

I Large market in
south east; good
Access to large
Remote from large
Access to
markets; milk motorways
Human
tra n spo rt markets; limited
; networks; benefits subsidies up to
labour;
and airports;
EU
factors
i from EU subsidies the 1980s large labour
subsidies and
when quotas and capital
i and intervention grants
introduced input
I price
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166 fr @tttir. P. Bonnici Geography Department

7
Agricultural Policies and Change
ln both MEDC's and LEDC's new ideas and regulations have been brought
in to try to safe-guard
farmers livelihoods and make farm production more efficient. some
of the methods used forthis
are outlined in this section:

The European Union

The European Union is made up of 27 member countries. lt began
as a group of only 6 countries
in 1957 and has expanded ever since. Border controls between the countries are
virtually non-
existent now, and trade is almost exclusively between the 27 countries.
The EU has brought in many rules and regulations to try and help farmers in
all of its member
countries. Not all of these have been as eagerly welcomed as they might have
been.

The Common Agricultural Policy: This was a policy brought in by the EU in 1g62
with a number
of aims:
o lt aimed to increase agricultural production in member countries.
o lt aimed to improve the standard of living experienced by farmers.
o lt aimed to maintain prices and supplies of food at a reasonable cost to the consumers.
o Some of the methodsthat it used included subsidies and minimum pricing.
Farmerswere
encouraged to produce as much as they could, and the EU guaranteed that
it would buy it
all. This led to huge surpluses in butter, milk, cereals and even wine.

ln 1992 the policy was reformed with far less subsidies and more concern for
the natural
environment. some important aspects of the cAp are outlined below:

Minimum Pricing / Price Guarantees: The common Agricultural policy established

minimum
prices for agricultural produce that the farmer was guaranteed
to receive. They also set prices
lower than those of imports from outside the EU and bought up any products
that were falling in
price in an attempt to boost prices again. The idea was to allow
the farmers to always get a
reasonable price for their product.

Quotas: ln 1992 the common Agricultural Policy was reformed and one of the main
things that
was brought in was quotas. These set a limit on how much one
farmer could produce of a single
product, thus protecting the livelihoods of many farmers
by continuing to guarantee their crops
would be bought, whilst not building up the huge surpluses that occurred
before.

subsidies: subsidies were given to farmers to allow them to produce

more crops. However the
intensive farming methods that most farmers employed led to many
environmental problems
such as hedgerow removal and increased use of pesticides and fertilisers.

The 1992 changes to the policy removed much of the subsidies and price
support that the
original policy had, as the EU realised that the intensive farming was harming
the environment.

Surpluses: The original CAP didn't limit how much each farmer could produce; just
it bought all
that they had' This rapidly led to the establishment of huge surpluses in many
agricultural

@Mr. P. Bonnici Geography Department

products, such as beef, butter, cereals, milk and wine. However in the 1992 reform of the policy
they realised that this idea was not working and so introduced quotas.

Problems caused by agriculture in MEDC's

The Common Agricultural Policy, whilst guaranteeing to farmers that there would be someone
to buy their produce also produced some serious environmental problems. Farmers knew they
could produce as much as they possibly could and it would definitely be bought so they tried to
use every inch of their land, and often changed from pastoral farming to arable farming. This
caused serious environmental problems.

Hedgerow removal: Between the end of the war in 1945 and 1995 over 60% of hedgerows in
England and Wales were removed. Hedgerows are important wildlife habitats but they limit the
amount of land a farmer can use, and many wanted to merge small pastoral fields into huge
arable fields due to the increased money they could make from that form of farming. The loss of
hedgerows also increased the chance of soil erosion occurring as they sheltered the land from
wind, helping the soil to bind together.

Pollution: The increased use of pesticides and fertilisers has led to air and water pollution.
Chemicals used on the fields, are easily washed into rivers by rainwater and can seriously affect
the fish, birds and plants of the river. They can also leach through the ground and into rivers.
Fertilisers in water can cause rapid algae growth. This then can lead to the water being starved of
oxygen so there is not enough for other plants, and especially fish. This process is
ca led eutrophication.
I

Soil Erosion: The removal of hedgerows and the change from pasture to arable farming has led
to many cases of increased soil erosion. The hedges protected the soil from wind erosion, and
their removal created huge fields across which the wind could race. Arable crops do not bind the
soil together as well as grass and so more soil was eroded by rainwater run-off.
Also the crops did not cover the ground all year round and when the fields were ploughed they
were even more susceptible to rapid erosion, and flooding.

Strategies for agriculture in LEDC's

Food production is one of the most important industries in most LEDC's and agriculture is often
still their main source of employment.
It has increased, and with the environmental difficulties that many of these countries face, a
number of strategies have been introduced. These have been aimed at helping the farmers
become firstly self-sufficient and then begin to allow them to make a profit.
However it has not just been a case of the developed countries of the world throwing money at
the problem, the solutions have had to be appropriate to the countries concerned.

Appropriate Technology: This involves small-scale projects that will help a community or maybe
even individual su bsistence farmers.
ldeas include digging wells to provide water for irrigation, setting up projects that can be easily
maintained and sustained by the local people. They have not included bringing in large machines
and expensive technology, as this can rarely be repaired when it goes wrong. The use of

@Mr. P. Bonnici Geography Department

 renewable energy sources, such as wind power
and biogas has been encouraged rather than
huge HEP schemes.

All these things are aimed at being as well suited

to a particurar area of community as possible,
whilst giving them as much help as possible.

The Green Revolution: This involved developing new

high yield crops, initially in Mexico, which
were then used in countries such as lndia. Their effect
was to increase yields dramatically, and
sometimes allow an extra crop each year to grown.

The farmers quickly produced greater amounts of

crops and therefore produced larger profit,
from which they could buy improved machinery. There
were some disadvantages of the scheme
however' The new seeds were very expensive to buy
and required a lot of expensive fertilisers
and pesticides to ensure that they grew properly. This
meant that many of the poor farmers just
couldn't afford the new crops. some farmers fell heavily
into debt trying to finance buying the
new crops.

lrrigation: The Green Revolution meant the need of

massive irrigation schemes. Long series of
canals took water to the fields. The canals were
fairly cheap to set up but did cause problems of
water logging and salinisation.
some communities used deep wells instead of irrigation
canals to water their crops, however this
method could only really cater for a couple of hectares
of land. with the Green Revolution came
electric water pumps, which allowed one wellto irrigate
much larger areas of land.

The Green Revolution

ln the 1960s, there was concern from the lndian government
that the country would not be able
to grow enough food to support the ever increasing population,
so they put into place what was
called the'Green Revolution'' The idea of the 'Green
Revorution' was to use technology to
increase food output and as a result, over the
last 50 years a series of changes have taken place
in farming in lndia with the introduction of more 'western-type, farming techniques.

what changes in farming in rndia did the Green Revorution

bring about?
1. LAND REFORM
The problem: efficient farming was difficult in lndia
due to the many small farms (75% less than
3ha)' which had become a product of the 'Laws of
Divided lnheritance' (with farms being split
between the sons of the farmer on his death), many
of the poor didn,t even own land, whereas
large amounts of land were owned by a few rich
rand owners.

The GR (Green Revolution) solution; Land Reform _

aimed to increase farm size, setting a limit
on the amount of land the more wealthy could own and
redistributing surplus land to those
without.

2. HIGH YIELDING VARIETIES

The problem: existing rice varities, grew rapidly but
very tall so fell over easily and had to be
grown quite far apart.

Geography Department
The GR solution; money provided by MEDCs such as the UK, USA etc. enabled new high yielding
varities of rice to be developed - resulting in the development of a new rice plant known as lR8.
This was shorter and stronger; could be planted much closer together, enabling more crop per
area; had a shorter growing season and produced almost 3-4 times as much yield per hectare.

3. MECHANISATION
The problem: rice growing is labour intensive, with many jobs to be done requiring great human
input.

The GR solution: technology such as tractors and mechanised ploughs were introduced from
MEDCs, replacing water buffalo and increasing efficiency, reducing the required human input.

Other changes brought about by the Green Revolution:

a) lrrigation schemes, including the introduction of electric / diesel pumps to help ensure a more
steady and reliable source of water for the new lR8 HYVs and large scale projects such as the
Narmada River Project (a series of dams builtto help provide waterfor irrigation of the land)
b) As the introduction of tractors and other 'Western' style technology was not as successful as
first hoped, Alternative,'Appropriate Technology' has been introduced which is suited to the
local people's wealth, skills and knowledge, for example low cost irrigation schemes etc.

The successes of the Green Revolution

a)Those that could afford the new Hybrid seeds, technology etc. saw an increase of 3OO% in crop
yields.
b) The overall increase in food production helped to feed the ever increasing population with
I ndia becoming largely self-sufficient.
c) lncreased output overall meant that some subsistence farmers had a surplus which they were
also able to sell, helping to raise living standards further. Money raised in this was also
reinvested into the farm, helping with the costs of machinery etc. or to buy more land.
d) Areas in which the Green Revolution was successful became richer and more money was
available for investment in schools, clinics, industry etc.

The failures of the Green Revolution

a) Unfortunately for many farmers the cost of machinery was too much and they simply couldn't
afford it, as well as the high initial outlay, money was also required for fuel and repair.
b) Many very poor farmers were tenant farmers, with little money to buy even the new seeds or
fertiliser that was required.
c) New irrigation schemes were required to provide the reliable source of water required by the
HYVs (High Yielding Varieties of
rice). As well as being expensive, in some cases where
inappropriate schemes were used salinisation became a problem. Dam construction in some
areas also resulted in the flooding of some good farming land.
d) The large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides required by the HWs also led to serious
environmental problems as they entered water supplies.
e) ln areas where there was an increase in mechanisation, there was an increase in
unemployment with fewer people needed to do the jobs that were now done using tractors etc.

t70 OMr. P. Bonnici

g Geography Department
f) The consequent increase in unemployment in rural areas led to an increase in rural-urban
migration with more people moving to the cities, causing urban problems.
g) Many farmers who had tried to take on the new technologies became heavily in debt, leading
to increase stress and in some instances suicide.

Environmental impact of farming

The use of chemicals
Pesticide is defined as a chemical applied to crops to control pests, diseases and weeds. The
United Nations claimed in the 1960s that one third of the world's crops were lost each year due
to these three factors. Scientist has estimated that without pesticides, yields of cereal crops
could be reduced by up to 45 per cent within two years. Unfortunately, pesticides can also affect
non-harmfulwildlife such as bees.
Fertiliser is a mineral compound containing one or more of the six main nutrients needed for
successful plant growth. The average soil rarely contains sufficient nutrients, especially nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium, to provide either a healthy crop or a high yield. Although it is
expensive to use, chemical fertiliser replaces nutrients that have been removed from the soil.
There is, however, considerable concern when nitrate is washed (leached)through the soil into:
o Rivers where, being a fertiliser, it causes a rapid growth of algae and other plants which
use up oxygen leaving insufficient for fish life-the process of euthrophication.
o Underground domestic water supplies where it can be harmful to human health.

Phosphate) realised from slurry (animal manure) and untreated human sewage, can also
pollute water supplies. Slurry can be L00 times , more polluting than household waste.

The Loss of wildlife habitats

The intensification of farmland during the second half of the twentieth century led to loss of
important wildlife habitats such as wetlands, moorlands and hedgerows.

The removal of Hedgerows

Although most ofBritain's hedgerows were only planted by farming communities in the
eighteenth century, they are now often perceived to be part of the natural environment. Modern
farming, especially in arable areas, uses large machines that are easier to work if the fields are
large. This meant that between 1945 and 1990 over 25 per cent of Britain's hedges were cleared
in order to create larger fields. Hedges were cleared because:
o They are costly and time consuming to maintain.
o They take up space that could be used to grow crops, and so cost the farmer money.
o They limit the size of field machinery.
o Trees get in the way of mechanised hedge-trimmers.

Some of the advantageous of well-maintained hedges are:

o Trees provide shade and a habitat for wildlife.
o Hedges reduce wind speed and their roots bind the soil, reducing erosion.
o Bushes are cut and laid horizontal. lnitially unsightly, these soon produce a thick cover.
o Wider base adds to attraction and also provides a habitat for wildlife.

l7lfi @ttttr. P. Bonnici Geography Department

7
Rubble walls are broken stone, of irregular size, shape and texture. A rubble
wall, or as it is more
familiarly known in Malta as "Hajt tas-sejjieh", is one built entirely or mainly
without the use of
cernent or mortar; it relies for its strength and durability on the skilful placing
of stones so that
each one is locked securely in place.

Rubble walls are found allover parts of the world but it is mostly confined
to the Arab world. The
various shapes and sizes of the stones used to build these walls look like stones
that were found
in the area lying on the ground or in the soil.

The Maltese farmer found that the technique of these walls was very useful
especially during an
era where resources were limited. Rubble walls are used to serve as borders between the
property of one farm from the other. A great advantage that rubble walls offered
is that when
heavy rain fall their structure would allow excessive water to pass through and therefore,
excess
water will not ruin the products. Soil erosion is minimised as the wall structure allows the
water
to pass through but it traps the soil and prevents it from being carried away from the field.One
can see many rubble walls on the side of the hills and in valleys where the land
slopes down and
consequently the soil is in greater danger of being carried away.

Wetlands/Marshy areas
A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently
or seasonally, such that
it takes on characteristics that distinguish it as a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that
distinguishes wetlands is the characteristic vegetation, which is adapted to its
unique soil
conditions: Wetlands are made up primarily of hydric soil, which supports aquatic plants.

wetlands were once commonly drained for two reasons. lt makes land available
for farming and
building' Draining also improves health by eliminating waterborne diseases
and/or vectors like
mosquitoes.
Today it is considered unethical to drain wetlands unless human health
is in jeopardy. lt is
environmentally damaging and often does more harm than good. There are
several places where
government is trying to reverse human damage to wetlands like
the US states of Louisiana,
Florida, and Maryland.
when a wetland is drained several damages to flora and fauna are caused such
as Habitat
destruction that can damage the local ecosystem. lt also impairs migratory
animals that depend
on the wetland, damaging the wider ecosystem. Loss of biodiversity.

4s4y4*.€"iy.z'!!!i!!!i,"i1ll1!lii!!'41ii11!i.,o{i\ri,l,iro

172 # @Mr. P. Bonnici Geography Department

 Farming and famine
Food is an essential resource, yet we live in a world
where many people do not have enough to
eat' The diagram below shows parts of the world at risk
from famine. All the areas shown are in
less economically developed countries (LEDCs).

It is estimated that on average an adult needs a balanced diet providing

about 2300 calories per
day' ln more economically developed countries (MEDCs),
calorie consumption is high and the
number of overweight people is increasing. This can lead to
heart disease and strokes.

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t ttjntr'ig6

ir*prr ni lanr*r l{el

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mshiliritiw
Iq!itgr l?il proprriiri:r 1ri
pi:pulatll,.r
suiferirr; karrL
mslnutrit!rrl

By contrast, in many African nations people only

manage to consume g0 per cent of the amount.
A lack of calories and the right vitamins can cause malnutrition,
making people weak and sick.

The result of many illnesses is that people become

too weak to work. This contributes to the
'circle o hunger', from which it is difficult to escape.

hunger

lsss t* sa?
tiredness

lirtf* f*od
is gr*rrun illn*ss
{:& 11fi (lt
wrrk
n\\]:]jmi1rm]i]jffi'?]]@N 11

173 @Mr. P. Bonnici

Geography Department
 The causes of famine
some people believe that famines are a result
of people's laziness or ignorance. The fact is
the causes are comprex and can incrude any that
one or more of the foilowing:
-
o Drought: when the rains fail, harvests
can be destroyed and farmers are left without
food.
Desertification: The removalof trees (deforestation)
and overgrazing result in land that is
easily eroded and so turns to desert and
becomes unproductive.
war: wars can destroy farming as people leave the
land to fight or escape, and money is
spent on weapons rather than on agriculture.
a Poverty: Landless peopre do not have rand
to farm on.
a Trade: LEDCsget poor prices for the cash crops which
they export, yet they pay a high
price for manufactured goods which
they import from the deveroped worrd.
International debts: LEDCs owe money to MEDCs.
Many countries have such a huge debt
that most of their income goes towards paying off
interest on their loans. This leaves little
to spend on farming.

What can be done?

o Aid could be given but this might only help people
in the short term. people might
become too dependent on aid on the long
term.
o lmprovement in the way food is produced. Farmers
ought to use more intensive methods
such as machinery, fertilisers and pesticides.
o Farmers should be given their own land. small
loans would hetp them buy inexpensive
tools, atowing them to use their own knowredge
and skits.
o Famers should be given a fair price for their crops.
some companies that do this use the
'FairTrade' mark' Maya Gold, which is
an organic chocolate from Belize, tries to guarantee
that peasant farmers are not exploited.

Malnutrition in children
Low-birth weight babies are children
born weighing less than 25009, their low weight
attributed to maternal malnutrition. Low being
birth weight chirdren are often prone to a shortened
lifetime full of health problems, included
retarded development and susceptibility
to disease.
children under the age of 5 are particularly
susceptible to malnutrition. ln 2000, 35 per
children in this age group in the developing cent of
world were considered to be underweight.
percentage is' surprisingly; highest The
is south-east Asia where, despite improvements
supply per capita since 1970,78 per cent in food
of the developing world's underweight children
contrast, Africa has only 15 per cent of the live. rn
totat underweight children.

Children fall ill either because their diet

contains too few proteins, which are particularly
important during early stages of growth,
or too few calories. The two major protein
deficiency
diseases are marasmus and kwashiorkor.
Marasmus is most common in children
in their first year of life. Kwashiorkor results
predominance of cereals (e.g. rice) from a
and a deficiency of protein (e.g milk, eggs
and meat). Two of
several diseases resulting from lack of vitamins
are beri-beri (vitamin 81 deficiency) and rickets
ri!@ffi4?ffi*1l@.l/@.r.1s's!4@@d

174 $ @ur. p. Bonnici

-**-* **,*4@--
(Vitamin D). Beri-beri, due to lack of vitamin B, can lead to a wasting and paralysis of limbs.
Rickets, caused by a deficiency in vitamin D, causes deformities in bones, legs and the spine.

Why Africa suffers from malnutrition

o The high birth rate and falling death rate means there are many more people to be fed.'
o Few farmers have the money to buy high-yielding seeds, fertiliser, pesticides or
machinery, or to implement irrigation schemes.
o When food is scarce, neither governments nor people can afford to buy high-priced
surplus from overseas.
o During colonial times, European companies established commercial crops for their own
profit instead of encouraging subsistence crops for local use. Although now independent,
some governments still give tax concessions to overseas transnational's, allowing them to
continue to grow these crops.
o The soil has been overused in the past and few nutrients remain. ln places soil erosion
has led to desertification.
. Many areas receive small and unreliable amounts of rainfall.
o Pests and diseases destroy crops and stored grain.
o Often there is not enough protein in the diet.
o ln many countries there is political instability.

/,'.*

aR
ts) $ed b*lli

Organic farming
Ultimately, the safest way of practising agriculture is by moving onto organic Farming. This
means farming in a way that a farmer works with cycles of nature rather than against. lt involves
the use of natural fertilisers and alternative methods of pest control. Organic farming is kinder to
the soil and not harmful to living organisms and to water supplies. ln the end, it is healthier for
people to consume vegetables free from any toxic chemicals. ln the end this means that people
consuming organic food will suffer less from illnesses.

Organic farming is a method of production rather than a means to an end product, and being a

method of production it is based on the following principles:

175 I @Mr. P. Bonnici Geography Department

 o working with natural systems rather than seeking to
dominate them.
a The promotion of biodiversity in the entire systems,
by growing different varieties of
crops on the same field, rather than having one
single crop.
lnffeasing the soil biological activity, by creating conditions
which enable beneficiat
organisms to flourish and by not using pesticides.
lncreasing the soil fertility by recycling wastes
of plant and animal origin generated on the
farm itself, in order to return nutrients to the soil.
Respect for traditional practices and recognition
of environmental, regional, climatic and
geogra phic d ifferences.
Promoting the healthy use of soil, water and air as
well as minimise all forms of pollution
that may result from agricultural practices.
Maintaining valuable existing landscape features and adequate
habitats for the
production of wildlife, with particular regard
to endangered species.
a Ethical treatment of livestock.
a Reducing the use of unnecessary medicines and hormones
given to livestock.
o lncreasing the pasturage time and access to outdoor
foraging.

Organic farming has its problems:

o Using no chemicar fertiriser means that, initiaily, yierds
are rower.
o Using no pesticide means more weeding has to be
done.
o Farmers have to wait several years before they can
market their goods as .organic,.
o The extra work means organic produce is more
expensive for the shopper to buy.

Genetically modified crops (GM)

GM crops were first developed for commercial production
in 1gg6. Two thirds of GM crops are
produced in the USA and 99 per cent by
the USA, Argentina, canada and china. GM crops include
corn (maize), oilseed rape, and sugar beet and soya
beans.
Although seen by scientists as a solution to food
shortages in developing countries, especially in
Africa' and a means of reducing food bills in developed
countries, their production in the EU is
being strongly opposed by conservation groups.

Genetic modification involves taking genes from

one species and inserting them into another to
give it new qualities, such as improved resistance
to pests, heat or cold.
Advocates say the technique is sound, safe and
can help increase crop yields or improve animal
breeds.
Detractors argue that there is a risk that genes
engineered in plants and animals will be
transferred to species in the wild, irreversibly alternating
the world,s ecosystems.

Case study Rice Farming in tndia

1' ctlMATE - the Monsoon climate stays above 21
degrees celsius with a long wet season, plenty
of moisture available for growth, followed by dry, sunny
weather which is ideal for ripening the
harvest.

Geography Department
A continent is one of several large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by conven-
tion rather than any strict criteria, with seven regions commonly regarded as continents - they are
(fiom largest in size to smallest): Asi4 Africa, North America, South America, Antartica, Europe,
and Australia.

Europo

n*,"
\J.r,.*.

MM
An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere . Approxi-
mately 7lo/o otthe Earth's surt-ace is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is divided into
tive major oceans which are Artic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Southem
ocean.
 Look careJully at the map (Fig.l) and answer the questions that./bllow:

a) Name the continents marked:

/'
Lr/

a) Name the oceans marked:

on the map provided insert the following words in the appropriate place.

(Equator, Tropic of Capricorn, Tropic o.f Cancer).

 I
SPAIN

AIGERIA
M0R.OCCO

ECYFT
Ti

The Mediterranean countries are those that surround the Mediterranean Sea. Below one can see the
Mediterranean with their respective capital city. The black dots on the map represent the capital cit-
ies.

ln Europe: In Asia: In Africa:

. E Soain (Madrid) . U Turkey (Ankara) o I
r Espt (Cairo)
. I I France(paris) . I
* Syria (Damascus) . il 1;bya (Tripoti)
I
. _Monaco (Monaco) . E lsbanon (Beirut) . E lonisia (Tunis)
. I l16g (Rome) . E lrrael (Jerusalem) . * .q,tgeria (Algiers)
. 'lMalta(vailetta) . il 114orocco (Rabat)
. E 6.oatia (Zagreb)
o tlr Slovenia (Ljubljana)
. 3l36snia and Herzegovina
(Sarajevo)
. I Montenegro (Podgorica)
. I albania (Tirana)
. iE Greece (Athens)
o / Cyprus (Nicosif,
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, Important information about the European Union
ri'.r-rrn'J 1957: The E.U was born when Beleium. France. Italy. Luxemboure. The Netherlands and
Westem Germany signed the Treaty of Rome. The E.U at this time was known as European
Economic Community.
1973: The community expands to nine members. The United Kingdom. Denmark and the Re-
public of Ireland becilne new members of the Union.
1981: Greece was admitted in 1981.
1986: Two other countries joined the E.U. These were Spain and Portueal.
1993: The Maastricht Treaty was signed to strengthen the Union.
1995: Three other countries became members namely Austria. Sweden and Finlaqd.
2002:Euro notes and coins are introduced.
2004:: Ten more countries joined the union. These were Cyprus. Czech Republic. Estonia.
Lithuania. Hungary. Latvia. Malta. Poland. Slovak Republic. Slovenia.
2007'" Romania and Bulsariajoined the Union.

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European Union Member States

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Capital cities of all the countries within the Buropean Union.

Austria Vienna Finland Helsinki

Belgium Brussels France Paris
Bulgaria Sofia Germany Berlin
Cyprus Nicosia Greece Athens
Czech Republic Prague Hungary Budapest
Denmark Copenhagen Ireland Dublin *
Estonia Tallinn Italy Rome
Latvia Riga Lithuania Vilnius
Luxembourg Luxembourg Malta Valletta
Netherlands Amsterdam Poland Warsaw
Portugal Lisbon Romania Bucharest
Slovakia Bratislava . Spain Madrid
Sweden Stockholm United Kingdom London

Use the map below and write on it the places which are members of the European Union.

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Major cold sea currents

Major warm sea cuffents -
The major warm seas currents are the The major cold seas are the North Pacific,
Northern and Southern Equatorial Currents, Californian, Peruvian, Labrador, and Ben-
Kuroshio, the Gulf Stream, North Atlantic guela Current.
Drift, Brazil Current,

A) Use the map below to fill the empty spaces with the names of the sea currents.
B) Draw those boxes which represent the cold sea currents with blue.
e) Draw those boxes which represent the warm curents with red.

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 The likelihood of a river bursting its banks and flooding is
determined by factors in the surrounding landscape, such
as steepness ofthe river vailey, the amount of vegetation
and the prevailing rock-type. The short_term impact of
floods can be catastrophic, but they can have positive rong-
term effects as well.

A flood occurs when a river bursts its banks and the water spills
onto the floodplain. Flooding
tends to be caused by heavy rain: the faster the rainwater reaches
the river chanel, the more
likely it is to flood. The nature of the landscape around a river
will influence how quickly
rainwater reaches the channel.

The following factors may encourage flooding:

rH-ariverchannelsurroundedbysteepslopescauseSfastsurface
run off.
-treesandplantsinterceptprecipitation(ietheycatch
or drink water)' lf there is little vegetation in the drainage basin then
surface run-off will
be high.
A drainage basin, consisting of mainly impermeable rock - this will
mean that water
cannot percolate through the rock layer, and so will run faster
overthe surface.
A drainage basin in an urban area - these consist largely
of impermeable concrete, which
encourages overland flow. Drains and sewers take water quickly
and directly to the river
channel. Houses with sloping roofs further increase the amount
of run_off,

Flood management techniques include river engineering,

afforestation and planning controls to
restrict urban development on floodplains.

Floods can cause damage to homes and possessions

as well as disruption to communications.
However, flooding can arso have positive impacts on
an area.
Flooding deposits fine silt (alluvium) onto the floodplain,
making it veryfertile and excellent for
agriculture' People living on or near floodplains may rely
upon regular flooding to help support
their farming and therefore provide food. LEDC stend to be
affected more than MEDCs by the
effects of flooding' This is partly because LEDCs have more
farms, and farming communities are
attracted to fertile flood plains. LEDCs often do not have
the resources to prevent flooding or
deal with the aftermath of flooding.
Hydrographs and River Discharge

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What are Hydrographs?

The amount of water in a river at any given point and time is known as the discharge which
is
measured in cumecs (cubic metres per second). This can be calculated by multiplying
river
velocity by channel volume at a given point and time.

Hydrographs are graphs which show river discharge over a given period of time
and show the
response of a drainage basin and its river to a period of rainfall.

A storm hydrograph shows how a river's discharge responds following a period

of heavy rainfall.
on a hydrograph, the flood is shown as a peak above the base (normal)flow of the river. Analysis
of hydrographs can help hydrologists to predict the likelihood of flooding in a drainage
basin. The
response of a river to a rainfall event can be measured in terms of the lag
time - the time
between peak rainfall and peak discharge. Rivers with a short lag time respond
rapidly to rainfall
events and are therefore more prone to flooding than rivers with a longer lag
time
River discharge does not respond immediately to rainfall inputs as only a little of the rainfall will
fall directly into the channel. The river will start to respond initially through inputs
from surface
runoff (the fastest flow of water) and its discharge will later be supplemented through
inputs
from throughflow and groundwater flow.
7
Variations in the shape of a Hydrograph:
The shape of a hydrograph is determined by the speed in which flood waters are able to reach
the river' The nature of the drainage basin therefore has a great influence on the way a river
responds to a river as it will determine the types and speeds of the flow of water to the river.

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The fastest route to the river is via overland flow. lf most of the water in a drainage basin
travels
in this way, a river will respond quickly to heavy rainfall and the hydrograph shape will 'peaky'
be
(graph A) with steep rising and recessional limbs. The lag time will be short and
there will be a
greater risk of flooding. Where more water is able to pass into the soil and travel
to the river
via throughflow / groundwater flow, there will be a slower rise in discharge and
the river will
respond slower (graph B). The lag time will be longer and the risk of flooding will be much
lower.

Factors affecting a flood hydrograph:

Characteristics of the Drainage Basin:
r impermeable rocks (e.g. granite) and soil (e.g. clay) will not allow water to pass through,
resulting in large amounts of surface runoff and a greater flood risk as rivers respond
quickly - results in ashort lag time.
permeable rocks and soil have a high infiltration capacity and will absorb
' water quickly,
reducing overland flow - results in alonger lag time
r a drainage basin with a steep gradient will result in greater overland flow and a shorter
lag time than where the gradient is less steep allowing more time for infiltration to occur.

Type and amount of Precipitation:

o heavy rain results in rapid saturation of the upper soil layers and the excess water
therefore reaches streams quickry as surface runoff (short lag time)
7
i slow light rain can be absorbed by infiltration and the river takes longer to respond to
rainfall as water takes longer to pass through the drainage basin via throughflow and
groundwater flow (longer lag time)

Land Use and Human lmpact

i impermeable man made surfaces such as concrete and tarmac are impermeable
therefore rivers in urban drainage basins tend to have short lag times due to higher
amounts of surface runoff and drainage systems taking water to rivers quickly,
. vegetated areas help to reduce flood risk by increasing the time it takes for water to
reach a river (longer lag time) by encouraging infiltration (roots opening up the soil),
intercepting water by their leaves and taking up water in their roots.
. areas cleared by deforestation will respond quickly to rainfall due to the reduced
interception
. Size of the Drainage Basin
t Large Drainage Basin - water will take longer to reach the river (long lag time)
. Small Drainage Basin - water will enter the river quicker (short lag time)
t Present conditions of the Drainage Basin
t lf the soil has already been saturated by heavy rain its infiltration capacitywill be reduced
and further rain will go as surface runoff
o lf the soil is dry it will be able to absorb more water during infiltration and therefore the
lag time will be longer
t if the ground surface is frozen lag time is short as water cannot infiltrates and passes
quickly to the river as runoff

River flooding and management issues

MED€ case study: causes and effects of flooding in Boscastle, UK (2004)
Causes
r over 60 mm of rainfall (typically a month's rainfall) fell in two hours.
a The ground was already saturated due to the previous two weeks of above average
rainfall.
e The drainage basin has many steep slopes, and has areas of impermeable slate causing
rapid surface run-off.
CI Boscastle is at the confluence (where tributaries meet) of three rivers - Valency, Jordan,
and Paridise. A large quantity of water all arrived within a short space of time causingthe
rivers to overflow.
. The flooding coincided with a high tide, making the impact worse.

Effects
I Homes, businesses and cars belonging to more than l-,000 people were swept away.
a lncome from tourism was lost. This had an impact on livelihoods and the local economy.
a There were vast numbers of subsequent insurance claims.
I No lives were lost, partly due to the rapid response of the emergency services.
 LEDC casestudy: causes and effects of flooding in Mozambique (2000)
The Mozambique floods of 2000 show that what happens in one
country can very often affect
another.
The flooding was triggered by exceptionally heavy rain in
South Africa, lasting for five weeks in
early 2000' Botswana was particularly badly hit, receiving 75 per
cent of its yearly rainfall in three
days' on 22 February, cyclone Eline hit, bringing more heavy rainfall.
The rain from Botswana
and other Southern African countries ran into the Limpopo,zambeziand
other rivers which flow
through Mozambique to the sea. These rivers eventually burst their
banks, causing severe
flooding in Mozambique.
ln addition, the loss of grassland and draining of marshland for farms contributed
to more
rapidsurface run-off.
The results were disastrous: services were cut off and many people
were stranded, homeless or
had died through drowning or disease. Urbanisation in south Africa
may have contributed to the
large quantities of surface water run-off swelling the rivers.

Steps can be taken to manage flooding. Often these steps

involve trying to lengthen the amount of time it takes for
water to reach the river channel, thereby increasing the lag
time. Flood management techniques can be divided
into hard- and soft-engineering options.
Hard options tend to be more expensive and have a greater
impact on the river and the surrounding landscape.
soft options are more ecorogicaily sensitive. The tabres
summarise the main flood management techniques.

Hard-engineering options
tDam.,,,.,.r,, Dams are-ofien built along the course of a river in order
,c6nstffictioh ' to control the
amount of discharge. water is held back by the dam and released
in a
c_ontrolled way. This controls flooding.
water is usually stored in a reservoiibehino the dam. This water
can
!re1 be used to generate hydroerectric power or roi
Building a dam can be verlrexpensive.
i".i"rtr.';;;;;:"r.
"betrino
is often trapped the wail of the dam, teading to erosion
,?19]T"la
lufther downstream.
settlements and agricurturar rand may be rost when the river
vailey is
floodud to form a reservoir.
,.,
,'RiVAi"':' "' The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to
carry more
engin-eerinb water. A river channel may be straightened so that watei.rn
trruJr
faster
Slong the course. The channer course of the
altered, diverting floodwaters away from setilements.
,r;;.;; ,ir;';;
Altering the rivei channer may lead t" gi""t"; of flooding
"
downstream,aSthewateriscarriedtherefaster.^k
S o ft -en gin eeri ng.opt i o n s

A*aesmlcn Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater
interception of rainwater and rower river disch"rj". This is a
relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental
quality of the drainage basin.
The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent
flooding in other areas - for exampre, near settiements.-

Local authorities and the national government introduce

policies to control urban development close to or on the
floodplain. This reduces the chance of flooding and the risk of
damage to property.
There can be resistance to deveropment restrictions in areas
where there is a shortage of housing. Enforcing planning
regulations and controls may be harder in LEDbs.

Different interest groups have different views about flood management

techniques:
+ Governments and developers often favour large hard engineering options, such as dam
building. Building a dam and a reservoir can generate income. profits
can be made from
generating electricity or leisure revenue.
o Environmental groups and local residents often prefer softer options,
such as planting
trees. soft options cause littre damage to the environment and do not
involve the
resettlement of com m unities.
o Effective flood management strategies should be economically,
environmentally and
socially sustainable. sustainable strategies allow management
without compromising the
needs of future generations.

L€pG,caSe study: coping with flooding in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is an LEDC. The land is densely
populated. Most of the land forms a delta
from three main rivers - Ganges, Brahmaputra
&e*.*'re, and Meghna - and 25 per cent of Bangladesh
is less than 1 m above sea level. Flooding is an
annual event as the rivers burst their banks.
... . ,,.1.
,i.. This seasonal flooding is beneficial as it
provides water for the rice and jute (two main
crops in the area) it also helps to keep the soil
I"lr;iA
fertile. Bangladesh also experiences many
tropical cyclones. The low-lying land means it
is easily flooded. Half the country is less than
6m above sea level. The snowmelt in the
Himalayas adds water into the main rivers.
There are human causes too - building on the
floodplains and cutting down trees both
increase the effects of flooding,
BAN GIABFSFI.FI @OEt'it4il98#l ood s
Setween July-September 1998, Bangladesh suffered one of its worse ever floods. Despite being
flooding being common in this country, the floods of 1998 were particularly severe resulting in
over l-000 deaths and 30 million people being made homeless and newspapers / media sources
were full of headlines.

Physical (Natural) causes of flooding in Bangladesh

S*rrre Csxs;es qf frb*ding irt ffurt6;{adesk

t " l\1*.ttt*tttn €:r,ixtet*
l3rinrts *ary tuxvy r:*.irx *a& x.**ve
Soils rre lraehcd aad trruvy
rzz**tf{ rltx\t aa t* **f.t,ttr.1t&t:*x
?- sp,rl&g 6,**w-b!.eSt:
*taelclrxitx nttil rlr.**xittn acd s
rnpid incrcirrc ir llivcr Ilixhargc
3. tbtf,*,r**jtci r.izrx L* *'*s&wa**r,*.re&s
4 * t* t.*xr*.tt*i*;{ {rttgtr11*rtoo 3$ N*pr,af &. 'X'i
"frr:*x elr::rrc*f {*r {:u*} a.ttlt XtetAt X han4*"
lrrs F)r ap<rlranrpirrtiorr. mcrc runoff antl
f,asl*:r x**t t:r.*xi*tt" l;."a*dr;Ltrlex sl** *eeur-

*\- ,-{{t}--sik-rrp due t6 ro iffirca"i};oil

crrnioa l biJ raiscx thr riycr lxd *sd
rldurts thr (.;pse.iLl:.rt the rhantxst
Zg'*:Y* W*rrri*.*i***7t
. r'*xslrtl*g itr. ir*ez:c***&n&&ib*xd *t

W,rpul
Xrldls

5- 81)"/" 6f?*ngtaccrh lier un * huee \

floodplain an{ eletl4, rnart ef which i-*
*sttly t* xb*v.* xe* ****Al-
&,Ntaab, *f tla,e' tlartg{:3 &s* ttgie.ra
divt'rred for irrigation purposcs, this
t*t**tt'*t* xtttt** *rl('&ii :*ttt. ee4.tt?ev.&e**
rtte,Ne*$.F tiig. :furr*ber &vitgr*t:rf|&.et fr*tn
lrin1 built rr1r-

Bangladesh is a very low lying country, withTO% of its land area being less than l-m above
sea level and 80% of it being floodplain.
Bangladesh receives large amounts of water passing through it with two major rivers (the
Ganges and Brahmaputra) converging and forming a huge delta (see picture) formed from
silt deposited by the river as it enters the sea. Both rivers have large volumes of water
flowing through them to the sea as they have large drainage basins which increasing the
flood risk;
Bangladesh has a monsoon climate and the annual torrential rains which result often
result in the rivers exceeding their capacity and flooding;
ln the spring, melting snow from the Himalayas further increases the flood risks as
torrents of melt water enter the rivers at their source.

Humanf causes of flo{ding in bangladesh

r lncreasing population pressure in the foothills of the Himalayas where the rain
contributes to the source of the River Ganges and Brahmaputra has resulted in intense
deforestation. lt is believed thatthis reduction in interception has resulted in more water
entering the rivers - indeed with 92% of the area drained by the rivers being in countries
other than Bangladesh, Bangladesh's proneness to flooding is exacerbated by population
and environmental issues in countries other than its own, making it increasingly difficult
to target the problems.
 lndeed deforestation in the headwaters is also believed
to be responsible for the
increased soil erosion which has led to large
amount of silt being washed into the rivers
and subsequently being deposited on the river bed,
reducing its channel capacity and
increasing the likelihood of flooding.
lncreasing population pressure in Bangladesh
itself has resulted in the sinking of many
new wells resulting in the lowering of the water
table and the subsequent subsidence of
land making it even more prone to flooding;
Bangladesh is an LEDC and its lack of money
and heavy national debt means that little
money ls available to spend on flood protection
methods / defences and many existing
defences lack upkeep and are of questionable use.

a The flat floodplains of the derta are very fertire.

Rice is grown.
a The area can also be used for shrimp farming.
o There are disadvantages too:
a The low-lying islands are very vurnerabre and frood
easiry. rt is
difficult to protect them.
There are poor communications. Many rocars do
not own their
own telephone or terevision so it is difficurt to give
successfur
flood warnings.

How can the risk of flooding be reduced?

Bangladesh is an LEDC and therefore does
not have money to implement large schemes.
It is always going to be threatened with flooding,
so the focus is on reducing the impact.
The Flood Action Plan is funded by the world
bank. lt funds projects to monitor flood levels
and
construct flood banks/artificial levees.

More sustainable ways of

reducing the flooding
in clu d e bu ild ing coasta I

flood shelters on stilts and

ea rly-warn ing systems.

Read case study: Frood contror

- The Three Gorges Dam. pg 293
 Ice{andscapes
lce Age

preciserv, a graciar ase, is a period

I::-::::. -
": ::rr of rong-term reduction ln
;rrtt tguuLLlull in
and atmosphere, resurting in the presence
:?rj:::Tj:':^:t]:: larth's,surface
ice sheets and atpine gtaciers.
srrLE or cxPdll5lon
(Jr expansion
;tr::;::"::?l::"^:^^"^:lr,crimate
,lo,..'.
within a rong_term ,." d6,9,
/r 16 rqr I I I tLtr usul
are termedxtelesn!re{e-g' (or arternativery ,,graciars,,
::*:::::::':': :1,::rd or

l!!!erglacials" ' Thus' an interglacial period is a short period of

warmth during an overall period
of glaciation.
4 ".r
S"C-riq,{A r*,,,r't+r t-f-uC A{iet***hg.
* she,-r-- ;-rrd; *ry
$lq,cigl and
pe_r-{s${ir
interglacial
*& s1 {h/*rd},ts
ff{,sC *& gtan;**a
There have been at reast five major
(the Huronian' cryogenian, Andean-saharan,
ice ages in the Earth,s past
Karoo lce Age and the euaternary glaciation).
outside these ages, the Earth seems to
have been ice-free even in high latitudes.

within the ice ages (or at least within the current

one), more temperate and more severe periods
occur' The colder periods are called glacial
periods, the warmer periods interglacials,
the Eemian Stage. such as

Glacials are characterized by cooler

and drier climates over most of the Earth
sea ice masses and rarge rand and
extending outward from the poles.
Mountain glaciers in otherwise unglaciated
areas extend to lower elevations due to a lower snow line.
sea levels drop due to the removal of
large volumes of water above sea
level in the icecaps. There is evidence
patterns are disrupted by glaciations. that ocean circulation
Since the Earth has significant continental
Arctic and Antarctic' we are currently glaciation in the
in a glacial minimum of a glaciation.
glacial maxima is known as an such a period between
interglacial.

Caqg-qg ol rgp ages

No one is sure why ice ages occur,
but rots of reasons have been suggested.
Therefore the causes of ice ages are
not fully understood for both the large-scale ice age periods
and the smaller interglacial periods
within an ice age.
The consensus is that several factors
are important:
o Atmospherigcpmp.o;ron,
!r
(-;tl,j,a;':' .:- ,/'
ij. . in tho Frrr-hr"
Chanses in.thg
c,f.anges
such as the concentrations of
n.r..i+ qr.ouq.fl
.fr#ffi#nffffi*rr".
t* Eqrlhl.s orh[ ^-^...^^, -r
{l+ -th.-e..sun*known asfiltiJanlrou[ch-_evcles (and possibly
the Sun's orbit around the galaxy).
9l*-*4-.g.g+..
1
. Thg .Lrglign. p-{tg_c!o!!q.plql-e-q resulting
in changes in the relative location and
ri,t 'i-,
'$ amount of
continentar and oceanic crust on the
,ir.{: cd Earth,s surface, which affect wind and
cu rrents.
ocean
{r{ti .'. "1
o Var i aliqn s ip sp lgloqtp=Uj..-_
lryti"
a Tltg., j m p a q1 of rle I at irlely- I g 1gg, m et g-o_r:ites,
,l*it r,u;t eruptions of super
i volcanoes.

2 ! @Mr. p. Bonnici& f . fvf angion

Geography Department
 0,1
& t.3
u)
tl)
JC 01
'-1.
Ll
.u.1
-fi)
{s ,03
{.} ,s4
g
t -r'] q
cj 06
t--
,0s
0 'ltC ?c0 ]3f0 '1fiC sN* *['0 70s $$0 s0s 1008 1']S0 1:00 13,:*14:0 1i0*'t S00.1?it$"1 sfiO 1?nil ..tfinrl

,,t**,. ,rd)
G-taciatlqn$- k l}fr&ttr * 'tsi* *"*-s-r fli r'iql.r* \S.tW f.v\#,.u-lf) "

3*sJ.Lcl.f::*1rc:pl:-q-cjhatJlpJerJery.-sJswlulqw"nJill. rhey are found at$e[d&ggacross

the globe, even on hreh_mo_Ulla"Lnsikge:q:[e_egllgt_gJ, and at Jgger-a.l-ti_tu4e in high latitudes
close to the North and South Poles. The formation of glaciers and the process by which they
shape the landscape around them is calledglegiiUg.n* A,
GlO6'6"1ngta . p'1"o.'
" 'k,yod-e tr,e, ttit nr {Lkit.-rff- rum- neuE t
bY
".-r?
c.-t-r!\iQ"V1
A glacier, like a river, behaves as a with
stores, flows and out
,
fivef t
G\c\c.ert
:,Fr t*- +F€-
ubtEr (4^.^)4-4-!53--4> {
1,oec*
rr:rf-
_
Cn-€.-
cn-€_ {5-^-r
\r€ff.46
lnputs come from precipitation in the form of snow f-alling directly onto the glacier, or from
avalanches along the glacier sides. lnputs mainly occur near to the head of a glacier in the zone
of accumulation. Iil^pun i-1 ,: ,CQ

Outputs from the system are mainly melt water with a limited amount of evaporation. When
glacier melts it is called ablation. (L'AP n€' ; arc*'hiOn
O<rlp.-rf i-''-ou!ef , fnordL'
Glaciation in the last ice age
18,000 years ago ice covered about 30 per cent of the land in the world. ln Britain, ice
covered
land as far as the Bristol Channel. During the last ice age the temperature remained below
0"C
which allowed the ice to remain on the land all year.

Glaciers once covered large areas of the Earth and shaped the landscape around them.
The
legacy of ancient glaciers lives on - for example in areas such as the Lake District.

\l:t" are three processes by which glaciations affects the landscape

-€resg&lrg!rus*lgu
E:r;='--::;*'-
arid- deoosition.
ion/ . ercS 'rq'f'spr{eul-'cnr t deposilront
LVeaS-eJ&g"end*E':ep-I,oJ*, &_4_#*r1-=
A glacier can erode much faster than a river, but rike a river, it
i
can only erode if it has continuous supply of material. The
I
main source of material for a glacier resurts from the process I
of freeze thaw weathering.

Geography Department
 JLe-eH-s*I!3"0-d-l3!g-F$S:JISgg*s to widen. when the temperature rises, the water thaws
-ihe
i.[-{"9g[l#H. This eventually causes ;'f,rffik . gracier uses ttle didkef'mat.iiat,
called moraine, to widen and deepen its valley. For freeze-thaw to take effect,
the air
temperature needs to fluctuate around freezing point. &{orqine :
Freeze-thaw weathering produces angular rock fragments.

There are two processes otdgsjAlSgft

ll
"plg!h[g-i As a glacier moves down the valley,
there is friction with the rock below. plucking
Ftq*ron*.s occurs when tne iee_frce.z*eil9-__!h9*
to__*-
,w rl As the water freezes it 4IF_!d.s_
etae "Le-@
6bra*;iur ca using the cecl.tla_ gl{ql a nd th elo€Klg
.

{.#, bf"e-Ak up. lt helps to createal.O_terands.etgel

@P*
eb_
U^f* AbfaElgni Abrasion occurs when rocks and
**r-ste, stones becom e -e_mbedd_ed__rulhe_ hAs_e a nd
blrwe-
.sjd p:,gf . !h_e "elggrgt. Th ese a re th e n
-rub h_ed_
aeainstlhe !3dto.ck(at the bottom of the glacier)-and-raek-faeeq(at the sides of the glacier) as
the glacier moves. This ea-uEes-the^wgadn€..awav-afJfre-land$e"ape as the glacier behaves like
sandpaper. lt leaves behind Smpplh*Bgli-shgd-surfuc,e-s- which may have scratches in
them
calledslriationui Striations are carved out by angular debris embedded in the base of the glacier.
Str-seh$\*rtb: gf,ge-bq*xt*\ fo",** isr mr"*^t*ecce!Ao ff*t;sh".qd, . *^SaqL'Le$'

Glacial landforms
Glaciers have a huge impact on landscapes. They exert colossal forces on the land
and are
responsible for dramatic changes caused by erosion.

W
$
4 i OMr. P. Bonnici& E. Mangion Geography Department
Features of glacial erosion

Horn
Tsrn
i
tirqx*x

$at*r n*st*r
tske* - ..

C_91g1eg..9w_mLo-L9JL$*:., -" i,,.i::. $oi- , o, i;-,--. ."'-{*.i{.rd--,'.-.-F::'r,.

Corries, also known as cwms or cirques, are often the starting point of a glacier. The diagram
below shows the formation of a corrie, cwm or cirque.

[s- the*sngw is compressed and the air is

squeezed out to become firn or neve. The pressure of more layers of snow will be higher over
thousands of years and due to abr_asro4,pluekine and ftse;9;ltrg_a$glglwill gradually make the
hollow bigger.

Even though the ice is trapped in a hollow and unable to move down hill, glgyltgyv-.ilgliJJ
e!I99gJage""Jt,fg-In"Oy€" This circular motion is known as rotational slip and can cause the ice to
pull away from the back wall creating a crevasse or bergschrund. Plucked debris from the back
wall causes further erosion through abrasion which deepens the corrie.

some of this debris is deposited at the edge of the corrie, building up the lip.
These processes create a characteristic rounded, armchair shaped hollow with a steep back wall.
When ice in a corrie melts, a circular lake is often formed at the bottom of the hollow. This is
known as a tarn, eg Red Tarn on the eastern flank of Helvellyn.

Hapging valley
lle.nFi.l-s-".v"glte$Jo""trl'W,lts.,t.:.m*e"ll--!ijguk;y"dl*.q,.'"gf-!9"3-C-l*!g*c-ngn.de-qs.',Jh" small glaciers are
less powerful and produce smaller valleys. After the ice melts, they are left 'hanging' above the
main valley floor and a waterfall may form. The Lodore waterfalls in Borrowdale in the lake
district are a good example.

5 OMr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

e
^A/1
U- an*pcg r-b.*\€.5 i*,,*. \\ be- qres615qs:F {ay i d-h *u crit.r *'*l Ftn*e er?*{
u-shaped Gtaciattro,i"n
sec*r'res e* tx- srr*ped u*ttes"
+:_ :_-_s-_

lce flows down a former V-shaped river valley. lhe ice is very powerful and the old river vallev is
eLqde"db@aGlacierscutdistinctiveU-shapedvalleyswithaflatfloorand
steep sides.A good example is the Great Langdale Valley in the Lake District.

Just like rivers, glaciers havetributaries. As the main glacier erodes deeper into the valley, the
tributary is left higher up the steep sides of the glacier. U-shaped valleys ending with a waterfall
at the cliff-face are called hanging valleys.

Truncated sours

As the elacier moves down the former river_vallqy the ice erodes away the ends of interlocking
lPqngl[elde-l-r-q*. These are called truncated spurs.

Ar:gtes.
an""arete-ir*knrfqedae--ri-dsfuIt is formed whenMg-run="b_a_c_k re-.h3sk As
each glacier erodes either side of the ridge, the edge becomes steeper and the ridge becomes
narrower, eg striding Edge found on Helvellyn in the Lake District.

Pvramidal oeak or horn

Apyramidal peakis formedJryher:e tbree or morqqqrriesind--ar.6tes megJ. The glaciers have

carved away at the top of a mountain, creating a sharply pointed summit, eg Mont Blanc, The
Matterhorn and Mount Everest.

Ribbon lakes
4@tu;
f,er-.n*L r"n SGgt- r-rr*d** be-q*#,"'*-r*$e**

it.Jlewr-o-ver'h"ald-ro.e.k.,a0d*softe.n*rask Spfter lqck i9 les_s_

As*a*9"[a.c.ier.,t!.e.wr-..0.ve1.the,=!and"-
!:^-e.5Ls,Lan!.'sp-a.ele,g!grlryJ!!,,.sarvei".deeper=!.rsush*\&henlhe,s!,a,qlerhasl.e-Ireate-d,,lm.eltedMler*"
will..pelle,ct.inlbe-dsepsl,,F.reaj[!"d,-cl_ea!-e-_a.le_neJh.in_t,e!es-a!!,e=d.a,ruhb_o.,nj_Eke, Many of the takes
in the English Lake District are ribbon lakes, eg Windermere. The areas of harder rock left behind
are called rock steps. lf the glacier hits a particularly resistant outcrop of rock it will flow over and
around it. This leaves a rock mount smoothed by abrasion from the glacier.
'
6 Owtr. P. Bonnici& E. Mangion Geography Department
 $'-{orfcr,roe . &n &CCt-tft--L t cr. t-i en F)c.--tl deni, St c.r dr- o( 0t4',en d.ebt
Car r , ccri. C(nfi "P
deEO't' I e,-{ ,y a
Jleruer.
-ryes:_qly,etqtl:

Mgtdne is material, mainly angular rock, which is tran e.n CJeleldspettr d-bJ-e-sle.c,!s. t I

is deposited when there is a fjSgrntm.p.eratur_e*As the glacier begins to melt,

it cannot cairy as
much material. There are several types of moraine:

-fa-t"*gl--nngrSlne is material in the of a glacier.

@
-Med"ial*m.p_rg.mg is found in the centre of a glacier and results from two lateral moraines
joining together.
Gm"und*mgfaES is material dragged underneath a glacier which, when deposited, forms
the flat valley floor. Ground moraine is also referred to as till or boulder clay.
Iemlnatmp,m"ine-marks the maximum advance of a glacier. lt is material deposited at
the snout, or end, of a glacier.

t eal.u re r p{s,!"a-cia I d.e_

p_g*t!gn _

Those areas which are affected by deposition have different

landforms.

t*i-ie". Elra-tigg: Unlike river deposits that are often sorted into different sizes,
rsti"* all glacial deposits are angular and mixed up (unsorted). The extreme
ted"nd
ts"ub- w'4 of this can be seen in erratics. These are large rocks or boulders that
1'b'*- are often found on their own, rather than in piles. They are unusual
shapes, unusually large and of a rock type uncommon to the area they
fixu*.t*^-
have been dumped.

7 OMr. P. Bonnici& E. Mangion Geography Department

 ,Arum[nsi ills of al d its. They are moulds of boulder clay. They
can be 1 km long and 500 meters wide, often occurring in groups. A group of drumlins is called
a
drumlin swarm or a basket of eggs, eg Vale of Eden. These would have been part of the debris
that was' carried along and then accumulated under the ancient glacier. The long axis of the
drumlin indicates the direction in which the glacier was moving. The drumlin would have been
deposited when the glacier became overloaded with sediment. However glaciologists still
disagree as to exactly how they were formed.

l.+lrqrit *rliirl"
l'{ iiJtll t:! ir.ali ril
llrehe:it [i*{rx(

Human activity in glaciated areas

Highland glacial valleys, such as those found in the Cairngorms in Scotland, the pennines in
England or Snowdonia in Wales, provide opportunities for different activities. These activities all
have advantages and disadvantages for communities and the environment.
.thsl -;Aie""'oa/or
{rcr"ns V-,",-^"r'\cq : Fe.rd,9 &
{\nc,\.,e-rn<nt ;I"
rriehtasdrer ire* & #^ in;h; [*il*tn""yLJ;x, J':re{
Farming - especially sheep farming - has been a way
of life in highland are{sfor centur/es.

Advantaees
o lt has shaped the landscape, helped to build local communities and is an important part
of local economies.
Qigadvantages
o Farming may harm the environment.
o Trees and other vegetation need to be cleared to provide grazing. This vegetation is
important for protecting the landscape from erosion and for providing habitats for
wildlife.
o The introduction of too many animals leads to overgrazing, which causes soil erosion
which may squeeze out wildlife and pollute water sources. For many farmers this way of
life is becoming less economically viable.

Hiehland forestrv
Advantaees
o Conifer forests have been planted in many highland areas.
o Forestry creates localjobs and provides timber.
o New conifer forests can help prevent soil erosion and can help counter the impact
of deforestation elsewhere.

8'! @Mr. P. Bonnici& E. Mangion Geography Department

Disadvantapes
o Forestry may push out other vegetation and force other activities - such as farming - into
decline.
o For some wildlife, the forest will provide a habitat, but other animals will lose their
habitat.
r Some people argue that conifer forests debase the landscape - though others think they
enhance it.

J--o-y4lnunlbeEshhtqs*
_Advantqges _-
o The lakes and mountains of glacial highland areas attract British and international
tou rists.
o They visit the highlands for activities such as skiing, climbing, mountain biking, hiking and
hang gliding.
o This gives people who live in towns an opportunity to enjoy the countryside, and brings
wealth to the local people who provide them with accommodation and other services.

Disadvantases
o Not everyone in local communities welcomes tourists. Some fear interference with their
livelihoods (eg farmers), or congestion and pollution from cars and litter.
o Tourist developments like building ski lifts can spoilthe landscape.
o Too much recreational activity may damage fragile environments (eg soil erosion can
interfere with flora and fauna).

-Hishlgnd Water enei negri ne

Adva[t3qes
o Glacial valleys, with their steep sides and high rainfall, are ideal for damming to create
reservoirs for drinking water and hydroelectric power.
o This creates local jobs and new opportunities for sports and businesses, such as fish
farming.
r lt also provides people in other parts of the country with water and renewable electricity.

-Disa_dvantgges.
o Damming has a major impact on local environments.
o Flooding valleys and altering the course of rivers prevents the landscape being used by
farmers, tourists and wildlife and affects the water cycle.
o Dams and electricity pylons are considered by some to be blots on the landscape.

-Conservation and management

reasbythesceneryandtoparticipateinoutdoorpursuits.Asa
result there is a demand for more visitor facilities such as hotels and leisure complexes, car
parks, marinas and cable cars.

9 f OMr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

case study: conservation and management in the Lake Distria
Many of the impacts of tourism are positive, but others present challenges which need to be
overcome if tourism in the Lake District is to be sustainable.

Advantases of tourism
F_-@*
o Tourism provides employment and income for local people.
t People choose to stay in the area, which maintains other essentialservices such as
schools and hospitals.
Services provided forthe use of tourists, eg leisure facilities, also benefit local people.

LrgJlem-s--
o Water skiing on Windermere
a Employment can be seasonal and wages low.
a House prices in the area can rise due to a demand for second homes.
a School leavers often look for work in larger settlements due to low wages and high house
prices. This causes rural depopulation.
Local shops on the margins of profitability often close to make way for more profitable
gift shops and tea rooms. This leaves local people without essential services, eg butchers
and greengrocers.
a Traffic causes pollution and narrow roads can become congested in high season.
a Large numbers of hikers cause footpath erosion, which is expensive to repair.
a Water sports cause erosion of lake shores and there can be conflicts of interests between
different lake users.

Towards sustainable tourism

lf tourism is to be sustainable
then the impacts on local people, the economy and the
environment need to be balanced. To achieve this there needs to be cooperation between
different interest groups. ln The Lake District, this includes:

the National Park Authority

the National Trust (who own a proportion of the land)
other land owners
the hotel and leisure industry
conservation groups, eg RSpB
local people and businesses
tou rists

o Restricting the number of cars and visitors - although this would have an impact on
income from tourism.
o Fundraisingto repair damage done to the natural environment and footpaths. But who
should pay?

10 I OMr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

 Education of local people and tourists about sustainable tourism. But who will pay for
this?
Underpinning any sustainable strategy is the successful involvement of the local people.
With their cooperation, positive outcomes are far more likely.

Avalanches
There is a significant risk of avalanches occurring in glacial areas such as the Alps. They can cause
widespread disruption, damage and sometimes loss of life.

Causes of avalanches
An avalanche is a sudden downhill movement of snow. lt is a
significant hazard to people living in, or visiting, glacial areas. A slab
avalanche is the most dangerous form of movement. lt can be
caused by:
o heavy snowfall
o deforestation (for example because of new ski runs) making
I
the slope less stable
o steep slopes, as this helps to increase the speed of
movement
o vibrations (for example from an earthquake, noise or off-
piste skiers)
o layering of snow - for instance where snow is already on the
mountain and has turned into ice, and then fresh snow falls on top which can easily slide
down
o the wind direction piling snow which can overhang a mountain

Effects of avalanches
o An avalanche is able to obstruct anything in its path. Roads and railways can be blocked.
Power supplies can be cut off.
o A powerful avalanche can even destroy buildings.
o People can also be killed.
o 90 per cent of people who die in avalanches trigger them themselves.
o People usually die from a lack of oxygen when buried in snow, rather than from getting
too cold.

Management of avalanches
The areas in which avalanches occur may also be used for human activities, such as skiing.
Villages and towns are also often located in the valleys. lt is important for the people, economy,
and the environment that avalanches are managed.
There are several ways in which avalanches can be managed:

Prediction
People try to predict when avalanches are going to occur. The Alps has an 'avalanche season'
between January and March when most avalanches happen. Where avalanches are going to
occur is hard to predict. Historical data, weather information and information about the actual

I I OMr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

-
snow on the mountainside is collected
together to try and forecast the likelihood of an
avalanche.

Explosions
Avalanches can be started deliberately
in order to prevent the snow building up.
the most important ways of preventing This is one of
avalanches.

Communication
signs of the risk of avalanches can
be displayed in villages and also by the
ski lifts. tn the Alps the
risk is assessed on a five-point scale'
Areas can be sealed off which are considered
to ski on. Early warning systems are also too dangerous
used.

Land-use zoning
Land can be grouped into red, yellow and green areas. The red areas
are considered too
dangerous to be built on' The orange
areas can be built on with restrictions,
such as reinforcing
buildings' Roads and railways can be protected
by tunnels over them in the areas where an
avalanche path is likely to travel.

Snow fences and barriers

These can be used to divert and break
up the path ofthe avaranche.

Reforestation
Trees can be planted, increasing stability
of the slope and helping to reduce the damage
down the valley. further

Ex. 1. Answer the following questions.

a) Where are glaciers found?

(Low latitude and row artitude, Low
ratitude and high artitude,
latitude and high altitude) High

formation of glaciers:and the process

by which they shape rhe randscape around
:#T them is
(erosion, weathering, abrasion,
glaciations)

c) when rocks and stones become

frozen to the base and sides of the glacier
the ground as the glacier moves and are removed from
this is called:
( arosion, transDortation-
ptucking, ubra*g],

d) when rocks and stones' picked up

by the glacier, are rubbed against the bedrock
and to the side of the glacier, this is at the bottom
called:
(erosion, ahrasion, deposition, plucking)

e) When glacial water enters cracks

in the rock around it and the temperature
process weakens the rock. This process changes a continual
is called:
fu g
-**ii:: dil, ilri;ffi;i.!.-
:"_ ",3_lli
;lr"
th
v,, aw i n g, e e z e - r: h a th a w _
fr e ez e )
ilffi "
Geography Department
 ilffiffiffiw
The M4 corridor in the UK is a zone of mainly footloose industries which stretches from London west-
wards to Bristol, following the course of the M4. The greatest concentration of industries is in the section
between London and Reading, but towns further worst such as Swindon and Bristol have a long history of
manufacturing. There are many food and drink companies. Electrical and household goods are assembled
and packaged for distribution . Honda cars are made in Swindon. Over the past twenty years many high
tech companies have arrived. Oracle and NEC in Reading are just two examples. Many are engaged in the
quaternary sector, as well as making telecommunications equipment, micro-electronics and computers.

The footloose industries are mainly light or high tech industries which have considerable freedom in loca-
tion. The main aims why many industries are situated along the M4 is:

Transport Market
This is the most important factor for The wealthiest market in the country is
many industries. The M4 links into the concentrated in
London and the South
UK's other major rnotorways allowing East. Motorways give access to markets
easy assembly of raw materials and dis- elsewhere in the UK. To the east of Lon-
tribution of finished products. The high don there are motorway and Eurostar
speed rail link from London to South links to the channel Tunnel and the rest of
wales runs through the middle of the cor- the EU.
ridor. Heathrow airport lies between
Reading and London allowing interna-
tional contacts.

insjsl .*s af€ ar*-qg , i_ClS ni'n'O*€rS j ilear ix ilili?€asrt€s t3r i-5! r! gc.
ic ltl:l s:1* .€ri'.ra}'s ,..-""'.: ll: iJa ar8.3 er.o31 se ant a*se3fiji .-. ls' Fl+i&rcv+ i-a
3 . !ffi#rr4qg.fi
*+:r]F;i:g.ffi4Fr:
- '.
Labour
F *t's :*t''ord
-i* High technology companies in particular need
{,1$.trl ' !
skilled scientists and engineers. There are
tqesporr J# i
!'
<..,, -a^a
lri
rJr: !
many places of research in the M4 corridor
producing trained people. These include uni-
versities in Bristol, Oxford and Reading. These
people are often happy to live in this region
;anb*:o.*glr
because ofthe nearness of London and its
facilities, and because the corridor is sur-
l'ii,'.e €ilriiii'r|llgqi - e:sg€ a**-
f.4s1*:rY*f$
it his n! f4ll.i.y$;fie a rounded by some scenic uplands such as the
Eailrvei5 South Downs and Cotswolds. There is good
T0r,r:g
r.r uu! :: countryside for recreation at weekends and
* !i,-:gEl T,rr1]g ;!:,5
in holidays.

ttt
 Tra nsnationa I corporations
Global industry: Multi nationals

One of the biggest changes in industry in the last 50 years has been the way the provision of many
goods and services has became increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few large companies. The
picture below names a number of famous companies.

A transnational corporation, also referredto as multinationalcompany, is one that operates in many

countries regardless of national boundaries. The headquarters and main factory is usually in a more
economically developed country with, increasingly, branch factories in less economically developed
countries. Transnationals are believed to directly employ some 40 million people around the world, to
indirectly influence an even large number, and to control 75 per cent of the world trade. The largest
TNCs have long been car manufacturers and oil corporations but these have, more recently,
been
joined by electronic and high tech firms. lt has been estimated that TNCs
controlled one-fifth of the
world's manufacturing in 1966 and over half by late 1-990s. Several of the largest corporations have
a
higher turnover than all of Africa's GNp in total.

Many organisations and individuals have attacked TNCs as being exploiters of poor people, especially
women and children, who live in less economically developed countries. Yet talking to several of these
workers in countries as far apart as Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Malaysia their attitude was:

Perhaps. but it is the onlv wav bv which we cdn find fuil time work.

t5
 any multi-nationals controls the whole production process, from raw materials to the finished product.
.or example, where a product like a car is assembled or put together in a factory many of the raw mate-
rials will have been gathered together from all over the world. Car firms were amongst the first to opt for
transnational operations. They found that by locating in different parts of the world the could:
r g€t around trade barriers which may have been erected to protect
home markets.

. Reduce cost by gaining access to cheaper labour and/ or raw materials.

. Be nearer to large markets (Centres of population)
multinational companies are extremely powerful. Some multi-
As a result,
nationals have higher turnovers than some LEDCs. lt is not surprisingly that
many poor countries are keen to attract investment from these corporations, but there are advantages
and disadvantages which need to be weighed up carefully.

fu'frb ry@
Brings work to the country and uses local
@tu$b€g@
Numbers employed small in comparison
labour
with amount of investment
Local workforce receives a guaranteed
Local labour force usually poorly paid
income.
Very few local skilled workers employed
lmproves the levels of educafion and
technical skill of the people.
. Most of the profits go overseas
(overflow of wealth)
Brings welcome investment and foreign
currency to the country Mechanisation reduces the size of the
labour force.
Companies provide expensive machinery
and modern technology GNP grows less quickly than that of the
parent company's headquarters, widen-
lncreases gross national product/ person-
ing the gap between developed and de-
al income can lead to an increased de-
veloping countries
mand for consumer goods and the growth
of new industries Minerals are usually exported rather
than manufacturing and energy costs
Earn the host country foreign currency
may lead to a nationaldebt.
when goods are sold abroad.
Money possibly better spent on improv-
Leads to the development of mineral
ing housing, diet and sanitation.
wealth and new energy resources
Big schemes can increase national debt
lmprovements in roads, Airports and ser-
vlces Decisions are made outside the country,
and the firm could pull out at any time.
Prestige value {e.g Volta project)
. lnsufficient attention to safety and
Sorne improvements in standards of pro-
health factors and the protection of the
duction, health control and recently in
environment
environmental control

tb
=
The table below show the amount of employees
that these Transnational corporations employ
amount of sales that they generate. and the

lndustrial Country Sales Employees

corporation (S millions)
L. General motors USA 133 622 710 800
2. Ford Motor USA 108 52L 3222AO
3. Exxon USA 97 825 91 000
4. Royal Dutch/ Shell UK/ Netherlands 95 134 1,17 0AO
Group
5. Toyota Motor Japan 8s 283 tog 279
6. Hitachi Japan 68 58L 330 637
T IBM USA 62 71,6 267 !96
o. lvtarsusntta Electric Japan 61 384 254 059
industrial
9. General electric USA 60 823 22200a
ru. Datmler-Benz Germany 59 LOz 366736
11. Mobil USA 56 576 61 900
tr^is." Japan 53 760
'\4"* 143 310
13. British petroleum UK s2 38s 72 600
L4. Samsung South Korea 51 345 191 303

1,. Explain the term transnational corporations

Gc'.-".e!*rrti4
2. Mention some transnational corporations
which are found in Malta

3.

1.
3.
:'4.-*t (tr,^,d;t,4 -

1. Mention four disadvantages of Transnationar

corporJtions;
1. )
c*bt
3.
rll.*:l-S
l7
 Globalisation is a word which is now used frequently to describe the way in which
more and mor'e compa-
nies are operating in an increasingly international manner. Company decisions
are taken in one country
which affect what happens in many other countries. For example, when General Motors
took the decision
to stop car production in their factory in Luton in early zooL, this decision was made in their headquarters
in Detroit in the USA. When someone buy a new car from multinational company such
as Ford it is diffi-
cult to know where it is made. The car itself could have been assembled in one of a number
of different
European countries, while parts have been made in different countries.

One indication of the power of multinationals is the way

people from many different countries buy and consume
the same products. Levis are worn and Mc Donalds ,s
burgers are eaten by people in many different places
worldwide. Benettons' United Colours, advertising
theme supports the idea that we are allglobal custom_
ers as well as producers.

@
refl, E Ze#ilrt
uu*sp

Globalization refers to processes that promote world-wide exchanges

of national and cultural resources.
Advances in transportafion and telecommunications infrastructure,
including the rise of the lnternet, are
major factors in globalization, generating further interdependence
of economic and cultural activities.

Emergence of newly industrialised countries (Nlcs| The pacific Rim.

-
The Pacific Rim includes all those countries in Australasia, Asia, North
America and Latin America that bor-
der the Pacific ocean. The term was originally used to describe a
Zone of volcanic and earthquake activity
which surrounds the Pacific. More recently it acknowledges the shift in
location of the world,s manufac-
turing industry away from countries bordering the North Atlantic and
the emergence of newly industrial-
ised countries (NlCs) especially in eastern Asia.

t8
Locate the newly industrialised countries which are China, lndonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore,
South Korea, Taiwan and Thailand.

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h5. "[c"ttt;c vr .

h.
5. Y\'r'\'tpine','
+ $a
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TL ,p
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I s
ro
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Reasons for the rapid economic growth of NlCs of the Pacific Rim.

Many of the countries in South East Asia. China and lndia have their own huge populations which pro-
vide a ready market. South Korea, Taiwan, Hong kon and Sin re are known as the 'Tiger econo-
mies' because of the iruhffi Tfi-ev-fi a-Tfr tlustri anild ed over the
Gtry has grown, and continues to grow, in other countries of the far East, such as Malaysia, which is
why'newly industrialising countries' is a good label for them. The goods exported from Malaysia has
changes greatly over the past 30 years. ln 1970 exports were dominated by primary products such as
rubber and tin. By 1997 the three primary products made up less than 15 per cent of Malaysia's ex-
ports, which are now dominated by manufacturing goods. The reasons for this big change are:

a The government was stable and wanted industrialisation

a Multi national companies were encouraged to invest
a Companies are encouraged to invest
a Wages are lower than in MEDCs
a Access to ports and the main shopping routes was easy for exporting goods to MEDCs.
-

ffiMffitrffimaWMaW@
{eere}
The Osaka- Kobe conurbation is one ollapAd:-fneigfjndu$t-
al*atges-The many reasons for industrial growth include the
following:

!t hela latg-fAhqlbggi-situated within Osaka Bay, an

inlet of the lnland sea. The inland sea itself is protected
from the worst of the typhoon winds by the island of
Shikoku

Oslka ilnports ma_ly g,Jthe*rAw materials needed by Ja-

pan. The port is also a major outlet for Japanese exports.

"t-andqro-uff !-lLsqk*tsaJJgp.reglltleJs*atiY.ejvjewareas
qf.flet_-Land. Osaka Kobe has spread outwards as far as
the highland allows.

Land-n O saka K o bg lrAr! e gUr ec-laurr,e d lsap o r[ d evF -

I

op.msnl n eJv* in d usl"rie"s a nq airpgrl.

Itlr.g:a p-opulqtiojr of*ovsl9 million which provides a

{q ,ri_'q:.i
highly skilled dedicated workforce and a large domestic
market.

!-tL as a conse-
quence of the inventiveness of the Japanese.

It i:Jh.e*gelrt[e of many*balks and_l?.rgglapgnese com-

j?Ju**

lapanese industry is highly efficient asit is based on hard

work, loyalty and trust. The Japanese compare their indus-
@tr@
trial organisation to a pyramid. At the base are thousands
of small, often family- run firms. Smallfirms, usually em- Several large transnational
ploying fewer than six people, account for 90 per cent of corporations

Japanese companies. Above them are medium sized com-

panies which, together with the small firms, produce 60 Hundreds of **4,r,*-
per cent of Japan's manufactured goods. At the top of the sized companies'

pyramid are the large corporations, many of which, like

Toyota, Nissan, Sharp, Panasonic and Mitsubishi, have be- Thousands of smi
rome major transnationals. family- rsn firms

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"o.":,;o-J "-t'L
 ffirymm mffiff fu ffimffiffird'gtrs
Port oetrochemical industrv

This industry processes oil into many by products, one of which is plastic. Some of this plastic is taken to
the workshop district of Osaka which is located near to the motorway.

Very small companies produce plastic parts which they will send daily to a nearby medium sized company.
For example the Kawasaki brothers who employ 18 people, produce a range of products which include
tops of car batteries and safety goggles. Recently they have won orders to produce sunglasses for ltaly and
100 0OO lenses for panasonic to use in Camcorders. These lenses will be taken to large nearby Panasonic
plants. Although the assembly in the Panasonic industry is highly automated with robots doing many very
technical jobs, panasonic still employs several hundreds workers. The completed camcorders, along with
other panasonic products which include TVs and videos are exported through the port of Osaka to 160
countries world wide. The problem is that Panasonic is facing competition from the NlCs, especially those
in the pacific Rim of South east Asia whose labour and other production costs are cheaper. To over come
this problem panasonic is investing in and setting up assembly in other countries; research and develop-
ment so as to keep ahead in technology; and seeking to develop new products.

Japanese industry does not stand still. Two major developments include:

Demolishing the 100 year old Nippon steelworks located alongside Osaka Bay and using former em-
ployees to create and develop new forms of technology and automation.

Building up to 11 new science parks, some the size of small city, in pleasant environments beyond the
present urban limits.

Sapporo
- _a.

Ssndai
: :''f
*geker r.:',::
RrkFoks - Y.:----ti6*yo

Flbi

ai
.r'
tq@ I €HrA
a

i) Mention four reasons for industrial growth in Osaka Kobe.

./
1. €+ trc,,:'. e - r\..+rlrri\ l--sit:\lirrY 2.

3. \- ( ir-c:"i: t*y\"lV r-;:,r^"d" 4. k r+ \-nr, q:ij,"ltrr(? ,+" fift"r-v c./Jlr i ': ' -rrd'
\c^34;* 5?:^qf:-t'-e';t: (:'<i'-r\'{J(:-'r;''' r/
Zl
ri) Describe a particular important industry in the Osaka- Kobe area?

lii) Mention one particular problem which Panasonic in Osaka Kobe is facing

lV) What is being done by Panasonic to overcome this problem?

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ut ffimfuruffih
Brazil is the most industrialised of the world's economically developing countries. lndustrialisation is
mainly concentrated in and around Sao Paulo. During the nineteenth century Sao Paulo was only a
small town situated in the centre of a major coffee-growing area. lts rapid urbanisation took place dur-
ing the so-called 'economic miracle' of the 1960s and 1970s. The region around Sao Paulo was well en-
dowed with minerals, including iron ore, and had access !qenelgy_Igso,lJfces-This led to the develop-
ment of the iron*end_glgg!_enll engineering industries and thg mqlgfa_cture of mgchinery, aircraLgn_d
cars. Four large car transnational corporations- Ford, Volkswagen, General motors and lVletEgdq_s, all
have assembly plants in Sao Paulo.

lndustrialisation brought emplovment and created problems especially in and around downtown Sao
Paulo. Heavy industry and traffic have caused air pollution; the great number of cars has led toglgj$
And the location of commercial buildings and offices has created a 'sky scraper jungle', high land prices
and a lack of open space. One result has been created, mainly to attract industry, by building major
roads and locating in a cleaner, less congested environment. One such town, Jundaia, is 100 km from
Sao Paulo's city centre.=lgrylaialrovides employment in the formal sector. Several transnational com-
panies have alreadv located there includins Pepsi. Although the
i,
plovs 350 oeoole.

Nearer the CBD, some of Sao Paulo's increasine wealth is beine used to turn_run down areas into mo4-
ern business, retail and leisure centres. Unfortunatelythe development of these new centres with their
ultra modern buildings can only take place by clearing existing favelas such as the one at Edith Garden.
People living in Edith Gardens used to work in the informal sector, as indeed do over one third of Sao
Paulo's working population. The jobs in the informal sector included recvcline materials. reoairLtg
eoods and processins and selline food. People living in Edith gardens are not enjoying the rising stand-
ard of living. The local council wish to improve Edith Gardens (that is, to demolish and redevelop it) and
its residents are being offered f1100 is an inducement to dismantle their often flimsy homes and re-
erect them in their favelas.

ZU
-
 Formal and informal sectors
ln cities in less economically developed countries, the number of inhabitats greatly outweighs the num-
ber of jobs available . With the rapid growth of the cities the job situation is continually worsening. An
increasing number of people have to find work themselves and thus enter the informal sector of em-
ployment as opposed to the formal sector. The difference between the Formal and informal sector is
shown below.

lnformal

ffi
Employee of a large firm Self Employed

Often a transnational Small scale/ Family enterprise

Much capital employed Little Capital involved

Capital intensive with relatively few workers mechanised. Labour intensive with the use of very few tools

Expensive raw materials Using cheap or recycled waste materials

A guaranteed standard in the final product Often a low standard in quality of goods

Regular hours {often long) and wages (often low) lrregular hours and uncertain wages

Fixed prices Prlces rarely fixed and so negotiable

Jobs done in factories Jobs often done on the home( cottage industry) or on the streets

Government and multinational help No government assistance

Legal Often outside the law {illegal}

Usually males Often children and females

ffi
Manufacturing- Both local and Transnational industries Distributive, e.g. Street pedlars and small stalls.

Government created jobs such as the police, Army and civil ser- Services, e.g. Shoe cleaners, selling clothes and fruit
viLEg
Small scale industry. E.g food processing dress repairs, furniture
repairs.

ffi
Use some skilled and many unskilled workers Employees many thousands of unskilled workers

Provides permanent jobs and regular wages Jobs may provide some training and skills which might lead to

Produces goods for the more wealthy within their own country Any Profit will be used within the city. The products will be for
so that profits may remain within their country local use by the lower paid people
Waste materials provide raw materials for the informal sector Use local and waste materials

't_)
 World Development

The figure above si,r:L,'r: a map where the world is divided into two groups. These groups are;

. The more economically developed countries iE!'i!*fs1 which include the richer, more industrialised
countries of the so called development 'North'

. The less economically developed countries (LEDCs) which include the poorer, less industrialised
countries of the so called developing 'South'.

LEDC
A developing c-orfllry, also known as a less-
developed country (LDC), is a nation with a low
living standard, undeveloped industrial base, and
low Human Development lndex (HDl) relative to
other countries.
MEDC
A .-
developed country or "more developed coun-
try" (MDC), is a sovereign state that has a highly
-
developed economy and advanced technological
infrastructure relative to other less developed
nations. Most commonly the criteria for evalu-
ating the degree of economic development is
gross domestic product (GDP), the per capita in-
come, level of industrialization, amount of wide-
spread infrastructure and general standard of
living. Which criteria are to be used and which
countries can be classified as being developed
are subjects of debate.

L+
 1. Eeonomic wealth
The wealth of a country is measured by its gross national product per capita (GNP). The GNP per person
is the total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year, divided by the total number of
people living in that country. Many people living in a Western industrialised country such as the UK,
economic development tends to be solely associated with the growth of wealth. The disadvantage of
GNP, however is that it does not show differences in wealth between people and places in a country.

2.'Soeid*ndic*ors

Population Hedth
ln general, the MEDCs have lower rates Similarly, MEDCs have a low-
and a slower natural increase than do er infant mortality rate, a
LEDC. Population structures show that longer life expectancy and
MEDCs have a smaller proportion of fewer people per doctor than
children aged 15 and a higher propor- the LEDCs.
tion of people aged over 65 than do de-
veloping countries

Other lndicators
These include measures related to adult literacy, diet employment structures and energy consump-
tion. Notice however that many of these criteria are themselves related to the wealth of a country.
For example the more wealthy and therefore, economically developed a country is, the more it can
spend on health care, education, energy provision and providing other services. This suggest that a
country has to increase its GNP if it is to improve the standard of living and quality of life of its in-
habitants.

a
I

?9
 o et
e
(Also refer to Waugh pg 182 and pe 183)
6

It is now widely accepted that the term development means more tnan than just the rvvu,
wealth. ln rne
Just wealtn. the unrt-
l-990, rne Unit-
T
0
O
p.
ert nations
ed renlacerl GNP as their measure of development with the
narinns replaced Human Development lndex (HDl). Pa
S
Since then the UN has published an annual report in which it ranks countries according to quality of life of
t<€
traditional economic figures. The HDI is socialwelfare index measuring-f VO?
its inhabitants ratherthan using a

three variables: life expectancy (health), adult literacy (education), and real GNP per capita (standard of -_ 3
living).
p=
-n v

S*
cdc)
This is regarded by UN as the best measure 1 '<
H
of the health and safety of a country. q
n!
g -+
_x
0()R
ff
rD9
th
Edqcaton attainmen!-
-1: \
This is obtained by combining adult litera-
cy rates ant the primary, secondary and HE
,oc
tertiary student enrolment rate eh
RealGNP per capita 7\'
trc
'4
lsthe GNP adjusted to the actual purchasing
The HDI can: power (PPP in USS) 9r
. Measure differelces within a country (unlike
F-i
rqc
Highlight where poverty is worst, both within a country and between countries.
RF
Act as a measure to show how far a country has developed and whether there are improvements
in its level arrd rate of development.
{u
(,

Help a country to set targets that can lead to improvements in the quality of life of its citizens. oI
s.
-.{-

t':
'I
Q<
s(
<tlt

T
J-(
ffi 3.c!e . !r.2e9
ffic.?81-04€3
'FJi€j;c461 1612
(
ffirei3-!.6s s
ffit€q;07i3 r
ffi ?7Er-,r.E3a I
I
l*fi c.851 " s46
e, (
)
Human Develooment lndex. Demic Framework
7T:
 lndicators/ measures MEDCS LEDCS

Economic {GNP) Majority over USS5000 per capita. Majority over USS2000 per capita. ZO% of fhe
8A% of the world's income world's income

Social Population Low, steady birth rate partly due High Birth rate, partly due to limited family plan-
to family planning slow natural ning but falling except in sub Saharan Africa.
increase. Takes 100 years to dou- Rapid natural increase. Doubling population in
ble. 18% of world's population. 30 years. 82% of world's population.

iHealth Low infant monality rate, long
and increasing life expectancy.
Mainly due to vaccines, large
number of doctors and hospitals,
and high standard of health care.
High, Though falling, infant mortality rate, short-
er life expectancy, especially in the poorest
countries. Relatively few doctors and hospitals,
little money available.

Others Education Majority have fulltime education, Limited numbers get fulltime education, and
many have 16+ education, most few go on after 1l-6. Low adult literacy rate, an.
adults, including women are lit- woman are disadvantaged
erate.

Balanced, several meals per day, Unbalanced.35% of children under 5 are under-
high protein intake. fed low protein intake.

Employment Few jobs in primary sector, more Most in primary sector, few in secondary and
in secondary, most in tertiary sec- tertiary sectors. Limited mechanisation and
tor. Mechanisation and technolo- technology.
ey.

High levels of consumption- Low levels of consumption. Often only fuel-

mainly coal, oil, natural gas and
nuclear power. lJse 7A% of
world's energy
Trade Large volume and value- Mainly
manufacturing goods
wood. Only use 3O% of world's energy.
Small volume and value-mainly unprocessed
raw materials.

@M
gpf,aJltina! nation in a articular

Mortality rate: ls a measure of number of deaths.

Infant mo'rtallty: lstheenumber of infants dying before,reaching one,year of age.
Literacy rate: The number of people that a're literate (able to read and write) in an area.

Zu
 Causes of inequalitv

For example:

Economic
Countries with mineral deposits (e.g iron The more a country develops, the more
ore) and energy resources (e.g) coal were money it has to spend on education, health
more likely to have been the first to devel- and better quality housing.
op industrially. As they accumulated wealth
through the sale of manufacturing goods,
they were able to buy resources either be- !glitical
cause their own became exhausted or be-
Countries were likely to develop more quick-
cause they did not possess them. They
ly if they had a government that was stable,
were able to provide numerous jobs, im-
invested in the economy and avoided civil
prove transport systems and develop new
war. Former colonial powers developed at
technologies as well as imposing trade re-
the expense of their colonies.
strictions on less developed countries.

EnulrenmentAL

Countries were also likely to develop more quickly

if they were unaffected by frequent and severe
natural hazards {e.g. drought, flooding, earth-
quakes, volcanic eruptions and tropical storms),
disease and illness (malaria, Aids), pests (locusts)
and if they were able to provide a reliable supply
of clean water.

Coqseq uefrces oli neq ua I itv

lnequalities and imbalances in development have led to differences in standards of living and quality of life.
The LEDCs, when compared with the MEDCs, usually have:

. Higher birth rates and infant mortality rates, a greater natural increase in population, a higher pro-
portion of their population aged under L5 and shorter life expectancy.

. Poorer education facilities, poorer health care, a poorer diet and a poorer provision of services (less
energy/ electricity available , unreliable or polluted water supplies, limited transport provision.

. More jobs in the primary and informal sectors and fewer in the secondary, tertiary and formal sec-
tors.

r A smaller volume of trade, a likely trade deficit and a need to seek aid.

.": Less purchasing power per capita

a8
 Tfuffi,#d sf
frilD
Many LEDCs have come to rely upon aid. Aid is the giving of resources by one country, or by an organisation
to another country.
The resources mav be in the form of:
f:

o n1ofl€y, although this may be given as a grant or a loan that has to be repaid.

. Goods, food machinery or technology aimed to short term relief or long term benefit

. People who have skills and knowledge. E.g. teachers nurses and engineers

LEDCs reuuire aid for different reasons:

i) lmprove their standard of living and their quality of life.

li) They have increasing trade deficit. They need to borrow money in order to buy goods for richer, indus-
trialised countries. Unfortunately, by borrowing money the LEDCs fall further into debt. This aid is often long
term

lii) To try to improve their basic amenities (Water supply, electricity) and infrastructure (transport, schools
and hospitals)

lv)To encourage self help schemes and to promote sustainable development.

V) Because they are prone to natural disasters (drought , flooding, tropical storms, earthquakes) or they
suffer as a result of human induced disasters (desertification and civil war). The figure below describes the
five different ways by which aid may be given.

Differentlypes of aid
Short term aid can include food, clothing, shelter and medical supplies needed after a natural disaster or civil
war. Long term aid should try to encourage poorer countries to become increasingly self sufficient and inde-
pendent. This might be achieved through improving education and health standards, growing higher yielding
crops for their own use rather than for export, developing small scale sustainable industries using appropri-
ate technology, and encouraging the MEDCs to buy more products rather than setting up tariffs.

The di:adv?ntage of aid to a recip-ient cguntry

Aid rarely reaches the poorest people who tend to live in rural areas.
lnefficient and corrupt officials direct it to themselves and the urban
areas where most of them live. Aid can force countries to produce
materials for MEDCs rather than growing food or developing indus-
tries for themselves rather than growing food or developing industries
for themselves. ln time, the poorest countries' come to rely upon aid
which, if it comes in the form of loans on which interest in payable,
makes the LEDCs even poorer.
L
df ffiI
Disadvantages/ Advantages
the donor' eg Arms' manufaqtured
Government Given directlY bY a richer
country( donor) to a
goods. O.
(Bilaterat) as dams and inter-
on prestigious schemes such
poorer country' Often Money often has to be spent
tied with 'Strings national airPorts' A t
to local people' A /D '
Large schemes take up land belonging
poorer peopte living in
encourages corruption' Money rarely reaches
i Aid often
a,u"'' 1)
I
j
more remote '
l
!

I
I
! LEDC unable to repay *on"Y' i) '
I

on donor country'
T)
I
LEDC becomes increasingly dependent
I
I

students to study in MEDCs A '

I
I
Can provide grants for

less likely to be given

to countries with unfavourable i
Not ment to be tied, but
I
I

lnternational Given bY organisations A '

economic and political systems'
organisations such as
the world bank than
products are sent MEDCS rather
(Multilaterat) and the IMF Encourages farming and industry but
{lnternational monetary consumed in LEDCS'
P '
fall increasingly into
fund)
become increasingly dependent on aid, and often
LEDcs
debt. 1P' n

Hetps LEDCS to develoP ""

Not tied A .
ivoluntary Non governmental organ-
isations such as Oxfam Deals with emergencies ? '
and Actionaid which col- hetp schemes A'
Encourages low cost self
lect moneY and receive areas'
poorer people in more remote
gifts for PeoPle in LEDC Money more likely to reach
to collect money' lD '
Dependent on charity's ability
requires longer term
planningD '
Annual amounts uncertain-

*ppties and shelter' A

Need to coPe with effects
Short-term/
EmergencY of environmental hazards
such as earthquakes and
a troPical storms
i Long term/ Organization such as ln-
sustainable termediate technologY
I
develoPment grouP that
l.
helP PeoPle in LEDC to
1 dustry
support themselves'
I
lmmediate ft"tp- p'ouiilfficlothes' *"oit't
and people most in need'
? '
Goes to places
A'
Nottied, and less chance of corruption'
Also helPs refugees' fi '
local raw materials
of local skills and use of
Encourages devetopment
nurse' health workers'
a Trains local peopte to be teachers'
and small scale in-
Hetps equip schools and
development of local agriculture
do not fall into debt
l'
i
LEDCs

I
Although parts of northern itel-r;: are desert, many areas to the south are
well situated to agriculture'
grew sufficient
where the climate and soil is more favourable, subsistence farmers can, in a normalyear,
soils are fertile, crops such as tea,
crops to be self supporting. where rainfall is abundant and the volcanic
coffee and fruit can be grown commercially for export. Unfortunately,
foodstuffs and raw materials such

as soda ash, are low in value and do not earn the country much
money. Kenya has little formal industries
cars it needs. Three significant
and so it has to import most of the manufactured goods, machinery and
changes occurred duringthe 1990s, these are;

1. Japan became the largest overseas investor which has meant that in return, Kenya has had to buy
Japanese goods.

Kenya has developed trade surplus within Africa, exporting mainly cement
and refined oilto coun-
2.
significantly its
tries like uganda, Tanzania and Zambia. The volume of trade is too smallto reduce
balance of trade deficit.

3. Air fright is used to export perishable goods to Europe

Main imPorts
Main exPorts
1. Tea 1. Machinery and equiPment
2- Coffee 2. Crude oil
3. Petroleum Products 3. Cars/vehicles
4. Food and vegetables 4. lron and steel
5. Hides and skins 5. Plastic
5. Soda Ash 6. Fertilisers
7- Pharmaceuticals
7. Sisal r ''.li
8. Pyrethrum 8. Paper
9. Cement 9. Farm machinery
10. What

-\
 ffi
Japan has a large population and therefore it has to import;

. All of its energy supplies, which are expensive, as well as various raw materials

. Considerable amouhts of foodstuffs because although Japanese farming is intensive and highly
mechanised, there is insufficient space to grow enough for the country to be self sufficient.

able
on the other hand, modern machinery and developing high levels of technology, the Japanese are
to produce and export across the world a range of goods noted for their high quality and reliability
goods, cars and high tech products. Since 1.983 Japan is exporting more in value than it has imported
and since 1gg3 it has had the world's largest trade surplus. The healthy trade surplus is due
to Japan:

. Reducing its previously high energy bill by changing from oil to nuclear power.

. lmporting relatively cheap materials and exporting processed goods.

. protecting its domestic industries by imposing tariffs on imported goods, and gaining foreign mar-
kets by overseas investment and building new factories abroad.

. Financing scientific research projects and building projects in developing countries in

return for
their often non renewable resources .

Japan : Type oftrade

Main imPorts
Main exPorts
L. Electronic machinery
1. Machinery and equiPment

2. Generalmachinery
2. Food stuffs

3. Cars
3. Crude oil

4. Chemicals
4. Chemicals

5. Precision instruments
5. Textiles

5. lron and steel

6. Metals

7. Ships
7. Timber

8. Textiles
8. Metalores

&
 w #Wreex *kre
Mflsffi
Japan with a GNp per capita of USS 39 640,
is the third rich_
est country in the worrd after Luxembourg and
switzertand.
There is only a small proportion of the working population
in
the primary sector. This is because most young people prefer
to live and work in urban areas rather than on farms; farming
itself is highly mechanised. Japan has few mineral
resources
and so there is very rittre mining; and there is rittre
forestry,
as most domestic forests are protected. Japan
rike other de-
veloped countries has a high proportion of its workforce
en-
gaged in the secondary sector. Despite
the lack of resources
there are highly mechanised industries; an educafion
system
that provides technorogicar knowredge and creates
a skiiled
workforce, a large wealthy local market to buy goods.
Japan
also has, mainly due to its wealth, a high proportion
em_
ployed in the tertiary sector in hearth, education,
commerce,
transport and recreation.

Kenya' with a GNP per capita of USS 280 is

one of the world's poorest and least economic
developed
countries' Kenya's employment structure is
typical of a less economically developed
country. There is
a high proportion of the working population
in the primary sector. Most of these
are engaged in farm-
ing which is labour intensive and often
at a subsistence level. smaller numbers are
employed in min-
ing forestry and fishing. Kenya, like other
developing coun_
tries, has a low proportion engaged in the
secondary sector.
This is mainly due to a lack of capital, energy
supplies and
technical knowredge to estabrish industry;
a rimited education
system leaving a ress skiiled workforce,
the export of raw ma-
terials and agricurture produce; a rerativery
smail rocat market
unable to afford to buy manufactured goods.
Kenya has a rel_
atively small proportion employed in the tertiary
sector with
limitations in its health, education, commerce
and transport
services.

3k
 qff
ffi #ff#mp-mm,*w H*fu ffiffi ffiffi &effi€ffiwHwwm ffiffim#g
Italy is one of the world's more economically developed countries (MEDCs). lt has none of the charac-
teristics of a LED except a small trade deficit. ltaly has generally high living standards, low population
growth and a high GNP. Poorer ltalians are supported by welfare payments.

The country has a variety of landscapes and climates. There are large areas of fertile farmland which
are used intensively to grow arable crops, vines and vegetables. The country can afford to import oil
and has supplies of gas, oil, HEP (hydro-electric power). There is a long history of manufacturing and
there are many different industries.
Ei!
q {t
Ji+ ts l," t'{
E saiffi#{ir.A
. There are summer droughts.

r Ther.e,€re severa,lvolcanoes in the South.

. There are avalanches

. There are occasional earthquake in the Alps

. World recession has caused atrade deficit in recent

years

. Due to the high amount of cars congestions and pollu-

t"
tion increased
s
F . Poor air quality especially in large cities such as Milan,
)
J Venice and Rome.

There are some undeveloped areas in the South

L

I Facts about ltaly

l
4
ri jffi-"qpTE€;iTff"p**'el&^#.-*r
*i?+ff;TT;"**:H.
j;-tr
iwn-;d b;-
:@-re aid 57.848 million in 1-990
Gives

- 'i;;*A*,iEF *&J'"'q;r i Receives grants from the European .@Union

=nc*:E\-'-h.i,
" oryi-: "H&*+ ffi;*:*iY[**f.:* to
I help the problem resions esoeciallv the south.
6@rc-.-*=-,*tE@,
L

I
,*i.--;;';. "* 'T'
,*--" .d -. .. ,*;
-+
,:\ HshgNP
t*, r*siledamotamk.q'esilqil#p_gge;i&l&the
s{

-J
.:4
Y,
cattle. Mostlv commercial farmins.
@:d:€@
}h

sLie1 w" ffi-

ddst.&' -,1*"
.*'
sfuu*"'l:fu
",*fl$ g,?
-d;m " "r*
')@d60
r*t itar:|y,.
rud'wm oh ^':i
"c;-
-;d *
o:"iio.u Mr olsti **"
1 t*'
"h
6""a
_:
*k "m -uhlfE
 Kfue m#wm*e€m,ffi## ffi# ffiwtr€fuffitrffi ffi€mffip
Supplies of natural gas in the Po basin and HEP frym ths Al

Fertile lowland with irrieation water available

Larse cities. For example. Milan. Turin and Genoa connected bv an

-:--_:._:-danc-rs#
effi
-
@
cient transport svstem.

. Close
"
to Larse European markets

. BeSer-q$aliluhgssi

.,t' :t: - -: :,:.

iLE- =

Mountainous relief makes communications d ifficult

The climate is hot and dry in Summer with a few months'

Heavy winte-r rainfa!l_causes soil erosion and flooding

The rocks are mostly limestone and form thin soils

Low yields of wheat, olives and vines

Poor-quality grazing for sheep and goats

Poor transoort. little industrv. emisration

---
Ykm wffiH ff r'ru*cffitr#
iArea%o i 60 40

Population% 63 37
Since the 1950 the ltalian government has invested
money to try to improve the south. ln recent years the Birth rate per 1000 11 t7
EU has also provided grants and loans. ln the South Death rate per 1000 10 8

there has been; lncome per person {million lira) >2500 <1600

Yofarm production 65 3s
I Some new autostradi (motorways) have been built.
% share of hospital beds 74 26
; New irrigation schemes allows tomatoes, citrus fruits
% unemployment 8 22
and vegetables to be grown.

Some large scale industry, such as iron and steel and car
manufacture, has located in the South

3b
 Population
Population is about people, and the dwellings, locations
and environments that people live in.
Population can be defined in many ways, for example
by age, ethnicity, type of housing,
birthplace or location.

According to the world Fact Book Data, the world's population

is very near 7 billion. Around 50
years ago the world population was about 2.5
billion and we managed to get to 7 billion in just
50 years. lt is a staggering increase by almost 300%.

of this large number, a fourth is chinese; almost a fifth is lndian

and another fifth from the rest
of Asia' This means that almostga% of the world's citizens
come from Asia, Africa and Latin
American countries popularly known as the Third world
countries.

The world's population continues to increase at a

rapid rate. population increased due to a
number of factors such as better hygiene, nutrition,
medical care and the control of medical
diseases' All these have helped in expanding the years
of human life and reducing the number
of deaths and infants. As a result, people being born
today have more probabilities of surviving
and living up to old age. However, each of those
7 billion people will require food, employment,
housing, medical care, education and other goods
and services. The world,s resources will be
placed under increasing strain and the question
of unequal distribution will become more
critical.

Around the world people are unevenly distributed.

The difference in distribution is measured
by comparing population density - the number
of peopre per square kitometre (kmr).

Population density is determined more by environmental

factors which make an area more or
less attractive to settrers than by economic deveropment.

Population patterns

The way in which people are spread across a given

area is known as poputation distribution.
Geographers study population distribution patterns
at different scates: local, regional, national,
and global.
Distribution of a population within a defined area can be an important factor to consider in
planning and analysis work. For example, clusters of families in only some suburbs of a city
could influence planning for future school placement.

Patterns of population distribution tend to be uneven. For example, in the UK there are more
people living in the southeast of England than in Wales. ln Malta the south is more populated
than the north.

Population density

Population density is the average number of people per square kilometre. lt is a way of
measuring population distribution and shows whether an area is sparsely or densely populated.
Sparsely populated means very few human inhabitants when compared to the land area in
which they are living.
Densely populated means many human inhabitants when compared to the land area in which
they are living.
Population density is calculated using the following formula:

Population density = total population + total land area in kmz

ig Sensety pepuleded ||a l&Netately ptprdated ',,,','>z 8p€fs€ly populated i

Map of the world showing population density

The map shows patterns of population density on a global
scale. Note that:

a Areas of high and low population density are uneventy

spread across the world.
a The majority of places with high population densities are found in the northern
hemisphere.

The population density of a country has very little to do with

its level of economic development.
For example, both Bangladesh and Japan are very densely populated,
but Bangladesh is a LEDC
and Japan is a MEDC. i*{drr€- €i::rr-r*r*r"ic-- C*-,rc. |".,U*er{
*€6e, ,l'**rr_ *---":*c*.*;c:
e./4tri€5, * Dgar€-i.*,.{a €*.A
Densely Populated Sparsely Populated C-cq.1a'i#6i

H*r\*c-.

Western Europe

The Amazon forest

Factors affecting population density

Environmental and human factors affect the spread of peopre

across the world.

EnvironmentaUPhysical factors

Factors attracting setflement:

L. Temperate climate, eg the UK.
2. Low-lying flat fertire rand, eg the Bangradesh Detta, the Nire vailey.
3. Good supplies of natural resources, eg building resources.
Factors discouraging settlement
1. Extreme climates, eg Sahara Desert, Antarctica, Arctic.
2. Mountainous or highland areas, eg the scottish Highlands, The Himalayas.
3. Dense vegetation, eg the Amazon Rainforest.
Human factors

Socio-economic factors
Factors such as the availability of iobs and comparatively high wages can contribute to high
population density through migration. For example, from 2004 the UK has seen an influx of
migrants from countries that have recently joined the EU, such as Poland. Other factors are
such as the possibility of development of agriculture and where industry educatlon and health
are up to a certain level.
On the other hand warc and political persecution such as the civil war, eg in the Darfur region of Sudan,
can contribute to lower population densities as people become refugees and leave an area.

Population Change and structure

Population numbers change over time, influenced by births, deaths and migratlon into or out
of the area. Global population levels, having grown slowly for most of human history, are now
rising.
Population pyramids show the structure of a population by comparing relative numbers of
people in different age groups. Population structures differ markedly between LEDCs and
MEDCS.
Demographic transition models show population change over time - and also show marked
differences between LEDCs and MEDCs-

Global population growth

At present the world's population is growing quickly, though this has not always been the case.
Even in Malta the population started increasing following the pattern of the whole world except
in the period 1955-1970 when the population decreases since there was mass migration to
different countries such as Canada, England and Australia.

Until the 1800s the world's population grew slowly for thousands of years.
ln 1820 the world's population reached one billion.
ln the early 1970s, the world's population reached three biilion.
ln 1999, less than 30 years later, the population doubred to six billion.
The global rate of population growth is now one billion every 15 years.

The graphs below show this pattern of accelerating growth:

 Population of the Maltese lslands

1842 1861
Yoer

Populatlon of the Maltese lslands

zd
e
.9
(l
E
CL
o
G

1957 1967 1985

Year

guxt

$o00

7000

fio00

,g sooo

4000

3txp

2000

1000

o
1000 tt00 f800 'tEt 0 1950 197' 190' z?}zi
 {Ar-
*\* iq r.zrk
^ .L
\ r{_.}ci
I

*53 {w-t.t:.

Causes and rst€s of change

The three main causes of population change are:

Births - usually measured using the birth rate {number of live births per 1000 of the
population).
Deaths - usually measured using the death rate (number of deaths per 1000 of the population) .

Mlgration - the movement of people in and out of an area.

Rate of change

Births and deaths are natural causes of population change. The difference between the birth
rate and the death rate of a country or place is called the natural increase. The natural increase
is calculated by subtracting the death rate from the birth rate.

Natural increase = birth rate - death rate

The rate of natural increase is given as a percentage, calculated by dividing the natural increase
by 10.
For example if the birth rate is 14 per 1000 population, and the death rate is B per 1000
population, then the growth rate = 14 - 8 = 6
That is 6{LAOA, which is equal to 0.6%

Patterns of population growth

Rates of population growth vary across the world. Although the world's total population is
rising rapidly, not all countries are experiencing this growth. ln the UK for example, population
growth is slowing, while in Germany the population has started to decline. MEDCs have low
population growth rates, with low death rates and low birth rates.
Population will decline if death rate is greater than birth rate.
LEDCs have high population growth rates. Both birth rates and death rates in LEDCs tend to be
high. However, improving healthcare leads to death rates falling - while birth rates remain high.
Population will increase if death rate is less than birth rate.

The table shows data in selected LEDC and MEDC countries. The figures are per 1000 of the population
per year.
 MEDCs

Bulgaria

LEDCs

South Afriea,:

Example' ln Bulgaria, the birth rate is g/Laoo

and death rate is L4/tooo.As birth rate is less
than the death rate, Bulgaria has a declining population.
Example. tn South Africa, the birth rate is
ZS/LOOO and death rate is IS/IOOO.South Africa has
an increasing population with a population growth
rate of L%.

The demographic transition model

The demographic transition model shows population

change over time. lt studies how birth
rate and death rate affect the total population
of a country. lt is divided into five stages:

1'" Total population is low but it is balanced due to high

birth rates and high death rates.
2' Total population rises as death rates fall due
to improvements in hearth care and
sanitation. Birth rates remain high.
 3. Total population is still rising rapidly. The gap between birth and death rates narrows
due to the availability of contraception and fewer children being needed to work - due
to the mechanisation of farming. The natural increase is high.
4. Total population is high, but it is balanced by a low birth rate and a low death rate. Birth
control is widely available and there is a desire for smaller families.
5. Total population is high but going into decline due to an ageing population. There is a
continued desire for smaller families, with people opting to have children later in life.

As a country passes through the demographic transition model, the total population rises, Most
LEDCs are at stage 2 or 3 (with a growing population and a high natural increase). Most MEDCs
are now at stage 4 of the model and some such as Germany have entered stage 5.

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a"oiection

As populations move through the stages of the model, the gap betwben #rin r,.," and death
rate first widens, then narrows. ln stage l the two rates are balanced. ln stage 2 they diverge,
as the death rate falls relative to the birth rate. ln stage 3 they converge again, as the birth rate
falls relative to the death rate. Finally in stage 4the death and birth rates are balanced again
but at a much lower level.

Limitations of the model

The demographic transition model has two limitations:

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 L' The model was developed after studying the experiences of countries
in western
Europe and North America. Conditions might be different for LEDCs in
different parts of
the world.
2. The original model doesn't take into account the fact that some countries
now have a
declining population and a 5th stage. Most texts will now show this stage
as it is
relevant to an increasing number of MEDCsin the 2lst century.

T.rc"-F ih€t{:: a-11€' :rt::'n-r:l-

Population structure and population pyramids i:-,-, j./al,..-. €--e, L,.-..'.r'.,iir.,
:= r<,'5p.-cii
n

popuration structure means the 'make up,

or compositioi'; ,fi;;* ;;-";*:""
population structure of a place shows how the population is divided
up between mates and
females of different age groups.
Population structure is usually shown using a population pyramid. A population
pyramid can be
drawn up for any area' from a whole continent or country to an individual
town, city or village.
The following graphs show the population pyramids of an MEDC
{the uK} and an LEDC
(Mozambique), for 2000 and in 2025 using projected figures.
The left side of each pyramid
shows the number of men in each age group, the right side shows the
number of women in
each age group.

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2^'

trpuleiim lm,&,onrl

Population pyramid forthe UK and Malta 2000

Notice how in the uK 2000 pyramid there is a bulge in the area of the
30-34 and 35-39 age
groups, with the numbers thereafter reducing fairly steadily
as the ages increase. This matches
stage 4 of the demographic transition model. Also the Maltese show
a similar pattern but the
bulges are in the area 35-54 age group.
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l:rniist cn {ild1or6!

Projected population pyramid for the uK 2025 and Malta

2020

compare this to the 2025 pyramid, which would be stage 5 in the

model. Here the bulge
extends much further, covering the age groups 30-64, with the
numbers beginning to reduce
significantly only after 54. ln Malta there is a similar example but
there are two bulges since
there was a mass migration in the 50s and GOs.

Now compare the UK popuration pyramids with those for

Mozambique:

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10
 Population pyramid for Mozambique 2000
ln this graph, notice that in 2000 the 0-4 age group contained
the largest number of people,
with the numbers thereafter declining steadily as the ages
increase. The graph matches stage 1
in the model.

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Projected population pyramid for Mozambique 2025

ln the second graph, the largest group in Mozambique

in 2025 is still the 0-4 age group, but
there are nearly as many people in the 5-29 age groups.
Now the population pyramid matches
stage 2.

Analysing population pyramids

Key things to know about population pyramids:

o The shape of a population pyramid can tell
us a lot about an area,s population.
o lt gives us information about birth and death rates
as well as tife expectancy.
o A population pyramid tells us how many dependents
there are. There are two groups of
dependants; young dependants (aged below 15)
and elderly dependants (aged over 65).
o Dependants rery upon the economicaily active
for economic support.
r ManY LEDCs have a high number of young dependants,
whilst many MEDCs have a
growing number of elderly dependants.

How do pyramids change over time?

lt
 A population pyramid that is very triangular
{eg Mozambique in 2000) shows a population w;th
a high number of young dependants and a low
life expectancy.
A population pyramid that has fairly straight sides (more
like a barrel) shows a population with
a falling birth rate and a rising life expectancy.
over time, as a country develops, the shape changes from
triangular to barrel-like.
Places with an ageing population and a very low
birth rate would have a structure that looks
like an upside-down pyramid.

Types of population pyramids

while all countries' population pyramids differ, four types have

been identified by the fertility
and mortality rates of a country.
if!ir -l --'r;stable pyramid - A population pyramid showing an unchanging pattern
of fertility and
mortality.
2*:s..:\rj,, ,::.
'stationary pyramid - A population pyramid typical of countries
with low fertility and low
mortality, also called a constrictive pyramid.
,l+ct,i- ,,'' - Expansive pyramid - A population pyramid showing a broad
L base, indicating a high proportion
of children, a rapid rate of population growth, and
a low proportion of older people. This wide
base indicates a large number of children. A steady
upwards narrowing shows that more people
die at each higher age band. This type of pyramid
indicates a population in which there is a high
birth rate, a high death rate and a short life expectancy.
This is the typical pattern for less
economically developed countries, due to little access
to and incentive to use birth control,
negative environmental factors
{for example, lack of clean water} and poor access to health
care.
:q'constrictive pyramid - A population
pyramid showing rower numbers or percentages
younger people' The country will have a of
ageining population which means that people
are
generally older.

n1

D
r{

lta1tre 1 - expanding Slage ? - expanding

Stage 4 - contractin.q

72
History of population in the Maltese Islands

Malta is situated in the middle of the Mediterranean

halfway between Gibraltar and Alexandria, and Sicily an
North Africa. Thus it has always been at the cross-roads of
trading and warring routes of this land-locked sea.

Malta is chiefly composed of limestone with no hills highe

than 300 metres and no rivers. On the South-West side it
guarded by high cliffs whilst on the North-East side the shore is indented
with sheltered
harbours. These proved to be v€ry attractive to the saitors and navigators that
sailed the
Mediterranean.

The origin of Maltese history goes back to some 4500 years BC (late stone
are), when some
people from the neighbouring island of Sicily, who could see the
island lying on the horizon,
decided to cross the narrow waters to investigate. This obviously could not
have happened
unless these people had skills in sailing or rowing some form of craft
which was large enough to
carry with them their belongings, which included such animals as sheep, goats
and cattle, as
well as seeds like wheat and barley.

These people settled on the island and sheltered in the many caves
which exist there. The
earliest inhabited cave is called 'Ghar-Dalam', the cave of darkness, where
remains of these
people and their artefacts give us an insight into their way
of life. They cultivated the land,
growing wheat and barley and practised animal husbandry.
Around 3500 Bc they started to build large buildings the like of which
were not to be found
anywhere else. They kept in touch with their cousins in sicily obtaining from
them obsidian and
flint with which they could make tools to help them work the stones. These
buildings, of which
there are fifteen , are spread across the istand. They are the oldest existing
megalithic
structures known to man - places like Hagar Qim, Mnajdra, Tarxien, etc.
These antedate the
pyramids and Stonehenge by some 1000 years. This era for no
explicable reason, it ended
abruptly. Nobody knows what happened, but famine, over population and disease
could have
been possible causes.

After the Stone Age era we find another era called the Bronze Age, that from
record only few
people could have lived here. Then the Phoenicians colonized the
Maltese islands from about

73
10oo Bc, bringing their Semitic language and culture, and becoming
the direct male-line
ancestors of about a half of the modern Maltese population.

After the Phoenicians there was the Arab dominion at a around g70
A.D. At that time the
number of Maltese was greatly reduced since many inhabitant since pirates
from North Africa
took many inhabitants into slavery.

By 1530 with the handing of the islands to the Knights the Maltese population was estimated
to
have been around 15,000 people.

ln 1551 Dragut one of the leaders of the ottoman empire attacked Gozo
and practically carried
all Gozitan population into slavery while in 1556 in the great siege
around g,00o Maltese died
to protect the islands. Nonetheless in 1582 the population of the Maltese islands
was roughly
around 20,000.

By L74o the population of the lslands had risen to 110,000 people

in spite the 1592 and 1975
plague where it is estimated that around 1s,000 people
lost their lives.

Between the period of the 1800 and 1900 the population rose
from 115,000 to Lg0,000
respectively although another tow epidemics struck Malta in
1g13, plague and in 1g3g cholera.
Malta still continued to increase in population since the British offered
security to the islands
and the overall the general situation regarding work, sanitary
and medical conditions improved.
Another important point was the opening of the suez canal in
1g69 that made Malta a major
stopping point for bunkering and trade.

The period 1900 to 1960 is characterized by the second

world war, mass migration and the
baby boom' At the beginning of the 20th century, the total population
of the Maltese lslands
was around 180,000 and in the 60s around 319,000. The population
in this period still
continued to grow although there was mass migration in the
1900s to North African countries
like Egypt and Tunisia. The second world war between 1g40-1g43.
The period of mass migration
of the 1950s and 1950s where many Maltese emigrated to English
speaking countries such
United Kingdom, Australia, canada and usA. such emigration
helped to ease the population
problem at those times.
on the other hand the baby boom of the 1945 to 1950s helped for
the growth of the
population.

L4
 From the 1960s the population continued to increase
at a steady pace and in the 2005 census
the population of the Maltese islands numbered to around 40s,000 people
with a density of
about 1,300 people per square kilometre.

Problems associated with high population growth in Malta

Malta is an excellent example of problems associated with

high population growth and high
population density' The Maltese lslands have one
of the highest population densities in the
world with 1,300 persons per square kilometre.

This problem is still more serious when one considers

the significant flow of tourists, more than
one and a half million each year, each of whom has needs
to satisfy, food and drink, housing
electricity, sanitary facilities and wa'ter. The need for housing,
for example, has been met by
means of large investment in this sector and this growth
has led to certain environmental
problems.

Housing

The expansion of housing in Malta has began on a

large scale after the second world war but
there has been three construction booms; in the late
1g60s, thea early 1gg0s and the middle
1990s.

The 1960's construction boom. This was the first boom

associated with the
establishment of the tourist sector and the establishment
of hotels, restaurants and
self-catering apartments. This have been generally
concentrated in the areas attracting
most tourists or Maltese summer residences (villagjatura)
such as eawra, Bugibba,
5t'Paul's Bay, Mellieha, Marsascala, Birzebbugia and
in Gozo, Malsalforn and Xlendi .
2. The 1980s construction booom-Thius
is the second boom, connected with the loca
home ownership development, facilitated by more
liberal credit facilities and relatively
low cost government plots. These plots have usually
been altocated on the outskirts of
existing towns and viilages e.g Ta' Mirt (Mosta), swatar
(Msida) and Tar-Hawri (Birgu).
The 1990s construction boom-This is the third boom
where big houses and also some
green areas where turned into high concrete plots.

The consequences of such expansion have lead to certain

environmental problems such as
agricultural land and rural areas have decreased considerably.
Malta today is one of the highest
countries in Europe, around 22%thatthe land area is built.

15
 66
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 some of the problems associated with decreased
of natural land has meant that the local flora
and fauna are finding it increasingly difficult
to survive and reproduce since we are taking over
their natural habitats to support them. Another problem
related to the construction industry is
quarrying, this have brought numerous problems
suqh as visual pollution and destruction
natural habitats. of
cr"i ib
A {amry$ra+ion
i\Iigration .{-,.-..>r.-,r,=^ )r-;r
.,o, ( ffn^.-g.o+'cr, W;-.,r..+,o,.,
Migration is the movement of people fror ontltplace
to another. The reasons for migration can
be economic' social, political or environmental.
There are usually pusll factors and puLL
factors
at work.
Migration impacts on both the place left behind,
and on the place where migrants setge.

What is Migration?

Migration is the movement of people from one place

to another. tt can be either temporary or
permanent, but there are other forms
of migration.

o lnternal migration is when people migrate

within the same country or region - for
example, moving from London to plymouth.
lnternational migration is when people migrate
' from one country to another _ for
example, moving from Mexico to the USA.
There two key migration terms are:
o Emigration - when someone leaves a country.
o lmmigration _ when someone enters a country

Why do people migrate?

People migrate for many different reasons.

These reasons can be classified as
political economic, sociat,
or environmental :

o Economic migration - moving to find work

or foilow a particurar career path.
a social migration - moving somewhere for a
better quality of life or to be closer to family
or friends.
o Political migration - moving to escape poriticar
persecution or war.
a Environmentar causes of migration incrude
naturar disasters such as frooding.

16
Some people choose to migrate, eg someone who moves to another country to enhance their
career opportunities. Some people are forced to migrate, eg someone who moves due to war
or famine.
A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new home to go to. often
refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not have a clear idea of where they
may finally settle.
Push and pull factors leQt- rhe;r *y
+beV
t
ccv{.^ 5y .lcc^*=1,3(
v'
?U- c>f F€rgcc-L+;o- t t-"'oct^' r€-\i3'
Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include: .
o
Foti+;cs
t
a

t t
actors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They include:

Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these push and pull factors.

!7
-

Push Fcrbrr Futt Factor!

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Impacts of migration - economic migrants

Migration has an impact on the place that
has been left behind as well as on
being migrated to' These impacts can be
the ptace that is
both positive and negative. The table
migration from Turkey to Germany affects shows how
the two countries.

rid a source of

Migration
Turkey between
Germany and

18
Economic migrants - values and attitudes
Different groups of people have different interests. ln the case of economic migrants, look at
the views of:

o The migrant - How do they feel about their new life? How do they feel about leaving
their family behind? How do they feel about people in their destination country who
may be hostile towards them?
r The migrant's family left behind - How do they feel about it? Do they see it as a
positive move? Willthey be better or worse off?
The government in the host country - What is their policy on migrants? Are they good
or bad for the economy? Are they good or bad for society?
Other workers in the host country - How do they feel about the economic migrants?
What type of jobs are they taking? ls there competition for jobs? Are they helping the
economy?

Refugees and illegal migration in the Mediterranean

Refugee is a person who "owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race,
religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the
country of his nationality. He is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of
the protection of that country.

19
Also a person who cannot go home because of a natural disaster is also called a refugee.

lllegal immigration is the movement of people across national borders in a way that violates
the immigration laws of the destination country.
The net flow of illegal immigration pattern is almost entirely from countries of lower
socioeconomic levels to countries of higher socioeconomic levels, and particularly from
developlng countries to developed countries. While there are other causes associated with
poorer countries, the most common motivation for illegal immigrants is the pursuit of greater
economic opportunities and quality of life in the destination state.

Under the basic cost/benefit argument for illegal immigration, potential migrants believe the
probability and benefits of successfully migrating to the destination country are greater than
the costs. These costs may include restrictions living as an illegal immigrant in the destination
country, leaving family and ways of life behind, and the probability of being caught and
resulting sanctions.

Refugees and illegal Migrants in Malta

Refugees and illegal migrants come to Malta by chance since mainly their route was the main
land ltaly. ln Malta some of them are living in cramped and sometimes in unsanitary conditions
at Hal far or Ta kandja. Many of these Migrants have lost family members in coriflicts, by
diseases or out at sea.

20
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7

Population
Population Distribution
Population distribution means the pattern of where people live.
world population distribution is
uneven' Places which are sparsely populated contain few people. places
which are densely
populated contain many people. Sparsely populated places tend
to be difficult places to live.
These are usually places with-hqstile-envi e.g. Antarctica. places
which are densely
populated are _@e.g. Europe.

Population Density
Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area.
lt is an average
number. Population density is calculated diyidilg thq nVmbet qt peqple bv aree, poputation
Qy
density is usually shown as.!h_e_Ir_V-mbqf o. p,e_p_p_]e, pe,ruq.uareJjlsme_Lre-

Factors Affecting Population Density

There are a range of human and natural factors that affect pop,-rlation
density. The tables below
illustrate this.
Physical Factors H,igh'Dens!!$ Low Density
Relief Low land which is frat e.g. Ganges vartey High rand that is mountainous e.g.
(shape and height of bnd) in lndia Himalayas
Areas rich in resou...s 1".g. .orl, oil,
';;"; "r" with few resources tend to
Resources wood, fishins
"r..)
1];ril Areas
^._- be
sparsely populated e'g' The Sahel
populated e.g. Western Europe
: ....::.
Areas,with temperate climates tend to be Areas with extreme climates
of hot
Climate densely populated as there is enough rain and cord tend
to be sparsery
and heat to grow crops e.g. uK popurated e.g. the sahara Desert

Human Factors High Density t-ow Density

Countries with stable governrnents tend Unstable countries
tend to have
Political
:
tohave a high population density e.g. lower population densities
as people
Singapore migrate e.g. Afghanistan.
=1il :l
Groups of people want to live close to Other groups of people prefer to be
Sociaf :
each other for security e.g. USA isolated e.g. Scandinavians

;
Good job opportunities encourage high
population densitjes, particularly in large Limited job opportunities cause some
Economic
areas to be sparsely populated e.g.
l MEDCs and LEDCs around the
'
iiiilit:::::::::tiiii=
:

;H:.'" Amazon Rainforest

Population Change
ln 1820 the world's population reached 1 billion.
ln 1990 it reached 6 billion people and in october 2oLLitreached
7 billion.

This rapid growth in pqpqlation has been E_alle-d a pqp_ulationexplosion.

The major reason for population changes, whether in an individual
country or for the whole
world,isthechangeinbirthanddeathrates.ina
72 , @fWr. P. Bonnici
Geography Department
year for every 1OO0 people in the total population. Death rates are num
per

1000 people. When birth rates are higher than death rates the population of an area will
increase.
Over the past 150 years improvements in health care and sanitation around
the world have led
high in
to a drop in the death rate. while birth rates have dropped in MEDCs, birth rates are still
LEDCs. Therefore the number of people in the world has
grown rapidly.

Life ExpectancY
Life expectancy ls the average age a person can expect to live to in a
particular area' Life
From this figure you
expectancy can be used as an indicator of the overall 'health' of a country.
general rule the higher the
can determine many features of a country e.g. standard of living' As a
life expectancy the healthier (or developed) a country is'

Factors which control Birth Rates:

where large
Birth rates can change for a number of reasons. High birth rates occur in countries
have large
families are needed so that the children can work at an early age. Families often
parents in their old age.
numbers of children so that will be someone around to look after the
Some religions ban the use of contraception, meaning that the birth rate is
harder to control'
likely to
Birth rates fall due to improvements in health care, meaning that children are more
get married later
survive into old age. Women in many countries, especially in MEDC's, tend to
in the use of
and have children later, as they want to establish a career first. More education
contraceptives has also helped to slow birth rates. ln some countries the birth
rate has been
artificially controlled by the law. China is the best example of a country which has
tried this'

Factors which control Death Rates:

Death rates are high in countries where there is poor health care, bad sanitation or
insufficient

food. primarily these are less developed countries that do not have the money or expertise to
improve the situation. These countries often have problems of disease'
Death rates primarily fall due to improvements in health care, including better access to
it. A
clean water supply and better sanitation means that the threats of disease also diminish.

The demographic transition model

The relationship between birth rate and death rate has been used to create a four stage
model of

a country's population change, called the demographic model. Countries which

are described as

being developed have reached Stage 4. The UK and Malta are one of these. Other countries
are

at different stages of their development, and therefore occupy different places on the model'
The demographic transition model shows population change over time' ln a nut shell the
population
demographic transition model studies how birth rate and death rate affect the total
of a country. lt is divided into five stages:

per 1000. This means a

Stage One; High birth rate (BR) and high death rate (DR), both around 35
relatively slow population growth. High BR due to no contraception and the need
for large
poor food supply'
families. High DR due to diseases, poor health care, poor water quality, and a
in places
The UK was at this stage in the period up to 1750. Only a few remote indigenous tribes,
such as the Amazon rainforest, exhibit these characteristics nowadays'

Geography DePartment
13 OMr, P, Bonnici
Stage Two: BR remains high, at around 35 per L000, but DR falls to about 20 per 1000 by the end
of the stage. The DR falls due to improvements in health care, sanitation and water quality. There
is also increased access to medicines and food. The UK was in this period between 1750 and
1gg0. Countries such as Bangladesh, Libya and Nigeria are currently in this stage of their
development.

Stage Three: BR falls rapidly to near 20 per 1000, and DR continues to slowly fall
to around l-5
per 1000. The fall in the BR is due to better access to contraception, more family planning
education, working women getting married and having children later, less need for children
as a

labour source. DR continues to fall as health care improves further, and sanitation conditions
this stage
improve. The UK was in this stage between 1880 and 1950. Countries passing through
at present include China and Argentina.

Stage Four: BR and DR low, at under 10 per 1000. Although there may be some
annual
with
fluctuations population growth is close to zero. The UK is in this stage at the moment, along
countries such as the United States and Japan.

Stage Five: has been suggested that a new fifth stage should be added to the model, due to
lt
populations
some countries, such as Sweden and France, having higher DR than BR, so that their
are actually falling.

As a country passes through the demographic transition model, the total population rises. Most
LEDCs are at stage 2 or 3 (with a growing population and a high natural increase).
Most MEDCs
are now at stage 4 of the model and some such as Germany have entered stage 5'
As populations move through the stages of the model, the gap between birth rate and death
rate

first widens, then narrows. ln stage 1 the two rates are balanced. ln stage 2 they diverge, as the
death rate falls relative to the birth rate. ln stage 3 they converge again, as the birth rate falls
relative to the death rate. Finally in stage 4 the death and birth rates are balanced again but at a
much lower level.

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741 OMr. P. eonnici Geography Department
 Limitations of the model
The demographic transition model has two limitations:

1. The model was developed after studying the experiences of countries in Western Europe
and North America. Conditions might be different for LEDCs in different parts of the
world.
2. The original model doesn't take into account the fact that some countries now have a
declining population and a 5th stage. Most texts will now show this stage as it is relevant
to an increasing number of MEDCs in the 21st century.

Population structure and population pyramids

The composition of the population of a country can tell you a great deal about its development.
The best way to look at this is by studying a population pyramid. This is basically back to back bar
graphs, one showing the number of males, the other showing the number of females. The bars
represent age bands of 5 year intervals.
Population structure is usually shown using a population pyramid. A population pyramid can be
drawn up for any area, from a whole continent or country to an individual town, city or village.
The following graphs show the population pyramids of an MEDC (the UK) and another MEDC
(Malta), for 2000 and in 2025 using projected figures. The left side of each pyramid shows the
number of men in each age group, the right side shows the number of women in each age group.
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Population pyramid for the UK and Malta 2000

Notice how in the UK 2000 pyramid there is a bulge in the area of the 30-34 and 35-39 age
groups, with the numbers thereafter reducing fairly steadily as the ages increase. This matches
stage 4 of the demographic transition model. Also the Maltese show a similar pattern but the
bulges are in the area 35-54 age group.

Geography Department
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Projected population pyramid for the uK 2025 and Malta 2020

Here the bulge extends

compare this to the 2025 pyramid, which would be stage 5 in the model.
much further, covering the age groups 30-64, with the numbers beginning
to reduce significantly
there was a mass
only after 64. ln Malta there is a similar example but there are two bulges since
migration in the 50s and 60s'

i,,lorru compare the LIK population pynamids wlth thcse f*r Rrlozarmbiqaxe:

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Population pyramid for Mozambique 2000

ln this graph, notice that in 2000 the 0-4 age group contained the largest number
of people, with
l- in the
the numbers thereafter declining steadily as the ages increase. The graph matches stage
model.

$ @Mr. P. Bonnicl Geography DePartment

76
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Projected population pyramid for Mozambique 2025

ln the second graph, the largest group in Mozambique in 2025 is still the 0-4 age group, but there
!t
are nearly as many people in the 5-29 age groups. Now the population pyramid matches stage
2.

population pyramids can indicate the BR and DR of a country. For instance a country whose
pyramid has a wide base has a high BR. lf the numbers rapidly decrease, to form a triangular
shaped pyramid, then there must also be a fairly high DR, and so the country is in either the first
or second stage of development. A country in Stage four will have a relatively narrow base, and
there will be similar numbers of people in all the bands up until 70, when the numbers will start
to fall. This country would be one like the UK with good health care, and a high life expectancy.

population pyramids can also showthe percentage of the population, which is described as being
,'dependant". These are the groups of people who rely on the economically active members of
society. Dependants are classified as those under working age (0 - 15 years old) and those who
have retired (over 65). They rely on the working age group of people between 16 and 64.

population pyramids can also show significant events. ln Germany there are far more males
between 20 and 35, than there are females of a similar age. This shows up quite clearly on a
pyramid, and is due to the huge numbers of male immigrant workers that came into the country
through the 1990's. They came to Germany to find work, and left their families at home in places
such as Yugoslavia and TurkeY.

Another type of event that can be traced easily on population pyramids, is the effect of war'
Often this leads to large in-balances in the population, with far more women than men of
fighting age remaining as the men have been killed in battle.

population pyramids can be also used to help planning for the future, as they can be used to
project the percentages of certain age-groups in the population over the next 50 years' ln this
way plans can be introduced to cope with the forecast changes, such as the ageing population in
the UK.

E+H
77 | @lvr. P. Bonnici Geography DePartment
Analysing population pyramids
Key things to know about population pyramids:
r The shape of a population pyramid can tell us a lot about an area's population.
o lt gives us information about birth and death rates as well as life expectancy.
o A population pyramid tells us how many dependents there are. There are two groups of
dependants; young dependants (aged below 15) and elderly dependants (aged over 65).
a Dependants rely upon the economically active for economic support.
a Many LEDCs have a high number of young dependants, whilst many MEDCs have a
growing number of elderly dependants.

How do pyramids change over time?

r A population pyramid that is very triangular (eg Mozambique in 2000) shows a population
with a high number of young dependants and a low life expectancy.
r A population pyramid that has fairly straight sides (more like a barrel)shows a population
with a falling birth rate and a rising life expectancy.
r Over time, as a country develops, the shape changes from triangular to barrel-like.
o Places with an ageing population and a very low birth rate would have a structure that
looks like an upside-down pyramid.

Types of population pyramids

Different shaped population pyramids indicate the stage of development that a certain country
has reached.
While all countries' population pyramids differ, four types have been identified by the fertility
and mortality rates of a country.
Stable pyramid - A population pyramid showing an unchanging pattern of fertility and mortality.
Stationary pyramid - A population pyramid typical of countries with low fertility and low
mortality, also called a constrictive pyramid.
Expansive pyramid - A population pyramid showing a broad base, indicating a high proportion of
children, a rapid rate of population growth, and a low proportion of older people. This wide base
indicates a large number of children. A steady upwards narrowing show that more people die at
each higher age band. This type of pyramid indicates a population in which there is a high birth
rate, a high death rate and a short life expectancy. This is the typical pattern for less
economically developed countries, due to little access to and incentive to use birth control,
negative environmental factors (for example, lack of clean water) and poor access to health care.
Constrictive pyramid - A population pyramid showing lower numbers or percentages of younger
people. The country will have an ageining population which means that people are generally
older.

Stnge 1 - expandinq $taAE ? - expanding StaGE 3 - statinnary Stuge 4 - cnntracting

78 ; @Mr. P. Bonnici Geography Department

 Case study: LEDC's vs MEDC's
Less economically developed countries and more economically
developed countries both have
certain characteristics that can be seen on a population pyramid .These
are described in the table
below, using the UK as the MEDc (stage 4)and Bangladesh as the LEDC (stage
2):

More Economically Developed : Less Economically Developed:

Wide base to the pyramid, due to high BR.
Narrow base to the pyramid, due to low BR. This means that there is a high dependent
young population.

Constant numbers of people through all bands of Numbers decrease as you go up the
pyramid, forming the triangular shape of
working age.
the pyramid.
Large number of people over 65, which means that Few people over 65, means there is a very
there is a high dependent elderly population. small dependent elderly population.
High life expectancy, due to good medical care,
means that there is a high percentage over 65. This Low life expectancy, poor health care.
also means that the pyramid is taller.
Low DR due to good health care. Low infant High DR and infant mortality rate. Families
mortality rate, means that families have less have more children, as they are not sure
children, but they usually survive to live a long life. how long they might survive,
Females tend to live longer then males. Females tend to live longer then males.

Gase Study: ltaly: an ageing population.

The problems created by the ageing population of ltaly.

=.-

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79 fi4.
AfUr. P. Bonnici Geography Department
 lliretg

we can start our examination of the hydrologic cycle with the oceans,
which hold over g7% of
the planet's water' The sun causes evaporation of water on
the surface of the ocean. The water
vapour rises and condenses into tiny droplets which cling
to dust particles. These droplets form
clouds' Water vapour usually remains in the atmosphere for
a short time, from a few hours to a
few days until itturns into precipitation and fallstothe earth
as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
some precipitation falls onto the land and is absorbed (infiltration)
or becomes surface runoff
which gradually flows into gullies, streams, lakes, or rivers.
water in streams and rivers flows to
the ocean, seeps into the ground, or evaporates back into the atmosphere.

water in the soil can be absorbed by plants and is then transferred

to the atmosphere by a
process known as transpiration. water from the
soil is evaporated into the atmosphere. These
processes are collectively known as evapotranspiration.
some water in the soil seeps downward into a zone of porous
rock which contains groundwater.
A permeable underground rock layer which is capable of storing,
transmitting, and supplying
significant amounts of water is known as an aquifer.

More precipitation than evaporation or evapotranspiration

occurs over the land but most of the
earth's evaporatio n (86%) and precipitation (78%) take place
over the oceans.
The amount of precipitation and evaporation is balanced
throughout the world. while specific
areas of the earth have more precipitation and less
evaporation than others, and the reverse is
also true, on a globar scare over a few year period,
everything barances out.
The locations of the water on the earth is fascinating. you
can see from the list below that very
little water is among us in rakes, the soir and especiaily
rivers.
 only during the ice ages are there noticeable differences in the location
of water storage on the
earth' During these cold cycles, there is less water stored in the oceans
and more in ice sheets
and glaciers.
It can take an individual molecule of water from a few days to
thousands of years to complete
the hydrologic cycle from ocean to atmosphere to land to ocean again
as it can be trapped in ice
for a long time.

For scientists, five main processes are included in the hydrologic

cycle: 1) condensation, 2)
precipitation,3) infiltration,4) runoff, and 5) evapotranspiration. The
continuous circulation of
water in the ocean, in the atmosphere, and on the land is fundamental
to the availability of
water on the planet.

Definitions
ffiffh) The process in which water pools in large bodies (like
oceans, seas and lakes).
ffi)ThisprocessinwhichliquidwaterbecomeswaterVapour(agas).Watervaporizes
from the surfaces of oceans and lakes, from the surface of
the land, and from melts in snow
fields.
nq**m) The process in which some water within prants evaporates
into the atmosphere.
water is first absorbed by the prant's roots, then rater
exists by evaporating through pores in the
plant.
ffirrrF{q$) The process in which water vapour (a gas) in the air
turns into liquid water.
condensing water forms clouds in the sky. water drops
that form on the outside of a glass of icy
water are condensed water.
Kffi+ The process in which water (in the form of rain, snow,
sleet, or hail) falls from
clouds in the sky.
hdm) Rain, snow melt, or other water that flows in underground
streams, drains or
sewers,
ffi>Rain,snowmelt,orotherWaterthatflowsinsurfaceStreamS,rivers,orcanals,
sources of water in the Maltese lslands: Reverse osmosis plants
and underground water.
 The islands' natural water resources depend
entirely on rainwater percolating th rough the
porous limestone rock and accumulating
in aquifers from where it either seeps out or pumped
is
by man' lt has been estimated that between 1.6%
and 25% of the annual rainfall infiltrates to
recharge the aquifers.

qHD
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lt;lr:rn*ters

Aquifers are actually made of the water that

is found in the tiny little spaces (or ,,pores,,)
in
between the particles that make up the soils
and rock under the ground. These particles
can
actually act as a natural filter to help remove
impurities from the water. This makes groundwater
some of the cleanest water on the planetl
The aquifer portion of the subsurface is the part
that is
completely soaked (or "saturated") with water.
This water is usually called ',groundwater,,.
The
uppermost layer of water of the aquifer is called
the ',water table,,."

The geology of the Maltese lslands plays

a crucial function in the formation of the
hydrological
features of the islands and ultimately the
supply of fresh ffillt'Etfr;i"r. tn. geo-structurar
division of Malta has enabled two different
types of groundwater bodies to form: the perched
Aquifers' which are limited to the north western
extent of the island, and the Mean sea Level
Aquifer' which is located in the southern and central
parts of Malta and western part of Gozo
(see map).

where the 5 layer rock sequence is still in tact

and thus the Upper coralline Limestone lies
above
the Blue clay formation the perched aquifers can
be found. These groundwater bodies are
allowed to form due to the impermeable
nature of the Blue Clay lying beneath a permeable
layer
of Upper coralline Limestone' The Blue clay layer
acts as an aquiclude and thus water is stored
within the fissures and fractures found within
this zone, since such aquifers outcrop beneath
a
relatively thin soil cover infiltration of rainwater
runoff is direct. A number of fresh water springs
 can also be found in cases where this water table outcrops. ln the case of Malta
this is most
common in the Northern part of the lsland as indicated by the geological map located
above.

on the southern side of Malta and eastern part of Gozo only the Globigerina and Lower
Coralline
limestone formation are mainly exposed. Here the Lower coralline Limestone
aquifer or the
mean sea level aquifer has formed. The Lower Coralline Limestone is in lateral
and vertical
contact with sea water. Due to the differences in density between the fresh rainwater
and the
saline sea water, fresh water being much less dense than saline sea water floats
above it in the
shape of a lens that thins out at the coast (Ghyben-Herzberg System). porosity and permeability
of this rock formation depends to a large extent on the fissure and micro fracture recharge.
Since
the rock structures of the Maltese lslands are carbonate and have high secondary porosity,
rainwater easily seeps through,

Today the mean sea level Aquifers are being abstracted at high rates both for public
and private
use. Problems associated with high abstraction rates include localized upcoming of
sea water and
thus an increase in salinity. Other human induced pressures include various activities that
can be
categorized as point and diffuse pollutants.

More than half of Malta's drinking water

supply is produced by the reverse osmosis
desalination of sea water. There are 3 main
RO plants operating at Lapsi, Cirkewwa and
Pembroke. The latter produces the largest
amount of water (as much as 54% of the total
volume in 1996-1-997).
RO desalination is a high energy consumer.
Published data (WSC annual reports) indicate
that the RO production consumed from 14-
23% of the national energy production over the past few years. The
energy requirement of this
sector has practically doubled in 10 years. More recently (since 1995),
there is evidence to
suggest that such a trend in energy consumption is being controlled
through improved Ro
performance and water conservation measures.

Seawater is extracted from deep

shore wells sunk in Coralline
Limestone. This configuration has
produced very good quality water,
free from silt and organic material.
The feed water boost pumps serve
the dual purpose of providing the
pressure required to filter seawater
through 5 micron cartridge filters
and also provide adequate suction
pressure for the high-pressure
7 pumps'inlet' The former ensure silt free
water to the membranes at all times, and
provide the pressure required to the latter
drive the desalination process. At a pressure of g3 bar (6g bar at
Ghar Lapsi Reverse osmosis), acidified
seawater (or brackish water) is fed into
semi-permeabre
membranes that separate the feed
stream into potable water and brine. The
stream' still at high pressure, is piped into residual brine
an energy recovery device, which retrieves
available in this stream' The low pressure the energy
brine is returned to sea. The potabre water
produced is
disinfected by chlorine addition and remineralised
by the addition of lime. The final stage
process is the pumping of the product in the
into the distribution network.

The various groundwater supplies come

from two main sources: (a) the Mean sea
Level Aquifer
and the Perched Aquifer, a strategic and
cheap source of suppry, spread all over
providing 40% of the national total, and (b) the island, and
a very high quality water which comes
from Reverse
osmosis Plants' which is mixed with underground
water to make good the absence of minerals
this type of supply. lncidentally, the production in
of water by Ro plants accounts for 2o%of
electricity consumption: it is not therefore total
a cheap way of producing this essential
commodity.

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W l, .ffi
x;
ffi

A drainage basin or a river basin is

an area of land drained by a main river
and its tributaries. rts
boundary marked by a ridge of higher
land, is called a watershed.
However, size is ress importantthan
the drainage density. The drainage density
is:
 The total area of the drainage basin

The density is highest on impermeable

rocks and clays, and rowest on permeable
sands' The higher the density the greater rocks and
the risk of flooding, especially as a result
of flash flood.
Geomorphologists and hydrologists
often view streams as being part of drainage
drainage basin is the topographic region basins. A
from which a stream receives runoff, throughflow,
and groundwater flow' Drainage
basins are divided from each other
by topographic barriers
called a watershed' A watershed represents
all of the stream tributaries that flow to
location along the stream channel. The some
number, size, and shape of the drainage
basins found in
an area varies with the scale of examination

Drainage basins are commonly viewed

by scientists as being open systems. rnputs
systems include precipitation, snow to these
melt, and sediment.
Drainage basins lose water and sediment
through evaporation, deposition, and
A number of factors influence input, output,
streamflow.
and transport of sediment and water
basin' such factors include topography, in a drainage
soil type, bedrock type, climate, and
These factors arso infruence the nature
vegetation cover.
of the pattern of stream channers.

The drainage basin system

A drainage basin forms part of the
hydrological cycle but, unlike the
open system. hydrological cycle, it is an

It is an open system because it has:

o lnputs where water enters the system through
precipitation (rain and snow).
r outputs where water is lost to the system
either by rivers carrying it to the sea
through evapotraspiration. Evapotranspiration or
is the loss of moisture directly
or lakes (evaporation) or from vegetation from rivers
(transpiration).
 Within the system are stores and transfers (flows)
r stores are places where water is held, e.g. in pools and lakes on the surface or
in soil and
rocks underground.
r Transfers are processes by which water flows, or moves through the system, e.g
infiltration, su rface runoff, th roughflow.

lnputs
The main input to the system is precipitation. The type of precipitation
(rain or snow, etc), the
intensity, the duration and frequency all have an effect on the
amount of water in the system.
Each subsystem of the drainage basin system will also have
inputs and outputs, and the output
from one stage of the diagram will form the input for another.

Storage
water is stored in a drainage basin on the surface in lakes and channels
or underground in the
groundwater store. water reaches the groundwater store via
the processes of infiltration and
percolation. During these processes, some water will be
stored in the soil and rock, The amount
of water stored will vary depending on the porosity of the soil and on the permeability
of the
rock' water can also be temporarily stored via interception. This
refers to the storage of water
on leaf and plant stems' Dense foliage may result in little water reaching
the ground, since it
often evaporates from the leaves.

Transfer
The sum of all the water flowing over the drainage basin's surface
is called runoff. lt is made up
of streamflow, which is flow through permanent river channels and
overland flow or surface
runoff' overland flow transfers water through the basin either
as sheetwash, across the surface,
or in tiny channels called rills. Beneath the surface, water is transferred
via throughflow, which is
the movement of water through the lower soil towards rivers, and groundwater
flow.
Groundwater flow is typically very slow. water that has been
intercepted by foliage may also be
transferred, either directly as throughfall, or by running down
branches and stems via
streamflow.

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 Outputs
The final release of the water in a drainage
basin is known as its output. Typically, rivers
flowing
into the sea will be the main output of a drainage
basin. some water will also be lost via
evapotranspiration' This process refers to direct
evaporation, and also to the extend that
moisture lost from leaves will result in plants
withdrawing water from the soil via their roots

River landforms.
Nearly all rivers have an upper, middle and
lower course.
r Upper-course river features incrude steep-sided V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs,
rapids, waterfalls and gorges.
r Middle-course river features include wider, shallower
valleys, meanders, and oxbow
Iakes.
o Lower-course river features include wide flat-bottomed
valleys, floodplains and deltas.

Upper course
As the river moves through the upper course it cuts downwards. The gradient here
is steep and
the river channel is narrow. Vertical erosion in this highland
part of the river helps to create
steep-sided V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs,
rapids, waterfalls and gorges.

o As the river erodes the landscape in

the upper course, it winds and bends
to avoid areas of hard rock. This
creates interlocking spurs, which look
a bit like the interlocking parts of a zip.
r When a river runs over alternating
layers of hard and soft rock, rapids and
waterfalls may form.

Waterfalls are formed when water flows

over hard rocks and soft rocks (the hard rocks
lies above the soft rocks). The water that
flows over the rocks cause the soft rocks
to
deepen or move further inland while
the
harder ones remain intact. Because of
this,
there will be depressions as the softer rocks
are less resistant to the force exerted by
the
running water. Over time, parts of the
soft
rock will erode and the hard rocks will
be
suspended in the air, while the softer rocks
are pushed further inland. since the rocks
are located
on high ground' the water plunges downwards
to form a plunge pool. As time passes a gorge
be left behind as the waterfall retreats backwards. wi1
Middle course features
ln the middle course the river has more energy and a high volume
of water. The gradient here is
gentle and lateral (sideways) erosion has widened the river
channel. The river channel has also
deepened. A larger river channel means there is less friction, so
the water flows faster:

fb*lurex *n * rn*un<l*r lwxtl

As the river erodes laterally, to
the right side then the left side, it
forms la rge ben ds, n d th en
a

horseshoe-like loops called

$rnnll&ivlr {'.litt
meanders.
The formation of meanders is
due to both deposition and
l;,y*.t t*n erosion and meanders gradually
.irrd*rc*t hl,
migrate downstream.
Slip-of l'slopc lateral eroxirr

The force of the water erodes and

undercuts the river bank on the outside of
the bend where water flow has most energy
due to decreased friction.
On the inside of the bend, where the river
*ttt:*.
flow is slower, material is deposited, as
there is more friction.
Over time the horseshoe become tighter,
until the ends become very close together.
As the river breaks through, eg during a
flood when the river has a higher discharge
and more energy, and the ends join, the
loop is cut-off from the main channel. The
cut-off loop is called an oxbow lake.
- Lower course features
'r ti-re lower
course' the river has a high volume
and a large discharge. The river channel
deep and wide and the landscape is now
around it is flat. However, as a river
reaches the end of its
.journey, energy levels are low and deposition
takes place.

Floodplains
The river now has a wide floodplain.
A floodplain is the area around a river
times of flood' A floodplain is a very that is covered in
fertile area due to the rich ailuvium
floodwaters' This makes floodplains good deposited by
a place for agriculture. A build
banks of a river can create revees,
up of alluvium on the
which raise the river bank.

Deltas
Deltas are found at the mouth of
large rivers - for example, the Mississippi.
when the river deposits its material A delta is formed
faster than the sea can remove it.
There are three main types
of delta, named after the shape they
create:
F
Three main types of delta

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The Niger Delta

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River processes shape the land in different ways

as the river moves from its sourceto its mouth.
Erosion involves the wearing away of rock and
soil found along the river bed and banks. Erosion
also involves the breaking down of the rock particles
being carried downstream by the river.
 The four main forms of river erosion:
o Hydraulic action - the force of the river against the banks
can cause air to be trapped in
cracks and crevices' The pressure weakens the banks
and gradually wears it away.
I Abrasion - rocks carried along by the river wear down the river
bed and banks.
r Attrition - rocks being carried by the river smash together and break
into smaller,
smoother and rounder particles.
r solution - soluble particles are dissolved into the river.

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The four different river transport processes

.'
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tg:gggiigg,-finglielrtflcte_r] lq 9.il-!:ie{.a!_e_n s l n Jh s,.-w"a.t=sr.,'.-,
at

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-qLe_b-e.,rrm-e_d_p_lqne-tIe-river--bs.d*
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Uyen"n.9-e*d€5g[.I-aJl9-n.5.p-o...rtAatcrEJ. and levels of energy change as

the river moves from
source to mouth.
r when energy levels are very high, large rocks and boulders
can be transported. Energy
levels are usually higher near a river's source, when
its course is steep and its valley
narrow. Energy levels rise even higher in times of flood.
' when energy levels are low, only small particles can be transported
(if any). Energy levels
are lowest when velocity drops as a river enters a lake
or sea (at the mouth).

Deposition
when a river loses energy, it will drop or deposit some
of the material it is carrying.
o Deposition may take place when a river enters an area of shallow
water or when the
volume of water decreases - for example, after a flood
or during times of drought.
r Deposition is common towards the end of a river's journey, at the
mouth.
o Deposition at the mouth of a river can form deltas - for example, the
Mississippi Delta.

Water usage by Humans

water usage differs greatly from country to country, depending
on how developed a nation is.
other influencing factors incrude agricurture and suppry networks.
 rhs%
The amount of water used in the world
every day is very uneven. MEDCs use
more water than
LEDCs - househords, farming and
industry at demand water.

W?
what the water is used for depends on the country.
The pie charts below show the difference
water usage in four countries. in
Ltr W
- L*-'** r ln general LEDCs (like Bangaldesh and Malawi) will have most
L-,r;\r* . agriculture (farming) and little in industry or domestic of their water used in
[?<, r :-^r*! .j- u:,t I {, use. Bangladesh has farming
'rri r-i'ericcolt'4rfargepartofitseconomysoalargepercentageoftheirwaterisusedforthatpurpose. as a
i\eDc'
T*::;."R;J:;[*n*::1,ffiil::'er
al
ror domestic reasons MEDCs

o There are exceptions. The USA is an MEDC,

but it still has a high amount of water used
agriculture because there is arso rot of farming
for
across the country.

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rlLan ,*, .-.-
qr rr,-, ur tuJ e t{wugtry

r@a
The amount of water used per person
in each country changes dramatically.
The bar chart shows
the total amount of water used per person
in selected countries. ln fact the graph
people in MEDCs use far more shows that
water than those in LEDCs,
- fo?at wats r.s* ,p* mfli'e
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why there are so many differences in

the way water is used?

f,gr{eul,ture

o ln MEDCs irrigation is mechanised.

Sprinklers or
timed irrigation feeds are used. Where
agriculture is
common, vast amounts of water
can be released at
a touch of a button.
r ln LEDCs irrigation channels are prone
to loosing
water th rough evaporation.

hr'@ntatuW
r lndustries in MEDCs can be on
a large scale, and so
demand a lot of water. Corus
Steelworks in South
Wales is an example of an industry
which needs a
large water supply.

W
litres of water a day to produce
or,nur".*tto'u
ffi#ifl-,- fi;*fi
in lndia Coca-cola uses over a million

,Bo rne$$e.,tnla&,r"t1tse

r ln MEDCs there are a lot of facilities

which demand water use. For
baths, washing machines exampre showers,
and swimming pools.
o ln LEDCs many people
do not have access to piped water
and so use it more sparingry.
Water may be brought to the home
from a well or stream.
As a country becomes wealthier, there will be an increase in its demand for water. Higher levels
of industrialisation and more domestic goods such as washing machines all lead to an increase in
demand for water. With greater wealth there is also more demand for spas, golf courses and
even baths and showers.

There are problems in supplying water in MEDCs. These are:

r the quality of available water
e distribution
r the seasonal changes in supply
. broken pipes when transporting water
Both water supply and the demand for water need to be managed.

W
ln the UKthere is a big issue with water supply. Areas which receive high amounts of rainfalltend
to be sparsely populated.
One third of the UK population live in South East England. This is also the driest area in the UK.
Ways to manage the water supply include:
. making sure the broken pipes are mended (as water loss from broken pipes can be as
much as 30 per cent)
o using reservoirs and dams in one area to pipe water into large urban areas
. making sure that the water supply is of good quality - reducing fertiliser use on farms
helps this

ln December 2010 over 40,000 people had water supply problems in Northern lreland. One
reason was because the water pipes were quite old - some over 60 years old. This meant that
when there was a spellof very cold weather, many pipes could not cope and the pipelines failed.

W,
The demand for domestic water can be monitored, Households with water meters in the UK use
less water in general than those without. Households can also conserve water. Ways to do this
are:
r having a shower not a bath
r collecting rainwater to use on the garden rather than tap water
o recycling bath water to flush the toilets with
r installing more efficient versions of appliances such as washing machines
lndustries can also look to recycle waste water. For example, when using water for cooling in
steel-making, the water can be recycled again and again in the process.
ln agriculture, drip-feed irrigation systems could be used ratherthan sprinkler systems.

in MEDGg

Much of Birmingham's tap water comes from over 100 km away. There are five dams in the Elan
Valley which can supply Birmingham with 160 million litres of water a day.
Reasons for choosing the Elan valley location
. Deep narrow valleys to hold the water in.
r lmpermeable rock means the water wouldn't leak
away.
o A high annual rainfall of 1830 mm.
r The area is higher than Birmingham, so the water can
flow using gravity rather than pumps.

Future expansion of the scheme raises problems. The local environment would be damaged.
There would be increased traffic and noise from the construction of dams to provide extra
capacity. The river flow downstream would be affected, along with the wildlife. Also more land
would be affected when pipes are run across it.

Management of water usage in LEDCs

There are problems in supplying water in LEDCs. These are:
. lack of availability of clean water
r diseases spread via the water supply
o water pollution

Managing water resources

One in eight people of the world population do not have access to safe water. Sixty million
children are born each year in LEDCs who do not have access to safe water.
ln LEDCs using appropriate technology is usually the best way to manage supply.

r Wells, dug by hand, are a common way of accessing

water - but the supply can be unreliable and
sometimes the well itself can be a source of disease.
r Gravity-fed schemes are used where there is a spring
on a hillside. The water can be piped from the spring
down to the villages.
r
Boreholes can require more equipment to dig, but
can be dug quickly and usually safely. They require a hand or diesel pump to bring the
water to the surface.
ln addition to locating new sources of water, some strategies help to reduce the need for water.
These include:
r harvesting (collecting) rainwater landing on buildings
a recycling waste water to use on crops
a improving irrigation techniques
a growing crops less dependant on a high water supply
a minimising evaporation of water

As LEDC cities grow, so does the demand for water. The problem doesn't end when water
supplies have been improved and pipes put in place. The water has got to come from
somewhere, and the source of supply may be scarce.
 lmportant Rivers around the world

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Code River Country Code I River

R1 Colorado Country
U.S.A R13 Zambezi
R2 MG'r'pp'-. Zambia
R3 Amazon
U.S.A
Brazil, Bolivia,
R14 ;"'u* lndia
- R15 Yangtze
China
Equador
R4 Ebro
Spain R16
R5 rvturray uarltng
Rhine Australia
Switzerl;and R17 Congo
R6 nnone Congo
Swizerland, R1.8 rr. tawrence Canada/U.S.A
France
R7 Po
Italy R19 Mc Kenzie
R8 Danube Canada/U.S.A
Germany R20 -Missouri
R9 Eh" Chech
U.S.A
Hll Orinoco
Venezueal
Republic/
-
Germany
R1.0 . t tdt Ug5
England R22 lndus
R11. Volga Pakistan
Russia
R12
R23 H.r*tg h; China
Nile
Egypt R24 Niger
Nigeria
 River Extremes
The longest river in the world is the Nile River (4,ts7
miles rong); it is located in northeastern
Africa, and flows into the Mediterranean sea. The second-longest
river is the Amazon River
(3'915 miles long); it is located in northeastern
south America, and flows into the Atlantic ocean.
The third-longest river is the chang (Yangtse) River (3,434
miles long); it flows across south-
central China and into the East China Sea.

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 rffi
A settlement is a place where people live. It can be as small as a village or as large as a city.
For a settlement to grow there had to be a special reason why it should be built in the firsi
place. This is called a function.

What is the difference between settlement site and settlement situation?

Settlement site: Thg site of a settlement includes tjre features of its speqific situation. Factors such
as loial felief. soil. water supply and resources were important in choosing the initial site of a ret-
tlement.

become a laxge tolvn or citv or whether it remains as a small hamlet or village.

The picturgl below shows different functions.

:;1
Market town: These were very common in Britain when most
people in Britain were farmers. They were a place where farmers
could buy seed, tools and animals and sell their grown crops and
animals. The firnction of Market towns were buying and siltittg.

r '1

ll,:::
{
€ ,,,
f:.1
li**"
Industrial town: These grew up much later than market towns.
The function of an industrial town was to make (manufacture)
things in factories. some of the early factories used goods sold
by farmers such as wood, to make things. Other factories made
things needed by the farmers, such as machines.

Porh It brings in goods from overseas which are needed on local farms
and in factories. Later the port will send products from these farms and fac-
tories back overseas. Goods that are brought into a country are called im-
ports. Goods that are sent overseas are called exports.

Tourist / holiday resort: People go to this areas to relax and en-

joy themselves. In these areas one finds many hotels restaurants
and many other outlets where people can enjoy themselves.
Residential area: In this area one finds many houses where people
live. I{ouses within this area vary from apartrnents to bungalows or
Villas.

r*

1
i" . ',' i
Relieious sites; Most oft&-these. a^re special Pl3ges where.the
'

;h;rilJil;ki$;a to meet the spiritual wdrld' These might

places, sites connected to a go9'.a
6"'u*oi"tpiring natural
;;i;;;li"t", frlu."t *h"re miracles occurred, or special of
buildings conietrated for worship or ritual. Some eiamples
religi,ou's sites are; Lourdes and Jerusal€Irl;

iTr $ I{:
tl +

capital city: A capital city is the area of acounw, province, region, or .r

I
staie regarded as enjoying primary status; although there are exceptions, a )
capital i"s atmost always u which physically engoTpqs-es the offices q"
"1ty
ani meeting places of th" government and is usually fixed by law or by the
'r : !r;1

constitutiori.in Capital cities one finds a lot of historic sites, shopping ar-,
cades and offrces.

4 .!1r . ..::.. -.... i. r'i.;0. 'r J"' 1r ' ;. " '

.r.':::." " ' jr'
r.tit j.i -... -j... a. d. a r J! ..i'i . .;..1..ir-......{''.. "

Complete the following definitions by matching the beginnings on the left with the correct ending
from the list on the right.
I

t. A settlement gis. where people buy and sell things.

) A firnction where goods are brought into and sent out of a country'
-*it a place where people live.
J. A market town --t-L'is
4. An indusnial town j-v'is where people go on holiday to relan.
5. A port _-,*_-.is where people make things.
6. A resort the reason why a town was first built.
-jlois

7
ffiuw ffi uew#mffi6lB $ uffir#,ffi wI tMrc
No town or village remains the same for ever. Over a period of time the following may all change;
1. Thc shape of a settlement.
2. The function of a settlemenf,
3. The land use of a settlerhenfi
4. Thc number and type of people living in the settlement

Function
The function of a settlement relates to its economic and social development and refers to its
main activities. Normally, larger settlements will have more functions than smaller settle-
ments. Larger settlements tend to be multi-functional (they have several functions) although
one? or possibly two or three, is likely to be predominan! e.g. London is a capital city, Cam-
bridge is a university town and Dover is a port. In some cases, the original function may no
l-onger be applicable, eg British towns no longer have a defensive funition. ln other rur-er,
functions have changed over a period of time, eg St Pauls Bay was a fishing village but to-
ly is a touristic cenbe.

Task Dl In few sentences describe the change of function of the places shown below. "e4

WaterFronUValleffa: ._rr:..- , .."j :,. :-"*,* .,,,. . - .." - . ..:,

i f.:-

1.' .i
'4j

St Pauls Bay:
The term hierarchy refers to the arrangement of settlements
within a given area' Isolated'
pyramid, with the largest and/ or
farms and small hamlets form the base of the hierarchy
the, 'order of impprtancei in the
capital city at the top. Three different methods to deter,mine
hierarchy have been based uPon:
. The population size of a settlement
. The'u''g" and number of services provided by a;ettleqent. :

. The rptt t" of influence, or market areq of a settlement.

i i#ffiill set erdl mllion

pc4b: , Dlstenca alett
cATHEDffArS, col/RNMENT
netlwev rhaant. ilJsnJMs AND ART
::'' :
rullDllrcs'
c:-:: !:
r.qRcE THEATRE, SoPtitc CENTRET sE\mAi- '
IHTERMNOMT ATRPORT "
::: - :-

OrBrr two
Ovef tARcE RAttwAY stAnoil, nicr sHopgltc :cr::'-1
xnkm omsANs tN? JEv\E-Li.lRs-i-i:1:: -
mlion pcople CATHEDML,
nosrnm, renci Foo'IBAtL TEAM' uNlvFRs]r.*'
-!i::::
:'1 . COUNTY HALL' AIRPORT
1
U6en ti-
LJpba 1(n-200km
CIq,':. 1i mijfi peopb sEVER L StloPPlNc enreVnncnors, lryp::":;
i RATW Y SIATION, 8l'}S SrAnoN, loTtLS' i:i'
-iin':'r
i SlVlALt HoSPffAL, S*IALL FOoTBALL
I
il
Uptolm06 x)-100km
L$ge to-urn i
p€oph
-;:':
TOWN HAII, DOCTOR' S€VERAI CHURCIIEs:'"
CAFE AND nesreunerrs, sA/tAl I SFCONDA{\', 5:;:: -
Irdu5$El fi MILWAY SrAroN' SEVERAL SHOFS
ffiicet6l'r Up to 10 oO0 fr
Sm&lliorm 20 mO p"opb xHokm
lrterkct lDri,n CHURCH, FOSr OFflcE, ru8lrc HO{JSE' S'3r
oell. coons,
SMAtt LJNIOR SCHOOL. Ut|{::
:'Vilhgrr,r 9Pqq"td.
htndEo panple
5-1okm
PRHAPS NONE. OR RJBUC TtlEPli0li
5db
brildngs Figure 3.13
2-3km
.,,|!am ':1:::
rr:
"
: ,: r and llmtf;s HiCrarchy of settlements

HutnirusrofanOOurU*giiii,iEr#:li r t larlly 5fi)metres

*ieraich'r cJ s=iilerxents
accorciirrg:3 rc};ial'sr tiee
$ w@i'elwrwr iw) ffi ff .g ffiJru:ws#l@
The
The sphere of influence, or market area, may be defined as the area served by a particular settlement-
*.u of th. sphere of influence depends upon the size and services a town and its surrounding seillements,
the transpo* fuciliti"r available and the level of competition from rival settlements.

Two ideas that should be noted are:

Range: Is the maximum distance that

Threshold population: Is the mini- people are prepared to travel to obtain
mum number of people needed to a service.
ensure that demand is great enough I
tbr a special service to be offered to
the people living in that area.
4
 A Rural orurban B Size C Function D Areaserved
A
caphal city above 2 million
Governmenf H0s of companies,
whole country
big shops, Iinance, tou.ists

500ffi*2million indlstry, offces, shops largo area oround'i

UREAN
reoional
/ centre 150 000- 5m0m H0s otlocal companias,
its owr region
shops, offices, industy
/ industrial
bwn
\ 250m- r50m0 industry, shops local area around it
/ markotto,vn \
' 2 500- 25 0m shops and local servicas
{small townl small local area

I villaga \ lm*25m basic seruices c.g. pub, odythe fanns outside

church, shop tha village
I hamlet \ l0-tm no serviceg no sefvices

/ isorarsd rarm \ lessthan

l0 people no sgrvices no services

Fill in the settleme ntrner.ryp-,g{*-rrJirrg-the following in the correct place.

t*gemtntrstrillfown, $
7

"ffi",ifrW,,{iafrlr-,ryrrry;ff
 #aas fls ffiwr

flow were the sites for early settlements chosen?

Site is the actual place where a viilage or town grew. A site was chosen
if it had one
place had the more likely
or more natural advantages. The more natural advantages a
it was to grow in size. ..

WCt'noint Slentv of Waler)

and washing. Water might come from a river, spring or
well. This is most importantln dry placet *h.t water is required more
often' In low-
land Britain, many early settlements were located near springs.

Drv noint (Atottso much'water)

Sites must not flood or be marshY.

Defenee (Protection)
Good de-
Goods views from friltop glve you warning if you are about to be attacked.
protection on
fensive sites may have beeir wiitrin a river meander, with a river giving
three sides, 6 d Durham and Shrewsberry, or on a hill with steep sides and c9m-
manding views as with Edinbrngh and many Mediterranean settlements. The
knights
of St John when coming to Malta they did a good research before choosing Valletta
as their Capital city. They choose Valletta because this place is a
peninsula and it is
situated on a hill.

Brideine point (Rivers)

Easy to croii either on foot at a ford or by a bridge. -.

Biiildina:'nctcripts
ffine. Useful to be near a wood or a rocky hillside. These have to be
obtained locally as these are heavy and bulky to move at time when transport poorly
"
developed.

Shelter and asoect

@ have more sun and will be protected from the cold north
will
wind. Areas facing South have more sun and are more wann.

X'uel spnolv (sunplv of wood/ coal or other tvpe of frreD

tt"eaed for fires for warmth and to cook on. In Britain in earlier times till today,
wood is used to heat houses.

Flat land
Easier to build on, for growing crops and tavelling to other towns.

Food Supplies
A settteme"t tpquire land nearby, some of which was suitable for the rearing of ani-
mals and some for growing crops.

L
 ) "" """'-"'.' ""
.Steep slope uith 6entld slop?,
f, some bare rock"
J
'.'," !ili ,ir{1 ';tti:; : :1':i
sA
grass rith good
ttlll sa.'fl
l',tt
soil
i ---'*
*_.*-i\
--
\ ^/ -/
oi5
Thick voodland,'
- t{ z)'
;.. '' ",1"
'

l:.r: lt.rrii;'/
,f
Flat, marshl
,\(F land ne:t to
"D riYer
)
rW$,iqA*oot'{'
a,

I jt
*E
:

). .... .. .. .g.
Task A: Il/rite the natural advantage and one natural tlisadvantage of each site.

i .r, i, I: r.::!:il'li.-.! q .r.-

Tash C: Copy tlielable be.
low on a separate page and
" *tli
. I l,-": ,:t1+" ...
.-
show some of l{arleworth's
"*d&4tqrs*"#*b
t" ' .
original site advantages and
bc ur;;-
rort
;. .#,
,'' 1 why they are no longer so
to.
Il:.
:irm, Flat land easr important.
o build on
| - t*-t Original Why no longer
l{{ .S*" advantage
I important
)r site uell ,i+"
rbce riyer llood -
"t:
cel
I ,.=tt
ver mat be
ridged at this !*"-.-

rint ^:,:ir-rl. i.,;*;l$li

i\, ;,*,-,""+ila
ood
t'qr'

,., ,i.
..lr*:".:

r;.'. r,',. i,,11

it rr.*".;i{,r
| )r"' ' '5
rming .t-:?: /'"- {.

sarttl
I
-v,,.1 l.\ .'; ,,. ,tl,' -t I
-;-.:l -1f:
I
-i!. , .Fqr"t r.:
I
\. ,, ./,.
L
//
,r
tl
ffi Xffi;fiTitr'il"pcdilttiiffi ili'lower'
liois
tog"ifftt for safety. This pattern is common in
flatter parts of Britain.
't'q-\ri-s1 ri t +j*\'....
-...
t.- f. ' t'i . .-r,
'.'_a,; I

a
Settlements with this shaPe
uiriaiii gro* aong a narrow valley where
there ii little tpa"". They may also be found
strung along a road or on either side of a

Disnersed settlement

dettlements with this pattern are often found in high-

iffi.t"* where is not easy to built houses close to-
gether. Here people also needed more land to grow their

,rffi
iropt ot gr-" their animals.

brief description or each one. Suggest a reasonfor its shape'

lri
I \4c" c. f,'.r.t, nr,rrn,'i :-L,[r
i .''/

I
Task E; Mention two places in Malta with the
following patterns. <l:;,ir.:
/f'. t:
Nucleated ?- U*a,d
"',;*:':t:{f i' I
Linear 1+ . L"^i., qt

) 1,.,p.:.-::i'_;L
 A
o) E Xp
S
\a

n
r:t ; oi Vw
q 'v
4 ! is
tG^E
Ir" -?d ng;r j ,,.,,Y

\lJ
3
I J_f
_?_l
P
G
-iJ
c
0')

E
qJ

-..L)
*l-/

ug
a.l
\f)
fi,
AJ
s.i8u
:l-
u
') f
b ,1,
u v)
-it

s"-\ V
0il
+t
d
s 36d
T->o)
Tf,Ti
"16
J-?-?-f'
 V
\

i/b
l,+
|t,
on
1 I/.,
,4

frF'-
i;$"_h"

u
r tA\
-"\

D
db
Cifies with a oonulation of more than l0 million inhabi-
tants.

A- New York
B- Los Angeles
C- Mexico
D- Sao Paolo
E- Buenos Aires
F- Lagos
G- Beijing
H- Shanghai
I- Seoul
J- Tokyo
K- Osaka-Kobe
L- Jakarta
M- Mumbai
N- Calcutta
O- Karachi (Pakistan)
The growth of towns and cities which leads to an increasing proportion of a country's population
living in urban areas is called urbanisation. Cities are growing in size all over the world. While the
world's population is increasing fast, the urban population is increasing even faster. Today we are
experiencing difference in the speed of growth between the cities in the more economically devel-
oped countries MEDC and those in the less economically developed countries LEDC. Today the
rate of city growth is much higher in the LEDCs so that the number of urban dwellers is now
greater than in the MEDCs. This means that the distribution of the world's big cities is changing.
These maps below shows us the world's top ten cities by size for 1970 and 2000. Three have
dropped out of ten-- London, Paris and Moscow. All are in Europe. They have been replaced by
Beijing, Calcutta and Bombay from the continentdAsia. They are located in the Southern side of
the North- South divide which roughly separates the world into rich and poor. The size of big cit-
ies is another feature of world urbanisation. For many years the millionaire city ( a city of more
than one million people) was considered a big city, especially since in 1900 there were only two
London and Paris. Now there are about 400. Each of the top ten mega cities has more than ten mil-
lion people. The use of the term'mega city' may be more appropriate. Mexico city is the world's
second biggest city with a popllation of up to 20 million. This one city has more people living in it
than the countries of Central and South America.

1970 Largost cities ll is largestl 21100 laryest cities (l is large$t)

N
N
I
't: I
{f ,rD
Lonfon' parisrgrMoscow
i)'NewYork Los Angel€s
l['*;$). .n ' i:+
' Shanlhai' .
n 'NewYort Beiiing r4
.5)'l , ,..
lokvo 'z)
,-..- - _ -
Shanghai 6-1 lokvo ;
:i
," Moxico go.5"r.
' ,.' Galcutta
City
,' Cttf
'ut.{i.o -' .9)

,9j . ''':-t
). Sto Pauto sl
rtiJi Cio pauto
Buonos Airos
Buenos Aires

Nordr.Souh diuide

Causes of Urbanisation: Urban growth has always been associated with economic development. As a coun-
try increases in wealth, the fewer people work in primary activities such as farming and ibrestry in the ru-
ral areas. Increasing numbers of people now'work in secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary (service;
occu-
pations, which are overwhelmingly concentrated in urban areas.
:t|
ri l ,:, '.1

r5 ffi ffi$ffiwffiffi$ ffiffiffiffi

High rates of urbanisation in LEDCs (less economically developed country) occrr
because:

'. Most new economic developments Nre concentrated in the big cities.
Push and pull factors lead to high rates of rural to urban migration.
. cities experience high rates of natural increase of population.

,f-:i\f q
A . t\,

t {t :*
1
-, r '.-,.. ., rt ...-: { :l \" " l\i
f
J
'-,t' - - ^-,,^
I

Vt;1 ,' .'.

 t_: t:i;ij Li.ji:ii,it;:

ft.&tL\&d&Ys

fr'*c.h; r,r-:E' i:li F,l€ *r i" .S mq.$e Rrjd**s ; Ft*tl: rid';;*

Tr;,:;h J't#r:r,, tlflf-rl?:q.^ flt lci"' L,lt"uf,{ *f*,S*litl*

sid,;:q l"riird'uEt

ffi, ffii
ffi#-:1::i*#q*Fi
'"i*J"!i€"r'- 1*.Li3'*'
'f 1-; ;': r::gl lilxtir-in- i,ri I;r I'tfliflHi
*n+c,';4+,Ed-:{e#*;tg Lit+irr r*.Fi.* {r*rt*rt *?:st*ffi-t,
r'l ff tr i #sb' {:; i,l LI+H rJf i. I sf,T41re L{v ;Ft.?iiilfl

Roads

ft*&ffi5 "&F,Etr trSEl-Hfi Frlrt nssq,csarily rigF:te *f *r*y

-l r i-1,*ti';' :r il t: rr.rhi-" 1

*.*i='"ric,* er** E?r:r"r,rf ci

h4 <1. Tr: l ui' lt \'' 11 Lr ff i r: ir : l'i it ti-:'."",',-r'd ;

rc:. ffiffi@m i#r*t* r-r*Ya y a nsj.*r" ru; tr,*tili*{i,J. r

{J ru{*r't re*r; Fii*ihr:dgi:
@4rFF4iWi P:-tm:*ri'y nqlut*
A $;r{i ftrs.el *a,r:ria4Br=*;,e,*
;vrtlti! rLli:tl

@ @@ lj*6nii;i#'::E@ € :j:* ry {*r.rtr= n rs i:,d {;fi:d$

F ri rn + ., P+.X n: F f, trns,i rLrGt ! c n

l,i*.:.ri':' i:rl * r7 rt+i+,3

S.: r' n r:, rr, ;.: d'+ ii h I :,.: :, si r r q lr, i --

{::l
,ttt r Eri;iEic
.,
_-:-
-!iry fts?xd F*nx:*Ei}" i+:r;"*'th,*n 4r-r rr*lc
3*ed g*n*,.'*iiEg iq3s i|'q6ry €nr luir:*
Farh ,r ii{i-i r-' r*ii,iJ, cJriqorx i:,r tr*r:F,

Gra'* jr*.,rt; ?*T4 tl irr F! sfi.d . til*p*r.

i iti 'ir 7i 1+ it':, i'l irr Ej
-i

i'r::,?fF6 : F{.rntJ :I;:It'r*;1i

t--'i
i
i1
_.ilti_; F-6: " 1'; i
1- i i.frf n.!:d -r F1.r :i' :', r h i ;l': 1

1d
->D
 Communications

Electricity transmission lines Bridges

€i*etriciry tr*yr=.r*lsslo* iirle \-/
;
Byll::$ siuca"*: at ntar:rfar* *paci*Si
/----\

Stations Heliports

@ *q-rs *r *r:**?l *ta?ir:r: Heiiprrri

Lighthouses

Primary lndustry symbols

Quarrying Waste heaps

\., .. , -j"
t^
ritl;l'.1' ::.i::,;;; Siroil h*ap, refuse ti,l +r ei**rap

Mines

€".&.
y'\ ,,

,Fe '. : -' l?ilrd ?*!;?!t I' wit'iri gg.rle{ 6*'r#t

{*nltes*** Fe*ad
*.r+€.:-.i@:r*
li.ji
l.,r
ia
,;.1
-
ii1
1
t
* Wifteffiit* e.ritf* *r r,vitir*rsr **ii*
i,'**ji:" Non-**nif*r*u= lruc'**
*.. =-,,* --*
jT*-:;T:%:+-
j"S:;i &a'i i-,,1
#fxag saf *{;tr^*tg
A.-****--* r fuAix*# rro'*arj
3 e,*r-V*.r^r -
--ff.
'.\!1 r**:A
t'* *rch*rg: F*rk +s *rr'!&rr:e*{ai gr**nd
,1 t,*8 i
ffiffi Covered Reservoir
 Recreational land use in rural landscapes

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lnterpreting industrial land use on topographic maps

Factories

A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial site, usually con-

sisting of buildings and machinery, or more commonly a complex having several buildings,
where workers manufacture goods or operate machines processingone product into anoth-
er.

Round storage tanks

A storage tank is a container, usually for holding liquids, sometimes for compressed gases (gas tank).

Tanks

Oil refineries
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant r,yhere crude oil is pro-
cessed and refined into more useful products such as petroleqrrt naphtha, gasoline, diesel
fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, andliquefied petroleilqr gqS
 Power Stations

A power station (also referred to as a generating station, power plant, power-

house or generating plant) is an industrial facility for the generation ofelectric power.

Round Large cooling towers

a large round tall building, used in industry for making water cool

TRAtUSFffS$tot't Uf}IES AHD ptpEUilES

Power transrnission tine: pole; tower y-.-\ '*.- - "o'..

Telephone line It i* pls^r

Aboveground oil or Sas pipeline

g

F Underground oil or gas pipeline - 3'rtes

Electric-power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generat-
ing power plantsto electrical substations located near demand centres. This is distinct
from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and custoffisl's; which is typically
referred to as electric power distribution.Transmission lines, when interconnected with
each other, become transmission networks

A structure, such as a pier, that projects into a body of water to influence the curreat-ortide
to protect a harbour or shoreline from storms or erosion.

Ereakwater, pier, jefiy. or wharf

Docks

A dock is a human-made structure or group of structures involved in the handling

of boats or ships, usually on or close to a shore.
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The Earth as a planet

Eafth's Revolution
when watching the stars at night, they
do appear to move very srowry, This
Eanh is constantiy moving' The Earth is because the
compietes one "rotation,, every twenty-four
A rotation is when the planet spins horirs {24}.
around once.

The Earth rotates counter clockwise;

this is why ihe sun ,,rises,, in the East
and ,,sets,, in the
sun's movement that causes davs,
but rather the Earth turning around
,TjrT;:;::::l'" in

As the Earth revolves around the sun, its

axis is tilted from perpendicular
elliptic by 23'45 degrees' lt is on this to the plane of the
axis that the earth rotates every
24 hours. since the axis is
tilted' different parts of the globe are tipped
towards, or away from, the sun at
of the year' This tilting causes the four different times
seasons of the year. This tilting
seasons in the Northern and Southern also creates opposite
Hemispheres.

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The effect of the earth's revolution
Another type of motion is known as "revolution". Revolution is when one object completes a
circular path around another object. The Earth takes 365.24 days to revolve around the Sun.
This is why a year is 355 days long. During the year the Earth is angled differently towards the
Sun. These changing angles provide us with different Sun intensities and therefore we get four
diifeiei-'t reas+ns.5ince the iarih ls ai Cifferent pcsitlons i:i space over the year, itue see
different consteliations throughout the year. Illgef.fe_q$*Afjhe__te.*"!1jS*f_e_-Velu$qaatg_the-;
- Seasons
- mcr;elnAlenel$g-4erx$lrghl.-

Earth is currentiy in a ccol phase characterized by formatlon cf glaciers {glociai naxima\,

foflovued by warm periods with glacial melting {interglacial periodsl. These glacial-intergiacial
cycies occur at frequencies of about L00,000 years. \{le are currentiy in an intergiacial perioci;
these have iasteC about 23,SS0 years in the past. The last gtaciai rnaxtmum was about 1g,000
years agc.

The giaciai-intergiacia! cvcles have been expfained by reguiar changes in the shape af Eai-th,s
*r-bii and the iiii sf itE axis-Milankocritch cycles.

*
 Circular rotation causes glaciers to melt; more solar radiation; Elliptical= less radiation. The
intensity of solar radiation reaching Earth changes, resulting in climatic change. The shape of
Earth's orbit changes in 100,000-year cycles. The angle of axis tilt changes in cycles of about
41,000 years. Earth's orientation relative to other celestial objects changes in cycles of about
22,000 years.

The Seasons
The Earth is a very special planet in many ways. Just as Earth's unique atmosphere and its

fl distance from the Sun work together to make Earth the right temperature to support life,
Earth's orbit and the tilt of its rotation on its own axis work together to create the seasons.

The Earth's axis is tilted from perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic by 23.45". This tilting is
what gives us the four seasons of the year - Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter. Since the
axis is tilted, different parts of the globe are oriented towards the Sun at different times of the
year.

Summer is warmer than winter (in each hemisphere) because the Sun's rays hit the Earth at a
more direct angle during summer than during winter and also because the days are much
longer than the nights during the summer. During the winter, the Sun's rays hit the Earth at an
extreme angle, and the days are very short. These effects are due to the tilt of the Earth's axis.

Solstices
At two points throughout the year, the tilt of the Earth's axis reaches its maximum angle

1
J
compared to the sun, and begins to move back the other direction. The solstices
are days when
the Sun reaches its farthest northern and southern declinations. The Southern solstice
occurs
on December 21 or 22and marks the beginning of Winter (this is the shortest day of
the year).
The Northern solstice occurs on June 21 and marks the beginning of Summer
ithis is the longest
day of the year).

On these solstices, the rays of the sun shine directly on one of the two Tropics. During
the
Northern solstices the rays of the sun shine directlv on the Tropic of Cancen. Duning the
southern solstices the sun rays sh!ne on the Tropic of capricorn.

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Equinoxes are days in which day and night are of equal duration- fhe iwo
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occur when the Sun crosses the celestial equator.
The vernal equinox occurs in late March (this is the beginning of spring in the Northern
Hemisphere and the beginning of winter in the Southern Ffemisphere); the autumnal
equinox
occurs in late September (this is the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere
and the
beginning of spring in the Southern Hemisphere).

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The rnidnight sun and Polar Night

The midnight sun is a natural phenomenon occurring in Summer months at places north of
the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle where the sun remains visible at the local
midnight. Around the solstice (June 21 in the north and December 2L in the south) and given
fair ,rueatnei- lhe sun is visibie for the fuii 24 hours. The riumber of days per year with potentiai
midnight sun increases the farther towards either pole one goes.

The opposite phenomenon, polar night, occurs in winter when the sun stays below
the horizon throughout the day. Since the axial tilt of the Earth is considerable (approximately
23 degrees 27 minutes) the sun does not set at high latitudes in (local) summer. The duration of
suniight increases frorn one day during ihe sumrner solstice at the polar circle to several weeks
only a hundred kilometres closer to the pole, to six months at the poles. At extreme latitudes, it
is usually referred to as polar day.

At the poles themselves, the sun only rises once and sets once each year. During the six months
when the sun is above the horizon it spends the days continuousiy moving around the horizon,
reaching its highest circuit of the sky at the summer solstice.
Due to atmospheric refraction and also because the sun is a disk rather than a point, the
midnight sun may be experienced at latitudes slightly below the polar circle, though not
exceeding one degree (depending on local condiiions). For example, it is possibie to experience
the midnight sun in lceiand, even though most of it (Grimsey being a notable exception) is
slightly south of the Arctic Circle. The same mechanisms cause the period of sunlight at the
poies to last slightly more than six months. Even the northern extremities of Scotland (and
those places on similar latitudes such as St. Petersburg) experience a permanent twilight in the
northern sky at these times.

Dartight at the Equator

{iihe Equaror. the da,v is alq'ays 12 i:rours iong. At the equator, s,"in iises daiiy at 5 a.rn iocai
iime and seis ai 5 p.m locai time.

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 i'f'{ The X*n*ystsm
| ', l;.
?he earth may b* the anly planet in the universe abla
to support lif*. Living in the area between
ihe low*st layers of the atmssphere and the scean bcttoms ic rieh
a diversity of living things"
This is referred ts as the blolegieal sphere
{biosphere}.

what makes up the biosphere is species. Specie* refers to all organisrns

{can be animal or plant)
of the same kind that are genetically similar enough to breed in
nature and produce live, fertile
*ffspring. Flora is all the vegetaticn of an area while Fauna is all
the animals of an area.

A population consists of all members of a particular species llving in given

a area at the same
tirne; for example, a pcpulation af ants in particurar place.
A biological comffi$nity refers to all of the populations of organisms,
living and interacting in a
particular area; for example a community of pond snails,
tadpoles, dragonfly, water fleas and
different types of plants sharing a pond area.

A habttat is the natural home of a living thing. Every speeies

has its own habitat; the place where
a species lives and finds all that it needs to survive. ln a particular
habitat, such as a pond, the
different species living together compete for fcod, water and
space. Every habitat can obviously
support a certain number of *ach individual population; this is
referred to as ttre aenlity oi
population' Such density depends rnainly on the birth
rate, death rate, fertility and rnigration in
and out of the habitat.
j

Every living thing is linked to every other living thing

as it feeds on, and in turn is eaten by other
organisms. The living pa* of the environment is known giotic.
as
Living organisms are also linked to the non-living world,
water, minerals and sunlight. The non
living part of the environment is known as Abiotic.

*istic factars are all of the organisms that e re considered arive

in eeosystems, such as animais,
:.%
piants' micro organisms, trees and peaple. Any
materials they directly produce, such as waste
.g or
falling leaves, are also considered biotic factors. *iotic
factors range from some of the largest
{*mpongnts in ecosystems, such as elephants and redwood
trees. to the smaflest, sueh as algae
.:nd viruses.

An ecosystem is made up of abiotic factors, these incrudes;

r water: either in the form af rain or from water stored in soil.
r Air: Provides oxygen, essential fcr ail forms sf life and carbon diaxide.
* iclar snergy: The sun as the [arth's trrimary source or energy as providing
it with heat
:;nd light.
Rocks: Provide nutrients
"
* 5*ils: which varv in depth, acidityiPH) nirt!"ients and f*rtility.

with the above introduction it is easier to define ecosystem. An

made up of a community of crganisms which relate between
environment in which they live. lt invoives lhe interaciicn
-''
ecological system {ecosystem} is
themselves and the physical
between the biotic and *bir:tic narts af
 ihs *Rvir*nrtant' Th*ref*rc" an *c*syst*m is * rtat*ral
*ystem in whieh the t;f€ er/el*s *f piants
ifl*ra] and animals are elosely iinked ts *ach other anrJ to tha
n*n iiving *nvironrncnr"

***ple have *lwayE maeJe use *f *easystems t* pr*vide them:elv*s with resouress
sueh as fruit
and nr:ts fsr f*nd or tirnbcr for fuer and buirding materiars.

Eeosystems can be micro, meto and macro,

{global ecosyst€ms}. That is, micro ecosystems
would be v*ry small such as under a rock cr under a leaf,
meso, regional ecosystems such a
valley or a forcst in a whole eountrY and macro a
biome, that means very larga-scale ecosystem.

There is no limit to how large or small an ecosystem

ean be. An ecosystem can be as large as an
ocean or as small as a puddle.very large ecosystems
are known as biomes. An important point
to recognize about ecosystems is the interaction between grouping
a of plants and animals and
their non-living envircnment and how the two strive
to achieve a balance.

The number of living organisms an ecosystem is

able to support is directly related to the amount
sf renewable and non*renewable resources present in the
ecosystem. under natural conditions,
most populations will stabili?e at a level known as
the carrying capacity of the ecosystem.
The carrying capacity is the maximum number
of organisms that an ecosystem can support on
a
continued basis' ln most cases, an ecosystem's
caffying capacity is determined by the availability
of resources such as space, nutrients, water and light.

Most ecosystems are open systems because they

B exchange materials and other organisms with
other eccsystems' organisms move freely between
one ecosystem and another; for example a
stream ecosystem where crganisms enter from
upstream and are lost downstream to become
part of river ecosystem.
#e can aiso find closed ecosystems where ,reny few arganisrns *nters *r i*aves it; a balanced
aquarium is an example of a closed ecosystem.

Flow of energy in an ecosystem

'{ll plants and animals need to break down food inside them to give them energy
for living and
growing' Green plants take in the sun's energy
and use it to make their own food. Animals
cannot do this, so instead they have to eat plants
and/ar other animals. ln any ecosystem, the
living things are iinked by a food chain, that is,
a sequence of feeding and transfer of materials
;nd energy needed for life, from one organisrn to another.
 Tha Fcad f;hain
€eosystem dynamics are de*crib*d by nutrient eycles,
CIr e*ersy fl*w. These demonstrate how
the energy of faed is produeed, used and recycled thr*ughout
the ecosystem. sunlight pra,vides
plants and baeteria with cnergy to
produce living material. This material is
eaten by primary consumers. An
example on land would be grazers like
cows and hcrses, known as herbivorer.
The next step is the carnivore, or
secondary consumer. There are usually
many more links in a faod chain, with
larger animals eating smaller animals,
l*ading ta the top pred*tor. Some animals, like humans, are
omnivcres and eat bath vegetation
and meat. Othar animals are s€avengers that eat dead animals.

*lutrients are returned to the plants through animal waste

{excrement}, and when animals and
plants die' Bacteria known as decompoter$ process
these materials into the simple nutrients
-B
that plants use to build food energy with sunlight, and the
ryciestarts over again.

Examples cf a Simple food chain

A food ehain is the s€quence of who eats whom in a biological
community {an ecosystem} to
obtain it's energy and it's nutrltfsn. A food ehain starts with
the primary energy source, usually
the sun or boiling-hot deep sea vents. The next link in the chain
is an organism that makes its
own food from the primary energy source an example is photosynthetic
- plants that make their
cwn food from sunlight {using a process called photosynthesis}
and chemosynthetic bacteria
that make their faod energy from chemicals in hydrothermal vents. These are
called autotrophs or primary producers.

ftlext come organisms that eat the autotrophs;

these organisms are called herbivores or primary
consumers -- an example is a rabbit that eats grass.
:B
The next link in the chain is animals that eat herbivores
- these are called secondary consumers -
- an exampie is a snake that eat rabbits.
In turn, these animals are eaten by larger predators
-- an example is an owlthat eats snakes.
The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers
-- an example is a hawk that eats
owls. Fach food chain ends with a top predator, and
animar with no naturar enemies (like an
alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

The arrows in a food chain show the flow of energy,

from the sun or hydrothermal vent to a top
predator. As the energy flows from organism to
organism, energy is lost at each step. A network
of many fosd ehains is ealled a food web.
 ?r*phic Lev*ls:
The trophic lsvel cf an organism is the position it holds in a foeid chain.

* PrirnerY producerr {organisms that make their own food fram

sunlight snd/sr ch*mical
*n€rgy from deep sea vents) are the base of every food chain - these
organisms are ealled
xutatraphs.
I FrimarY {snsumeru are animals that *at primary praducers; they are also
*alled herbivore* {plant-eaters}.
r Secsndary {oniumerc eat prirnary consilmers. They are carnivoret {meat-eaters}
cnd omnivarer {anirnals that eat both animals and plants}"
r Tertiar? conrumerr eat secondary consumers.
r Quaternary ccn*urneru eat tertiary consumers.
Food ehains "end" with top
Sarnple Fsad Chains predators, animals that have
little or no natural enemies.
When any organism dies, it is
: eventuallV saten
..t:*,
bydetrivorer (like vultures,
worms and crabs) and broken
down by decamposers {mostly
bacteria and fungil, and the
exchange of energy continues.
Some organisms' position in
the fcad chain can vary as their
diet differs. For example, when
a bear eats berries, the bear is
functioning as a primary
consumer. When a bear eats a
plant-eating rodent, the bear is
functioning as a secondary consumer. when the bear eats salmon,
the bear is functioning as a
tertiary consumer {this is because salmon is a secondary consumer,
since salmon eat herring that
eat zooplankton that eat phytoplankton, that make their own energy
from sunlight).

Food web

_* r6{td-'\
Gr*s* ***_* $n*it 4:"-
*'"8

"- .-;t
*es?#*t$*s*# #e*&**
ln every ecssystem there are many different foad chains which
--*€er Fryx

ini*rf inf. nu.** ev€ry individual

:pecies usuaily feed on more than one kind of food. ln this way, individual
food chains become
interconnected to form a food web.

Sood chains and food webs are examples of the balance

of nature, a delicate and fragile balance
between gains and losses of species. lf anything happens to disturb, such
as pollution or diseases,
 * whsle faad web e*uld be sffected. ultimately, a deerea:e in the number of *ne partieular
specier {a pr*datar sBecies} could mean an incr*ase in its prey.

$umbers of Srganisms in * food wab

ln any food web, en€rgy is lost each time one organism eats another.
Because of this, there have
to be many more plants than there are plant-eater$. There are m6rs autotrophs than
h*terotrophs, and more plant-eat€rs than meat-eaters" Although there is intense
competition
between animals, there is also interdependence. When one species gces extinct,
it can affect an
entire chain of sther speeies and have unpredictable consequences.

tquilibrium in a faod web

As the number of earnivores in e
community increases, they eat more The F*sd U$sh
and more of the herbivores,
tr.*t*rn*ry f*nsu**r*
decreasing the herbivore population.
t'*rti *ry **nsr"l **rr
It then becomes harder and
J

harder it*:uy i+nrum*rc

-en for the carnivores to find herbivores
'& ixai :**r;*ery c':,r'suiti*rt !

F to eat, and the population of Seccn+ary t'cngumers

carnivores decreases. ln this way, the i*S primary

';*ltsum*rsJ
carnivores and herbivore$ stay in a
Pdmary Consurlers
relatively stable equilibrium, each
Ieat procucersl
limiting the other's population" A
similar equilibrium exists between Fr*'iusers
plants and plant-eaters. ipi*rds!

Producers
Plants are the first link in every chain, therefore they are called producers. plants
make food
from carbon disxide in the air and water {abiotic substanees}. ln order
to be able to do this,
plants must absorb light energy from the sun through the process
of photosynthesis. chlorophyll,
a substance inside the leaf cell, soaks up the sun's energy
and transforms it into chemical energy.
Some of the energy is used up for respiration, in the process
escaping into the atmosphere as
heat' Some of the energy is wasted. Most of the energy is used for
body growth, eventually to be
passed on to primary consumers.

Consumers
Primary consumers or herbivores are those living things
{insects, rabbits, grasshoppers, horses}
that feed on green plant.
Secondary consumers or carnivores are animals
{frogs, birds, weasel, wolf} that feed on
herbivores.
Tertiary consurners or omnivores are those animals
{owl, chameieon, bears, rats} that feed on
both plants and other animals.
 *e*ompc*erc
ln any food chain there are alsc decomposers; these are organisms
{fungi and bacteria} whieh
feed *n dead plants and animals. They cause the dead matter
to break down or decay.
F*eomposers ermplete the final breakdown sf an organism;
the organic material is therefore
recycled baek to the soil.

It is important to keep in mind that all ecosystems develop a pyramid

of biological mass. This is
the result af the loss of sn€rgy along the way, therefore, a drap in
the total weight {masr} cf
living material at each level of a food chain. rhe number of
organisms which can be supported at
each level gets less and less.

lnterdependence
The crganisms in a habitat depend on each *ther. Animals
need plants for food, for shelter from
the weather and as hiding plaees from predators. without plants
there would be no animals for
the carnivores to eat.

Plants need animals to pollinate their flowers, to spread (disperse)

their seeds and to help keep
the soil fe*ile' Squirrels like to eat acorns, but they are also good
at taking them away and
burying them' often the young or larvae of a species will
eat different things to the adults.
caterpillars usually eat leaves whereas the butterflies feed
on nectar {pollinating the flowers by
accident at the sam€ time).

Decomposers also play an important pafi. They get

energy by breaking down the dead plant and
animal matsrial and at the same time they release nutrients
neeessary for plant growth. without
decomposers, such as worms, there would be a shortage
of in minerals in the soil, The plants
would not grow well and then there would be less food for
all.

some plants and animals live in more than one habitat.

some plants are good at growing
anywhere (we call many of these weedsl). Animals
are able to move around so they can graze or
hunt in more than one habitat. The fox will hunt in woods
and fields. Dragonflies spend their
larval stage in the stream eating water animals. Adult
dragonflies leave the water and fly,
catching and eating other flying insects in the meadow.
soth the stream and the meadow habitat
are necessary for their survival.

Adaptation
l{abitats are different. sorne have too much water and
others are very dry. some soils have chalk
or salt in them, others are very hard or soft.
South facing hills are very sunny, hot and dry. North facing
slopes are cooler, damper and often
shaded.

The plants and animals that live in a habitat are adapted

to the conditions there. plants grawing
on sand dunes need to be able to cope with very dry and
exposed conditions. saltmarsh plants
have to tolerate salt. Plants in streams have to cope
with living in water and the risk of being
washed away.
 l'{*rbivorec are adaBted to iive on plants by having teeth that
can grind leaves up into small
piec*s so that they can be more *asily digest*d, Some animals
like cows hava s*veral stom*chs
because it takes so long to digest gras$.

Some carnivores actively hunt their food so they have legs to run,
wings to fly or are able to
swim' They also tend to have sharp teeth and jaws that are able to de*lwith
€ating rn*at. Gther
animals stay in cne plaee and eat what comes past them. For example
sea anemone$ can stiek
fast t* a r"cek and put out tentacles to filter the water and ratch anything
edible.

$lutrient Cycle
A nutrient cycle {or ecologlcal recycling} is the mCIvement and exchange
of organie and inorganic matter back into the production of living
matter, The proceis is
r*gulated by foad web pathways that decompose matter intc mineral nutrients.

a.B
fxampla of rslnforest nutri€nt cycle
The rainforest nutrient cycling is rapid.
The hot, damp conditions on th€ forest
floor allow for the rapid decomposition
of dead plant material, This provides
plentiful nutrie nts that are easily
absorbed by plant roots. However, as
these nutrients are in high demand
from the rainforest,s many fast-
growing plants, they do not remain in
the soil for long and stay close to the
surface of the soil. lf vegetation is
removed, the soils quickly become
infertile and vulnerable to erosion.
lf the rainforest is cleared for
agriculture it will not make very good
farmland, as the soil will not be rich in
nutrients.
 *lomar
*iames are elimatically and geographically defined as similar
climatic ccnditians sn the Ear"th,
sueh as rommunities of plants. animals, and sail *rganisms,
and are often referred ta
as *cosystem;' Ssme partr of the earth havc mcre or less the $am* kind
cf abiotic and biotic faetsrs spread over a large area, ereating
a typical *cosystem over that area.
#iomes are defined by abiotic factors sueh:
r
elimate
r *oils
r vegetatlon
* relief
. geolsgt

Sisme eharacteriEtics
TroBlcal forests are found near the equator in central and
South America, parts of Africa and
Asia' They are hot and humid and contain a huge variety
of plants and animals, around half of the
€ntire world's species. The trees are mostly hardwood. The
climate is called equatorial.
j:,1.,.%, r
Found worrdwide {at reast in times past} around the
equator.
:'::,a
r
Extremely high levels of rainfall.
r
Psor nutrient content in soils due to high levels of rainfail.
r
Tremendous plant diversity; large trees have shallow root
systems evolved to be able to
quickly absorb nutrients as soon as they become
available (due to decay of dead things).
before the rains wash them away.
very dense prant growth and very high revelcf productivity
'
I ln mature rainforest, the forest floor is relatively clear plants,
of since the upper canopy
of trees blocks most sunlight. only when there's a large
tree fall does a new growth of
shrubby "pioneer species" germinate from the soil
and provide cover.for the forest to re-
, grow.
r TyBical vertebrates: More than 50% of all the
earth's terrestrial animal species are found
in the tropical rainforest. such as monkeys, toucans, parrots,
r"eptites of all types,
amphibians, and representatives of just about any
major animalgroup.

$avannah lTropical grasslands are hot and dry,

dominated by grass, scrub and occasional trees,
They have two distinct seasons - a dry season when
much of the vegetation dies back, and a
rainy season when it grows rapidly. They are found
in central Africa {Kenya, zambia,ranzania},
northern Australia and centralsouth America
{Venezuela and Brazil}.
r characterised by distinct seasonal changes, highly seasonal
rainfall {very harsh dry
season), extremely rich, organic soil.
r Major plant forms: annual grasses and flowering plants;
Trees are generally very drought
t*lerant and have high canopies due to herbivory by large
animals such as elephants and
giraffes.
e Fire is a major abiotie component of this biome,
and most plant species are evolved to
withstand periodic fires.
r verv fertile land, but with harsh seasonal variations: very
wet season followed by
extremely harsh dry season {during which most animars
migrate away}.
 * Lush grass and shrubbery growth in the r*iny season provides
ample food f*r large
animals, but they must migrate to gre€ner pastures during
drought.
I TyBical v*rtebrate;: grazing hoofed mammalr
{garelles, antelopes, etc.}, lions, leopards,
cheetahs, elephants, giraffes, trus buffalo {Water Buffalo, Cape Buffalo}, rhino,
hippopotamus, *tc.

Delert is the driest and hottest sf areas. The warld's largest desert is the Sahara in hlorth Africa.
Areas of scrub land that border the desert are ealled dssert scrub.
r Extremely arid. Very hot in thc daytime; in some regions, extremely
ccld at night
r High nutrient levels in the soil due to very little rainfall.
r Sparse plant life due to very low humidity and available water.
r Plant life is xerophytic {from the Greek xeri, meening "dry" and phyt
meaning ,,plant,,}:
*volved to have special adaptations to store and avoid losing water,
I Typical plants: cactus, Yucca, xeriphytlc shrubs of various species,
spectaeular explosion of
flowering annuals comes with the spring rains.
r Typieal vertebrates: drought'toterant mammals such as desert
foxes, burros, jackrabbits,
high diversity of snakes and liaards, tortoises, roadrunner
and some other desert-adapted
birds {plenty of hawks and eagtes}.

Mediterranean/chapparElclimates are not too hot or cold. some

characteristics of this type of
v€getation are;
r Found in arid regions with Mediterran€an crinrata
{e.g., southern falifcrnia, Spain,
European and African areas bordering the Mediterran€an
Sea; southern tip of Africa,
south-western tip of Australia|"
r winters are rainy and mild; summer days are long hot, and very
dry.
r Characterized by periodic, seasonalfires.
I Maior plant forms: Dense, spiny, evergreen shrubs
{some of these produce seeds that will
gerrninate and grow only after they've heen through
a fire.)
r Typical vertebrates: coyote, mule deer, various rodents,
many lizards, snakes, migratory
birds, etc.
r Two €ommon shrub vegetation found in the Mediterranean
are the maquis and the
garigue' The maquis is a dense, tangled undergrowth
more typical on granite and other
impermeable rocks' The garigue is a much sparser, lower-lying
scrub with many aromatic
plants such as rosemary and lavender.

Temperate grasslands prairie are dominated by grass and

I trees and large bushes are scarce.
They have a temperate continental climate - the weather is mild
with moderate rainfall.
Grasslands include the puszta in Hungary, the veldt in south
Africa, the Pampas in Argentina and
lhe Prairies in the USA.
r characterized by distinct seasonal changes, moderate rainfall, extremely
rich, organic soil.
r Maior plant forms: annual grasses and flowering plants; some areas
with more standing
water become marshes characteriaed by small trees such as willows,
cottonwoods, etc.
t very fertile land, but with harsh seasonalvariaticns: hot sumrners,
cold winters.
 The "veldt" *fScuth Africa, the "puseta" of llungary, the "pampas,, of
Arg*ntina, the
steppes of central Asia and Russia, and the plains of
the central u.5. *re all examples of
ihis highly productive biame.
F'dcst of these grasslands have been eonv€rted to f*rmland for human
usst but $ome
ilative grassland har been preserved.
Typical vertebrstas: American sison (sometimes €rroneously
called ,,buffalo',), prairie
dog, jackrabbit, fox, eoyote, deer, many migratory birds
{especiagy predatory birds such
as hawks and falcons), etc. Many animals undergo winter
hibernation.

T*mperatc desiduous fore*r eontain trees that lose their teaves, some
eharacteristics of this
€cosystem5 are:
r Fsund south of the coniferous fsrest in areas of relatively
high rainfall and relatively high
elevation, but with longer day lcngth than in coniferous regions.
r Maior plant form: deciduous {i'e., trees that seasonally drop
their leaves} flowering trees
and shrubs.
I Typicaltemperate deciduous forest areas are the north eastern
U.5. and Britain.
t Typieal vertebrates: deer, wolf, bear, foxes, many migratory
birds, squirrels, rabbits, etc.
Somewhat higher species diversity than coniferous forest.
Some sp*cies hibernate
through the winter, when food is scarce in the snowy landscape,
I Some natural deciduous woodland consists of three layers
of vegetation. The tallest
between 3o and 40 meters in height, consists of trees such
as oak, ash, birch and beech.
The middle layer, ranging frorn 5 to 1.5 meters, includes
smaller tr€es and shrubs such as
holly and hawthorn' The lowest, or ground layer may include
bracken, brambles, grass
and ferns.

eoniferous fcrests I garal I Targa {as it is known is Russia},

containing evergreen trees, are
found in Scandinavia, Russia and canada. some characteristics quite
common in a Coniferous
forest are:
r Found south of the arctic and tundra regions, primarily
in the northern hemisphere
r Nsrthern boreal forest receives tremendous snowfall in
winter; the conical shape of pines
may help them shed snow and avoid damage to their
branches from the weight of snow.
r Hishly endangered, these ecosystems are being rapidly
logged out, especially in North
America.
r Also found along the Andes of South America.
Major plant form: evergreen, coniferous trees such as pines,
firs, spruce, etc. {cone-
bearing trees). Under the trees grow shrubs, mosses, ferns,
etc.
i Relatively high levels of rainfall, but short days in the winter.
t Typical vertebrates: deer, wolf, bear, foxes, many migratory
birds, squirrels, rabbits, etc.
i{igher species diversity than tundra.
r winters are lang and extremely cold, often with strong winds; precipitation
falls as snow
and, as groundwater is frozen, moisture is unavailable for plants.
r summers are cool and the growing season is short, but
there is sorne rainfor plant
growth.
r Soils are often thin and poor.
 * eanfi*rous trees are scftwoods and they are valuable fcr timber, as well as for pulp
and
paper,

*lcuntain/artlc reglon areas can be very cold at night and during winter. The growing season
is
short and at higher levels trees will not grow.
r Located abcve 60" North and South latitudes.
r Arid
t *itterly cold temperatures.
t CIaylength varies tremendously, with 24 haur daylight or night at the respeetive solstices.
t Lcw animal diversity
t Most photosynthetie organisms are marine, and most sun energy is captured in the
water.
I Scme typieal vertebrates You might find here: penguins
{Antarctic only; no penguins in
the No*h), seal$, walruses, whales of various species, polar bear.

Tundra surrounds the ltlorth and South poles. They have an extr€mely cold
ctimate, with limited
numbers of plants and animals able to survive there.
r Located just south of the polar regions in the northern hemisphere.
r Arid
r Characterized by PERMAFR0ST: a permanently frozen layer of soil, which
may be deeper
in summer than in winter, but still prevents the growth of large trees with deep root
systems.
r Most plants are scrubby and small.
r Lichens {funguslalgae symbiosis} are a major photosynthetic food
source.
. High winds and cold temperatures prevail.
. \lery short days in winter, very long days in summer.

' Typical vertebrates: reindeer/caribou, Snowy Owls, Grizzly Bear,

Brown Bear, Wolf, Arctic
Fox, Ptarmigan {a partridge-like bird), migratory birds, lemmings
{smalt rodents}, voles
{another rodent).

Conservation and preservation of biomes

Secause we share the world with many other species of plants
and animals, we must consider
ihe consequences of our actions. over the past several decades, increasing human
activity has
rapidly destroyed or polluted many ecological habitats throughout the world.
lt is important to
preserve all types of biomes as each houses many unique forms
of life. However, the continued
heavy exploitation of certain biomes, such as the forest, freshwater,
and marine, may have more
severe implications.

Forests are important as they are home to the most diverse biotic
comrnunities in the world.
Hidden within these biomes are potential rnedicines and many thousands
of unseen and
undiscovered species. Also, forests have a global climate-buffering capacity,
so their destruction
may cause iarge-scale changes in global climate.
Logging has depleted many old-growth temperate forests. The increased
demand for homes,
paper' and other wood products have not allowed for much conservation.
More recently, people

t0 * aaf,.,r, rr D^--:-: o r
hav* begun to reslie* that l*gging has cleared much of these f*rests. wiser
use of the fsrests and
*fforts t* replant trees has helped to slow down the depletion *f thesa communities.
Trapieal farests have fallen victim to timber exploitation, slash and
burn farming, and clear felling
for industrial use or cattle ranching, particuiarly in Latin Ameriea. our increasing
demand tor
meat produets has spurred th*se events. For year;, this destruction was
occurring at a rapid rate.
*ver half of the wsrld*s original tropical fsrests are alre*dy gone. public attention to
this
exploitation has helped to alleviate the problem somewhat, though many challenges
ar€ stall to
be faced.

?he freshwater and marine bismes are probably the most important of all the biomes. rheir
medium, water, is a major natural resource. Water is the basis of life, it supports
llfe, and
countless species livs in it far all or part of their lives. Freshwater bicmes
supply us with cur
drinking water and water for crop irrigation. The world'$ oc€ans have an
even greater effect on
global climate than forests do. water has a high capacity for heat, and
because the Earth is
rnostly covered wlth water, the temperature of the atmosphere is kept fairly
constant and able
to support lifa. ln addition to this elimate-buffering eapacity, the oceans contain several
billion
photcsynthetic plankton which account for most of the photosynthesis
occurring on Earth.
without these, there might not be enough oxygen to support such a large world population
and
complex animal life.

Freshwater biomes have suffered mainly from pollution. Runoff containing

fertilizer and other
wastes and industrial dumping enter into rivers, ponds, and lakes and
tend to prarnote
abnormally rapid algae growth. When these algae die, dead organic
matter accumulat€s in the
water' This makes the water unusable and it kills rnany of the organisms living
in the habitat.
Stricter laws have helped to srow down this thoughtless pollution.

Overfishing and pollution have threatened to make oeeans into

ecological disaster areas.
lndustrial pollutants that are dump*d upstream of estuaries have rendered
many marine
habitats unsuitable for life. Again, tighter regulations have been
used to prevent further
destruction of the ocean biomes.

tecert
*y educating people about the consequences of 5en$
1!t 3*
our actions, we can all gain a better Trepicd Rrir
understanding of how to preserve the Earth's Fnred
natural biomes. The areas that have been fi&
,l.l
,l-',j
destroyed the most will n€ver regain their t.:.
'q

ariginal forms, but conservation will help to Salem*,

,?Bb
IemW*s
keep them from getting worse. Temp6rdE
F*rast
Srffialisd
t1{
t3x{
 t.#: :

#r
B"A.

1{l
tit
,.di

6Mr P Rnnniri R F t\rtrn*i^^

ffi w
bH
&E;. r*frt:
 S$stainablc f*r*stry
A sustainable f*r*st is a f*rest th*t is
earefully managed sa that fis trees are felled
they cr€ r*plaeed with s*erilings rhat
*ventually grow into mature tr*es. This is a
car*fully and skilfully managed syst*m. llre
forest is a working environment, producing
wocd products sueh as wood pulp for the
papcr I card industry and waad based
materials f*r furniture
manufacture and the
construction industry. €reat care is taken to
en$ure the safety of wildlife and to preserve
the natural environment,

Sustainable forests are the result of a eommonsense policy to r€place

trees thst are felled so that
fcrests c*ntinue to exist providing natural materials for us all.

A typical sustainable forest will contain trees of all ages and often
different sBecies of trees. As
the trees mfiture they are felled and the natural wood is processed
at saw mifls. Felled trees are
replaced with seedlings. ln this way the forEst is con:tantly renewed.
A typical sustainable fcrest
will esntain trees of all ages and often different species af trees.

5ustainable forests are not only produetlve in terms of the wood products
they provide but also
they are regarded as places that can be exploited by the leisure
industry. Sustainable forests add
greatly to the look cf the natural *nvironment and consequentty
attract tourists such as walkers
and hikers.

Sustainable forests can only survive if they make a profit

and provide ernployment, often for
local people' The type of employment available will include
work related directly t6 managing
and maintaining the forests but also jobs related to the tourist
industry. This will include the
hotel and eatering industry.
S
Dsforestation in the Amazon
Since 2004 the rate of deforestation in the Brazirian
Amazon has failen nearly g0 percent to the lowest
levels recarded since annual record keeping began in
the late 1980s. lmportantly, this decline has occurred
at the same time that Brazil's economy has grown
roughly 40 percent, suggesting a decoupling of
economic growth from deforestation.

While this is welcome news for f arth's largest

rainforest, it is nonetheless important to understand
why more than 580,000 square kilometres ]ZZ4,AAA
square miles| of Amazon forest has been destroyed
in Brazil since 1"980.
 azr cJ.r-^s,
e=:>Fe^ts{ an
DqReure-:tFe^ts{ hp }-'"r-r.tq . 3( o+h o'ro{ tcurrn .

') ' 5r'bsitle.,ee (4o*j-V.

r*day dsfor*station in rhe Am*:sn is rhe ,*rui which
include: "?r&ff?#,1,,'*1l'r*#-ir:ff:i,g
r Clearing for cattle pasture
r Cslonizatian and subsequent subsistenee agriculture
r *Bc-o--j
lnfrastrustureirnprovements 1r\ t '-

r Commereialagrieulture fla,Sa.-rde5
*i-rvvAcr€-t* . ,'l
dil3;;'tc7.tna' 4>'r Vrr./v1
'tra€-c
o
r Logging " 't'^-i'-a/e}'rtb Lt^u =o. w(., bo'-^*
Y'Q've' d't*n-t'')" o-.d
y'n
) *''u"
1''*<ztQ
ftearlng for cattle p{stur€ '

rattle ranchins is the teading cause or deforestation in ,n-'rr*,*1#;#;;t-1;been the

case since at least the 1$70s: governm€nt figures attributed 38 percent of deforestation
from
1966-1975 to large*scale cattle ranching.

Colonization end subsequent subsistence egriculture

A significant amount of deforestation is eaused by the subsistence activities
of poor farmers who
are *necuraged to settle on forest lands by government land polieies. ln Brazil,
each squatter
acquires the right {known as a usufruc-t right}to continue using a piece af land
by living on a plot
af unclaimed public land and "using" it for at least one year and a day. After five years the
squatter acquires *wnership and hence the right to sellthe land.

Poor farmers typically use fire for clearing land and every year satellite images pick
up tens of
thousands of fires burning across the Amazon. Typically understory shrubbery is
eleared and then
forest trees ar€ cut.

nfrastructure improvem€nts
I

Road constructian in the Amazon leads to deforestation. Roads provide

access to logging and
mining sites while opening forest frontier land to exploitation by poor landless
farmers.

Commercial agriculture
tecently, scybeans have become one of the most important contributors to defor€station
in the
srazilian Amaeon. rhanks to a new variety of soybean developed by Brazilian
scientists to flourish
in rainforest climate, Brazil is on the verge of supplanting the united states
as the world,s leading
exporter of soybeans. High soybean prices have also served as an impetus
to expanding soybean
cultivation.

Lcgging
Logging is done in several ways such as;

ffi8!Harvestingofselectedsingleandgreupoftrees.
,a{iltfiHnffiry Several different species harvested at the same time.
€lffi{f: Total removal of all trees.
w*WtgH8: Variation of clear-felling but often following the contours of the land.
 l/

ln th*cry, lcgging in tha Amaz*n is eontrolled by striet licensing which allows timber to be
irarvested only in designated areas. llowever, there is significant evidence that ill*gal
losging is
quite widespread in Eraril.

Some m€asurei taurards rnore sustainable for*stry:

r The loggtng companies only use selective cutting methods

r Restricting the use of bulldozers and heavy destructive machinery
* Spend money to protect forests and parks.
r TestinS the use of helicopters although helilogging
is a very expensive method of
removing logs from the fsrest. This method is tess degtructive to the rain forest
ecosystem.
I lmplementing, through the community forestry development scheme.These schemes
may include:
r Village forestry; which encourages the planting of traditional fruit trees.
':a r Urban forestry; where trees are planted along main roads and in open ipa.*s
B to stabilise temperatures, create shade and reduce soilerosion.
r Forest recreation.

Case Study Read Pg ?36 Deforestatisn-The destruction of an ecosystem

case study read pg 238-sustainable forestry in Malaysia
Case study pg As6-Destertification in the Sahel

&x. l. Answer the following questions.

a) what do we call these: water, terngerature, relief, soil type, fire and nutrients ?
(Biotic..4ntibiotic,.lbiotic)
w

b) The plants and anirnals which form the community are called (Biotic, Antibiotic,
Abiotic)
r"at''
ci In which biome, one iinds the most amount of rain?
* deciduous fore.st, contferous forest. tropical grassland, all these
rylTlc!!rqrrfa4&-\FJnperate
*''-
biomes or, *t:)
d) Which of the tbilowing biomes is the coldest?
{#,#eq|{ Ai n. t ryry4f q, pfi t I b r ous lb r e s t, r e m p e r & t e g r as s I an d
}

e) Which of the following is the dries biome ?

{s avannah, M edi terrrsnean, te mperate grass lands, tjgs.ert, rlps e rt ru
sc b )
r/
f) Tropical rainlbrests have dense vegetation, which typically occurs in iour levels.
From ground
level up, these levels of vegetation are:
Wwwrwffiwmet
ReCiiiii'trends and changing patterns

Tourism has become the world's largest growing and largest industry. It is an imponant factor in the econ-
orrry of ntost developed countries and is seen by many developing countries and is seen by many develop-
ing countries as the one possible way to obtain income, create jobs and to improve tl,eir standard of living.

lncrease in tourism due to several factors which are:

. An increase in wealth, mobility, accessibility and leisure time
. lmprovements in transport and technology
. Changes in lifestyle, interests and demands
. Greater awareness of places due to coverage by media and Tv.

Greater Affluence

People who have employment within the LIK

r-rsually earn a high salary- Certainly higher
than several decades ago.

Grfatei Mobility
The increase in car ownership has given people greater
freedom to choose where and r,vhen they go for the da..v, or
for a longer period. ln 1951, only I l-JK family in ?,0 had a
car. By 2000,74o/o had at least one car. Chartered aircraft
have reduced the costs ofoverseas travel.

Improved accessibility and transport facili-

ties
. Improvements in roads, especially motor-
ways and urban By-pass, have reduced
driving times between places and encour-
age people to travel more frequently and
greater distances.
. Improved and enlarged airports

MorE,l€iSure time
. Shorter working week and longer paid holidays
. Flexitime, more people working from home. and
more firms employing part-time workers
. An aging population, many of whorn are still active
 Chaffig lifestyles

People are retiring early and are able to take ad-

vantage of their greater fitness
People at work need longer/ more frequent rest
periods as pressu(e of work seems to increase.
Changing fashions. e.g.; Health resorts, Fitness
holidays, winter sun.

tional aa'tivities','' ;

Slight declining in the ' Beach holiday'- paftly due to

the treat of skin cancer.
Increase in active holidays (skiing, water sports) and in
self catering.
Most rapid growth in Mid 1990s has been in cruise
holidays
Importance of theme parks

I G r,9e 4', o 1 s u.s,f,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,p ina b I e to u yi s m'

. Need to benefit local economy,
environment and people without
spoiling the attractiveness and
amenities of the places visited.

Advertising and TV programmes

. Holiday programmes, magazines and brochures pro-
mote new and different places and activities.

l) Mention four factors which increased the amount of people travelling from one place to another.

trt'',(.r.' lrt-.,,...-r. l-'r,'..P

/ll t.t
.t\t
{ irl' l,
1.'r,\r, t -'

/'.: l
( tt t w, trn '.4 !,^7 1,- 1-

2) Mention two ways how changing of lifestyle affected people t,travel from one place to another.

., - .-.,
;''1," ,t.r ,,,.. !t
i_ r r.,,1 rr,i|,.,,t..,,,-
rjJ]
lranspdrt and accessibility Weather,'J
Hot, dry, sunny sllml'ners
Early resorts. towns Snow
Water transport
Railways
Car and coach
Plane
Cruise ships

ffiffie&ffi
q*senities i

Culture and history

Hotels and boarding house resorts Active amenities
Holiday camps Passive amenities
Caravan parks and campsites Theme parks
Theatres, museums, music

Across:
LThis increase when people have
more flexitime, and a shorter
working week.
4.This is when people earn more
money.
6.This is provided when there are
sandy beaches, mountains and
lakes.
8.Tourist go in these to stay during
holidays.
Down:
\.These people are called this when
travelling from one place to an-
other. '-
3.People travelling to another place
to enjoy the different environment.
4.This is when there is increase in
car ownership or in the use of dif-
ferent modes of transport.
S.This is improved when there is
roads and better transport modes.
T.Another term for green tourism.
 ffi1 ffi'ffiffi&&Wffiffiffiwiff&@lwtffiffiwwr
V6rtous fypes of tourism

Cultural and historical"

Coastal;
Religiousi
Places of natural beauty
Mountains
Sport '
Cruises'
tco Iounsm
:
Safari

Cultural and Historical,

Cr,rltural tourism is referred to the kind of tourism which is

concerned wilh lhe, culture' of a specifi c.regl qn grffit*:
pardicular in thb arts. It is basically focuses on the iffiffinal
comrnunities that have diverse customs as well as the forms of
arts and the distinct social practices that distinguish a certain
culture from the others. It would include tourism in the urban
areas and even the historic and large cities, including t-acilities
like theatres and museums. It also includes this in the rural
areas. rvhich shorvs the traditions of different cultural commu-
nities like f-estival and rituals, as rvell as their personalvalues
and lif'estvle.

Religious

! .]1 -1]-.! j ;1*ryr:.}ara:?i:el+i

me places which are visited by many
pribpie iorielig%us purpose are Rome, Lourdes and

Mountains

i n s c argpe p I ace s for

M ounta ffird,ao-tivitiesg Many
people like toffion rnountaini. Oth", people'like io
rnountains. Some people like to just visit
mountains to take photos and admire their beauty.
Tourists are attracted to mountains for many. F
 re
Refers to travel q'hich inyolr,es eitl,er @
ffi}1aitr-..g_ry even$staf ing apart from their unusual envi-
ronment. Sport event tourism refers to the visitors r,vho visit
the city with a purpose of rvatching the events. A good ex-
ample of this would be during the Olympics. Each Olympic
host citl' receives an immense amount of tourisln.

re
People go on a Safari{ilffiffi$&!ffii$erss@.llfigp.4i€&fg_ r,-la -

W.g tn a Saf'ari people have the facility to take pictures of the

different wildlife.

Ecotourism is sometimes known as

frffiffi@*o*
than the rnass tourism associated with places like Flor-
ffi
ida and the Spanish costs.

Ecoto
a

u14

w
.\H
ir-lar
" (r- c.
ffiffi
(I.1
enJY c1 €- .:}c: t-'talrrl rlrr<;^q,"
rrrcrerLr,'(z in to,*1' :in erxt
':
;\ t , - .
*t.-".* elrY\- h) {.^f, *Lit*I', a-iec.0,..,r'-
j
^
'-' - ry'\ Ff>t-er-r:\= .uit\
''

When there is an but if the carrying capacity of tourists is Qt t

reached resources will start to end up. A common resources which willbe threatened is that of water. If there is a
decline in the tourism industry a recession can happen.

qffi{*g.ws# e.ru,Fei' e'ar!\{r'nY \\ the c\' t*"*tr n\- etfYn

: C-re,rFt* 1c,b'sr $cn ' O
'5t:Ctr.:."'i *-",l ll frot-v
-3cl'^
The tourism industry creates a lot ofjobe, during the construction of hotels and restaurants, builders, plumbers +O''
are employed. When these startto operate different jobs such as chefs, waiters and barmen are emplol,ed.

To attracttourist a country needs to invest a lot on its infrastructure such as better\tads. street lighfing, avoid
congestions, entertainment areas such as discos, golf courses, airports, cruise terminals and more.
fnr,if'.tn,y'l c'-nt'elI crg' pr e:-r:.-ts-,
beaches which will be spoilt, famland which will be
Ali these ivilt efft,cf the envii:o"*b"t. There could be some
lost, mountains hidden by hotels. sewage in the sea, vandalism, noise from tourists. Most countries try to clean
beaches and seas and open natural reserves or gardens where tourists can go to entertain themselves.
: ry\c\rr1 in*rpoads cf \ 6.r'-ig'--"-
L5 fugl.qli"n *t neu!",-o-\ l-€so'-{'c{ g
LY '?r.; t\u\, c,n
-.} ?husi c<r.[ 1sp,p,..,:'l i; ' J'lt-i''^:\1*..lto'e- Crc"e\rrp''-*''f '
 Qushqr'

I Men\ion0* cJiP4erenl lYpu. oP {o.r"i5Fr'} o

2 Menlio", *hy {ouri:}s clre aH.aeled lc *o*tl-c,ins -

3 f&nlion |cr-ro Ploces uuhic h 0re ,,siiccl p., ,e"{,g;o,n purfases "

q \X<.nLion u-,h<:k dcps g.p \r:*tlsr". inclc.de .

6 lYernli*n gofie- *ciral &l*at ag lot,ri5r4.

I Re\$t*".s, ca,r{ lzrislp-;.<e\ I rncur'lelins . 6porl t salor,,l,

C.x\tuv-ra\
2 They Cj.r€ aHr-icted *c, rrrc,utnfuir^rs be caurs c {hera
Gtre. C\jrv,a\e ovre\ 6\ecr cair , Uari€c\ t*pg rophy , \><r,*-..1
GcerreirY , ioqa\ |rcc\ili*,or y 1'rnlpie- iiP- S\leS , a^4 .€p,unA
Jert-co,\e rn Gnd Ro-* ,/
q Fcot*urisrn inclt*eles - ulsitfng p{aces {e appnecf<e
lbein Ec€nery
/ '",;\
d\;Qe , c\r-,d Crec.\tnrg e c#-lar"'tt c.

epBesrtutni Fi€s-
Scci *\ .Rc\s c)lrn Fo*^qStn . feSc){-!.C<E slo.rf to e.nd
u-r" Q*.hu", dec \,'.,,e , n fcx-rrisls i,rri\\ b"':9 c,- r€yer-ssic
and €CO'ro.r y j*re.o+.-dt vYw<,,
 rcg3trfls$ilre ffis& tffi*niliffi]
@
In olden times, people used to travel to other countries as explorers, or
for military service, or on diplomatic measures, or else for some reli-
gious purposes.

The risks in travelling were very great. The means of transport were
slow and poor. Francis Vavier took a whole year to arrive in India from
Rome and Christopher Columbus took two months to cross the Atlantic.
As the means of transporl improved and travelling to other lands became
safer quicker and more comfortable, people began to travel more. They
travelled to seek work in foreign lands, or else visited other lands for
their own instruction and culture, for health reasons or for more pleas-
ure. At the same time, people started discovering the cultural wealth of
foreign lands

The country hosting tourists realized that there could be a considerable

financial profit in rendering service to them. Thus, industry tried to at-
tract as many tourists as possible and to make their stay in that country
as pleasurable as possible.

Tourism developed even more after the Second World War, when air
travel, quicker and more comfortable as it is, became more frequent and
with fares within the reach of the ordinary workman. Today many coun-
tries including Malta conscious of the value of attracting tourists have
their own airlines.

The Maltese islands have no mountains or snow, no medical waters. But

they have plenty of natural beauty with an excellent climate of mild cold
winters and warm summers.

In our island one finds some important world famous historical

places: pre historical such as the Neolithic temples and hypo-
geum.

Roman, such as the roman villa, baths and catacombs,

Medieval, such as the city of Mdina

Renaissance, such as the city of Valletta museums and

places of the fine art.

Modern Buildings spread all over the islands such as: hotels of
various categories, monuments, churches, theatres, MFCC,
sports grounds, University, airport and hospital.
 ffwwlrffiffiffi ffffi ffi$ffitffiffii
These assets make Malta well suited for a tourist resort. It was after the attainment of Political inde-
pendence that people started to realize the potentiality of the Maltese islands as an ideal place for tour-
i sts.

, It is cerlainly a major
lactor in the balance of payments, for it makes up for the shortfall in our exports.

But this entailed much more than asking tourists to visit our country. In the late 1950s and early 1960s,
we, still accustomed to a colonialway of life, did nothave the necessary facilities to accommodate
many tourists. The number of hotels we had then were very few. We still had to build hotels and guest
houses and furnish them with modern facilities. We had to train managers, cooks, accountants, clean-
ers, servicemen and women, receptionists and so on, and make sure they had international standards.

So, training schools were opened at the Polytechnic to teach people all that was required
for the tourist
industry. Later I.T.S was opened where all students who wanted to work within the catering industry
can go to this institute to educate themselves.

When tourists visits a country, they wanted to have good value for money they spend. They want to
enjoy themselves in many ways; intellectually and physically, such as swimming, etc. Moreover, to
promote tourism, the transport service had to be upgraded, both inside the islands with good roads,
taxis and route buses, and also with the transportation of passengers from abroad. The Air Malta and
Sea Malta stafied, and Maltese were trained to run these services.

Tourism creates employment. The presence of tourists in a country creates demands for their pleasant
stay and their entertainment. So, with building more hotels and guest houses, the construction industry
needed to work at great speed and had to employ more workers; the catering trade needed more person-
nel, more places of entertainment were opened; commerce increased particularly with the sale of Malta
products, eg; lace, stone. More tourist guides were needed, and more boats to take tourist on trip round
the islands. All this, and more, brought about a period of economic boom to our country.
.rr'.*f4W#$f.
We have to be careful and realize that the tourist industry is very delicate and fragile. Any situation in one's
owrl countn'or in the country one rvishes to visit rnay aff'ect favourably or adversely this industry, Situations
misht arise to discourage or e\/en stop people from travelling to foreign countries. Suclr situations ma1'be;

ffi o. serious disputes between the countries concernedl

$A?V fot- of political, economic or social instabiliqr, even if, as it happened at tirnes, it is merel5, a mat--
rl.5r g$pocial or political prejudice'
a
'p.-96p1+'aiide-i;'$*nlolgmthey:.,sh:6,vYib*&d:(nanners.tolourjs1s,
a nev. The tourist takes int n :bow:'lrluc! hls1guf
in'tbrms
in terms of tiii'o'ffi'ffii;iit.f
his own mbney'. +r
ffiifr
hr,,6he.rnoney he"pays. This inchiffps not linding cornfortable hotels, good roads, good;
g:srtesjLtrfi ,.:.4,o,1.,,r,-v.Q,rth.iiSilin:&d!r1.:a1,q..eati19ls19s$
a restrictions,of,,onsls.f,reedonr,.eg freedom of mQyement, freedorn of worship, high custom duties:
a ffigry.rhlgh cost of living and vew"expensiverprice$.
a t,be,ing safe in moving.about, ciime and'Cheating. "
e inteiesting; and perhaps cheaper places elsewheie
;

Since Independence in 1964. rvhen ourtourist industry started in earnest, there were periods (1968-71 and
1973-81) rvhen ourtourist industry was indeed prosperous, and rve even spoke about tourist booms.

But there were also other periods when our tourist industry fell into a depression. The figures dropped signifi-
cantly.Oneofthesetimesweretheyears l87l-Tz,whentherewasapolitical hitchbetweenourcountryand
Britain. Another time were the years between 1982-85 when a number of factors contributed to yet another
drop in the number of tourists. Such factors were, eg;the value of the Maltese lira whiclr suddenly shot up
high: Britain insisting with its national so spend their holidays in their own country;the cold political relations
betrveen Britain and Malta, and also the fact that the other Mediterranean countries were offering cheaper holi-
da1's.

In 1986, however great efforts were made by the Maltese government and by the National Tourism Organiza-
tion of Malta to attract more and more tourists to our country. ln the same year and later, large campaigns
were launched in Britain, Italy. Germany, Srvitzerland., Scandinavia and other countries. ln 1988, the results
of these campaigns proved to be felicitous.

The economic benefits that our country gets from tourism is quite considerable. In fact,ffi-iism is by far ou.'
industry from the point of view of the gross income. $

I . What do the Maltese islands have to attract tourist? Jr

il:il i,!,rr"'.. *:,'i
, i'! L- -j r-t-
- : .-.-,r-;11 -i
',': '.i.
]w J ri:f,'fl
=
2. What have they been doing to promote tourism!

-1",i#1lp' ,&$:
3. Whv is it said iliat tourism
VISITSA lraglle industry.
rs a fragile
ounsm is y damage or destroyy trounsnl
lnoustry. Mention some factors that may tourist.

4. Why do we sa that in Maita tourism has created much employment?

These features are found in Kenya:
a

I
a

Kenya appreciates the value of its landscape

and wildlife. They are seen as a ma-ior source
of income in a country desperately short of
money.
Money from tourism can be used to pay for
improving services, building more houses and
roads and creating new jobs.
Many people go to Kenya to go on safaris.
These safaris can damage the environ-
ment. Safari minibuses are meant to
keep well defined tracks in national
Parks and game reserves. However,
drivers often form new routes, either to
enable their passengers to get as close as
possible to wildlife, or to avoid wet sea-
son marshy areas.
ln Amboseli as in other parks, the wind,
mini busses and herds of animals all
cause mini dust storms which increase
the rate of soil erosion.

Minibuses are not meant to go within 25 meters

of animals, but their drivers often ignore this as
they are unlikely to get good tips from their pas-
sengers if the best close up views of wildlife are
not obtained.

Animals may be prevented from mating, making

a kill, or forced to move to less favourable areas.
'Balloon safaris cause controversy as conserva-
tionists claim that the intermittent release of hot
air and the shadow of passing balloons disturb
wildlife.
Today, apart from employees at safari lodges, nobody
is allowed to live in National parks. Even game re-
serves only permit a limited number of herders and
their cattle. The setting up of National parks meant that
nomadic tribes, such as the Maasai had to be moved
from their traditional grazing grounds. Many now have
to live a more permanent life, earning money by selling
small artefacts to, or performing traditional dances for,
the tourists. Recently the government has began to
work with the Maasai, allocating them a share of
wealth obtained from tourism to help improve their
education, housing and water supply.
 K'w: w'&ej& el& @wwlem g@-- ffi gierxl$$J@r&wl &gl Ei&ryggwl gj€iffii€l ffi&ffi w,
ffi{wsmrwwr
Ambosoli National Park is best known for unrivalled
Tortilis Camp is a charming, rustic tented oamp,
views of Kilimanjaro and its elephant population, over
shaded by a natural forest of Acacia Tortilis trees.
i 000 elephants in the park eco svsten-I, featuring some
The tents are large and spacious with hot showers
of the largest elephants in Africa. Tortilas Camp is and flush toilets. There is a main lounge. bar anci
named after the flat-topped, umbrella thorn tree the
dining area, all exquisitely built with natural maleri-
Acacia 'fortilis. als.

It is situated outside the park with the majestic back-

drop of Africa's highest mountain backdrop of Africa's
highest mountain, snow capped Kilimanjaro and Lake
Amoseli which attracts large numbers of flamingos.
Tortilis Camp is a magical escape from the hustle and
bustle of life in the fast lane- it is a great place to start
a safari and relax.

The camp won a number of awards for ecotour-

ism and has earned an international reputation
for its commitment to the environment with its
rustic simplicity, un obstructive design and at-
tention to comfort without compromising the
ecosystem.
Visitors to the camp enjoy varied game viewing and can also spend time following herds from luxury of open sided
safari land rovers; or walk with a trained Maasai guide, bush breakfast out on the plains or a visit to one of the
Maasai Villages to meet Maasai women, watch young warriors dance or simple relax watching the sun set colour-
ing the snows of Kilimanjaro.

l. Identify two characteristics which rnade Tortilis Camp attractive to tourist.

Frr*. .r',* nJ--_- crJahh;rn lLe .suns*rL

*{ J-
€*dCJ- ,
J. How are the Maasai tribes involved in Safari tours? J*u

Camp spec in ecotourism, What is an ecotourist resort?

,t
:.'V\tr:, r.C'or.,Frnmisig, L[.e-- e-Cy313y5b.nft ,
5. Give another name for ecotourism 6rep-n :krrl4fir) ,
6. What problems can touris'r Uring t yut

l0
 ffiffig&ffiffiiwl ffimwlm ffiH$ffilrl, flfleffiI$rwljf ffie$ &,ffiffieffi
The mountaineering and winter sports resort of courmayeur is located
near the head of the scenig Val d' Aosta in the extreme North-west of
Italy. It lies at the foot of Mount Blanc, the highest mountain in the
Alps, close to where the main road linking Turin and France passes
through the Mount Blanc tunnel.
The resort
Courmeyer is a traditional town full of
characteristics and marvellous Italian at-
mosphere. It has twisting streets, a range of
accommodation, a weekly market, great
cuisine, varied shopping, a lively nightlife,
an ice rink and a swimming pool.

Nearby: There are opportunities for walk-

Skiing: The resort area rises from I 224m Io
3470m. The main skiing area, with l00km of
marked piste, is reached by cable car which begins
just 150m from the Hotel Pavilion.
ing climbing and horse riding as well as
buses to Chamoix and Aosta. Yu can even
tale a cable car to the Cresta d' Arp and
cross the Mount Blanc massif.

Apres- ski: In the evening you can sample local

Aosta specialities such as fontina cheese or beef
stake Valdostan, and enjoy many wines from
Northern Italy. Check out the best bars- Roma or
Steve's cocktail bar among them- then go dancing
at one of the clubs, like the Clochard and Abat

$lffiwtrgffigffi.$$ wwrtrggffi
a More and better paid jobs
a Younger people no longer have to
leave the area.
a hnproved accessibi lity
o Improved services, including elec-
tricity, water and sewage.
Leisure amenities added which can
be used by local people
o Improved shopping
a The multiplier effect: more tourists
are attracted to this place.
At peak times, tourists outnumber the local popula-
tion.
The traditional village is swapped by view build-
ings, eg. Hotels
a Many of these buildings created visualpollution.
a The traditional way of life is likely to be losr.
a Farmers have lost their jobs.
a House prices have risen and become to expensive
from local people,
Unemployment may be seasonal as many jobs are
linked to the winter skiing.
Hillsides are deforested to create new and longer
ski runs.
The increase in traffic has been blamed for the in-
crease in acid rain that is killing local vegetation.
ll
 Types of Climate
Equatorial climate and vegetaion

Climate
Places with an equatorial climate lie 5 degrees either side of the equator. The four main areas
are the large drainage basins of the Amazon, South America, the Congo in Africa and lndonesia
iDiagram). The equatorial areas have annual rainfall total that exceeds of 2000mm mainly due to
convectional thunderstorms which occur during most afternoons. Some places may have two or
three drier, but not dry months. (Climate graph). The temperature of the equatorial regions is
hot throughout the year, with a very low
Equatorial Climate temperature range usually of less than 3
$ingapore
degrees Celsius. Winds are generally light
300 30

?50 25
and variable. The equatorial climate is
c {t characterised by its high humidity, a lack
! roo 20 ",E
* tso .- * I R-oinfatt of seasonal change, and a daily weather
^" [ ffi Temperature
lF
E
';100 10F pattern which remains remarkably
u F
50 J
uniform throughout the year.
0 o
.lerr l,'lar l,tay Jul $ep Hou
Feb Apr Jun fug [tet ttec

The daily rhythm

One day is very similarto another throughout the year. The sun rises at 06:00 hours and its heat
soon evaporates the morning mist, the heat heavy dew, and any moisture remaining from the
previous afternoon's storm, Even by 08:00 hours temperatures are as high as 25 degrees Celsius.
As the sun rises to a near vertical position, temperatures feach 33 degrees Celsius. Water from
swamps, the numerous rivers and the rainforest is evaporated. Strong upward convection
currents carry the water vapour into the sky until it reaches cooler altitudes. When the rising air
is cooled to its dew point (the temperature at which water vapour condenses back into water
droplets), large cumulus clouds develop. By mid-afternoon these clouds have turned into black,
towering cumulonimbus. These produce torrential downpours which are accompanied by
thunder and lightning.
The storms soon
cease leaving the air
ArctIc
calm and humid. By
sunset, always about
*{ot Desert
18:00 hours, the
clouds have already
broken up, Such Equatorial
conditions are similar
throughout the year, li,leditenanean
seemingly one long
tropical day.

2 | Owr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

Equatorial Vegetation
These hot and wet conditions are ideal for the growth of plants so the vegetation is both dense
and varied. Typically in Britain there would be four or five species of trees in a forest, whilst in
the same area near the equator there may be about 500 specfes. The equatorial rainforests also
have an extremely diverse fauna,
The rainforest in the equatorial regions produce very distinctive scenery. From the air it looks like
a green carpet with the occasional taller tree (emergent) sticking up. There are also numerous
rivers due to the heavy rainfall totals.

Adaptation of vegetation in tropical rain forests

The vegetation in the rainforest has evolved characteristics which help it to survive in this unique
environment.
o Although the trees are deciduous, the rainforest has an evergreen appearance as the
continuous growing season allows trees to shed their leaves at any time.
r Vegetation grows in distinct layers. The lowest layer consists of shrubs. Above this is the
under canopy, the main canopy and, rising above, the emergents, which can grow to 50
meters in height. Trees have to grow rapidly in order to reach the life giving sunlight.

The shrub layer is dark and gloomy with

very little vegetation between the trees.
During heavy rainfalls this area can flood.
The under canopy is the second level up.
There is limited sunlight. Saplings wait
here for larger plants and trees to die,
leaving a gap in the canopy which they can
grow into. Woody climbers called lianas
avoid having to wait for gaps by rooting in
the ground and climbing up trees to get to
the sunlight.
The canopy is where the upper parts of
most of the trees are found. The canopy is
typically about 65 to 130 feet (20 to 40
metres) tall. This leafy environment is
home to insects, arachnids, birds and
some mammals.
The emergents are the tops of the tallest
trees in the rainforest. These are much
higher, and so are able to get more light
than the average trees in the forest
canopy.
o Tree trunks are straight and, in
their lower parts, branchless in their efforts to grow tall.
o Large buttress roots stand above the ground to give support. This is done since roots of
tropical rainforest trees are not typically as deep as those of trees in temperate zones.

3 | OfUr. F. Bonnici& E. Mangion Geography Department

 Lianas, which are vine-like plants, use the large trees as a support in their efforts to reach
the canopy and sunlight.
As only about l
per cent of the incoming suniight reaches the forest floor, there is little
undergrowth. Shrubs and other plants which grow here have had to adapt to the lack of
light,
Epiphytes are plants that live on the surface of other plants, especially the trunk and
branches. They grow on trees to take advantage of the sunlight in the canopy. Most are
orchids, bromeliads, ferns, and Philodendron relatives. Tiny plants called epiphylls, mostly
mosses, liverworts and lichens, live on the surface of leaves.
The leaves of forest trees have adapted to cope with exceptionally high rainfall. Many
tropical rainforest leaves have a drip tip. lt is thought that these drip tips enable rain
drops to run off quickly. Plants need to shed waterto avoid growth of fungus and bacteria
in the warm, wet tropical rainforest.
o Dense undergrowth occurs near to rivers and forest clearings where sunlight is able to
penetrate the canopy.

Nutrient cycle in Tropical rain

forests
Despiteits luxuriant appearance
the rainforest is a fragile
environment whose existence
relies upon the rapid and
unbroken recycling of nutrients
Leaves decay rapidly
to form humus (diagram). Once the forest is
cleared (deforestation), then the
nutrient cycle is broken. Humus is
not replaced and the underlying
soils will soon become infertile
and eroded. Not only will the
rainforest not be able to re-
establish itself, but the land will
become too poor to be used for
farming.

rforestation

@Mr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

Tropical continental climate and Savanna grasslands

Climate
Kano, Nigeria 12-N This climate is found in central parts of continents, away
allil0da 630m
9nnlsl bilDeaalirE range 8'C
ann6l preipilaton 920 mm
from coasts, which lie approximately between latitudes 5
degrees and 15 degrees north and south of the Equator.
350
This includes parts of Venezuela and Brazil in South
300
America, northern Australia, and a large semi circular
250:
.
surrounding the Zaire basin in Africa (Diagram).
2001
llt +*,'.
The main characteristic of this climate, as illustered by the
1s0 graph for Kano in northern Nigeria, is alternative wet and
lloo dry season. This seasonal variation is due to the
50 movement to the apparent overhead sun.
0
5r O, ,;N ,: D

Vegetation
A transect (section) acrossthe savanna grasslands shows how the natural vegetation changes in
response to the climate. Where the savanna merges with the tropical rain forest
{rain all year},
the vegetation is dense with patches of tall grass. Moving away from these margins, the
vegetation slowly changes to typical savanna grasslands with scattered trees (rain half the year),
and eventually to the drought-resistant bushes and odd clumps of grass on the desert margins
(hardly any rain).

The dry season

The scattered deciduous trees lose their leaves, grasses turn yellow and dry up, and the ground
assumes a dusty, reddish-brown colour. Some trees shed their leaves while others produce thin,
waxy and even thorn like leaves to try to keep transpiration to a minimum. Most plants are
xerophytic (drought-resistant) with very long roots to tap underground water supplies or with
thick bark to store water in the trunk, like the baobab tree. Grasses grow in tufts, separated by
patches of bare soil. As the dry season progresses, their stalks become stiff, yellow and straw
like, and in time, the plants wither.

OMr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

The wet season
Afterthe first rains, the grass seeds germinate and trees produce new leaves. Underthe
hot, wet
conditions the grasses grow quickly and can reach a height of three or four
meters before
fiowering and producing new seeds. The seemingly endless plains of the Serengeti (Tanzania)
and
Maasai Mara (Kenya) resemble a vast green sea occasionally interrupted by
acacia trees. The
acacias, with their crowns flattened by the trade winds, provide welcome
shelter for wildlife.

The vegetation of these areas has been altered over a period of time by fire, either started
deliberately or as a result of electrical storms. More recently, areas nearer the desert margins
have experienced desertification mainly from pressures resulting from rapid population growth.
Trees and shrubs have been removed for fuel wood. As settlements and cultivated areas
increase, many nomadic herders, like the Fulani in West Africa and the Maasai in East Africa, find
theirtraditional grazing grounds reduced in size. This leads to overgrazing and soil erosion in the
areas to which they are restricted,

Mediterranean climate and vegetation

Climate
Places with a Mediterranean climate are usually found on the west coast of continents between
latitude 30 degrees and 40 degrees north and south of the Equator. Apart from the area
surrounding the lt/lediterranean sea in Europe, where the climate does extend inland from west
coast, this climate is also found in California, Central Chile, around Cape Town is south Africa
and in parts of southern Australia. The climate is characterised by hot dry summers and warm,
wet winters.

L
.'.r f r:l','ll.' /t.lI\
t i7:|!.:1. i t t: lrt t ti :3. i
1 f,,.

'i:frt:tl;*li l;i&

tt', lttt 2A, 4 l:.*'{'(:,

b* a'
.".,t:.urtwli gz -rrrtl I. n'
ikl:tL, ! t t tti!,11tf n4
,t:ttt'{tt }".1 } |;111t fltt!"'' " t,
 Sumrners are hot, for although the sun never shines directly from overhead, it
dges neach a high
angle in the sky. Also during summer, the prevailing wind blows from the land.
As the land is hot
at this time of the year, the prevailing wind
will bring with it very warm weather. The
kle.dlterrxn*frn illim*te
It{ltanya, Igr:el exception is places actually next to the sea
aFs (therefore not applicable to Europe) where

F
1{E
s
the cooler sea lowers temperatures
9Jt F
.5 t:H appreciably. As the wind also blows across
* rs€ E Erir,t*:l
-ff rilE 'E Efi
-I*rqr$pp:{ut* a dry surface it cannot pick up moisture.
.F
1s €a Apart from an occasional thunderstorm,
E t-
rs 5
most places are therefore dry, cloudless
s 1!
Jrn tlrr lJry ,J'-{ $rp }lru and sunny for several months.
Frrb .f$r ..&ri1 ,qi{, ffrt Fe.*

Winters are warm for although the sun is now at a lower angle in the sky, it is still higher than
places further from the equator like Britain. The nearby sea, which remains relatively warm
at
this time of the year, also helps to keep coastal places warm. However, the prevailing wind has
reversed its summer direction and now blows from the sea. lt brings with it warm, moist air
which, as it is forced to rise over the many coastal mountains, gives large amounts of relief
rainfall and, at higher altitudes, snow. Even so, wet days are usually separated by several which
are warm and sunny.

Vegetation
The natural vegetation of the Mediterranean lands is woodland and scrub. At one time most
Mediterranean hillsides were extensively wooded. Where this is still so, they are dominated by
evergreen oaks and conifers (e.g cork, oak, conifers, Corsican pine). Elsewhere, where forests
have been destroyed by natural fires or cut down for human needs, a scrub type of vegetation
has developed. ln Europe there are two major types if scrub :

Maquis, which is dense, tangled undergrowth more typical on granite and other
impermeable rocks. (ex. laurels, myrtles, olives, figs).
Garigue, which is a much sparser, lower-lying scrub with many aromatic plants that
develop on limestone and other permeable rocks. ln California, a similar type of
sagebrush scrub is ca!led chaparral. (Ex of garigue vegetation rosemary, lavender, sage
and wild thyme).

Adaptation to the summer drought

All these types of vegetation have had to adapt to the summer drought. The vegetation often
h as:
o Either small, waxy, glossy leaves or sharp thorns in order to reduce the amount of
moisture lost by transpiration. Rosemary can achieve this by curling up its leaves.
o A protective bark which acts as a seal against heat as well as transpiration loss.
. Long tap roots to reach underground water supplies.
o A short life cycle which avoids times of drought. Aromatic herbs and other plants
germinate during winter rains, flower in spring, and lie dormant (inactive) during the
summer drought.

@Mr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

Human mismanagement
Due to
various human activities over many centuries, little of the natural Mediterranean
vegetation remains, especially in Europe. Vegetation has been affected by:
r Deforestation) Trees have been cut down either to create space for farming or
settlement, to use for fuel, or for the construction of ships and buildings. Much of the
natural forest was cleared long ago in the time of the ancient Greek and Roman Empires.
Once deforested, the hillsides become vulnerable to soil erosion during the heavy winter
rains.
r Grazing animals) Herds of sheep and, especially, goats eat leaves of young trees before
the plants have time to re-establish themselves.
I Fire) Forest fires, sometimes started deliberately, have added to the destruction of
vegetation.

Tropical Desert climate and vegetaion

Hot Desert Climate
Shurvaikh, Kuurait
Climate 100 40
Hot deserts are places with high anual 80
300
c
temperatures, less than 250mm of rain a year, F
.-=, __
bu E

and a high evaporation rates. Apart from the =

J tu E I!l
^^ Rainfatl

';44{) H- Temperature
E
sahara, which extends across Africa, most E
20
ro#
deserts are located on west coast of 0 o
Jan Llar l"lay Jul SeF Ho'J
continents between latitudes tedegrees and 30 Feb Apr Jurr fug 0c* Dec

degrees norttr and south of the equator. The most important include the Kalahri-Namib in
southern Africa, the Arabian southern Asia, the Atacama in South America, the
Californian f Arizona in North America and the Australian desert.

8 | @Vr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

Temperatures are highest when the sun is directly overhead, but cooler when it is in the opposite
hemisphere. Coastal areas are also much cooler, partly beacuse of the influence of the asea and
partly beacuse of off-shore cold ocean currents. lnlan, and away from the influence of the
sea,
cloudless skies allow day temperatures to rise to 50 degrees celcius and night temperatures
to
fall to below freezing' Altough deserts are very dry, none are completely rainless. The lack of rain
is due to a combination of reasons:

a Prevailing winds blow from the dry land and cannot pick up moisture.
a Prevailling wiunds have to cross mountain barriers which create rain shadows.
a Airwhich rose into the atmosphere as convectio,currents on the equator descendsithese
latitudes. As it descends it warms, creates areas of high pressure, and gives clear skies.
When winds do blow from the sea, they are cool and unable to pick up much moisture.

The plants of the Desert habitat area have adapted to its dry,
hot extremes by using both physical and behavioral
mechanisms. Plants that have adapted by altering their physical
structure are called xerophytes. Xerophytes, such as cacti,
usually have special ways of storing and conserving water. They
often have few or no leaves, which reduces water loss.
Phraetophytes are plants that have adapted to living in the
desert by growing very long roots, allowing them to get their
moisture deep within the earth, at or near the water table.
Perennials {plants which live for years) and annuals (plants
which live one season) also have behavioral adaptations. The
perennials survive by remaining dormant during the dry periods
and come to life when water is available. Annuals germinate
after heavy rain and complete their reproductive cycle quickly.
They bloom for a few weeks in spring. Their seeds remain
dormant in the soil until the next year's rain. Below are a few of
the adapataions of the plants you will find in the desert.

o Plants such as cctai have thick, waxy skins to reduce transpiration, and fleshy stems in
which to store water. (Ex Saguaro cactai, prickly pear cactus),
. Many plants have thin, spiky or glossy leaves, also to reduce transpiration. Some Cactai
have thorns instead of leaves to stop animals from eating them.
r Plants have long roots to tap underground supplies of water.
o Seeds can lie dormant for several years. A fetr a heavey shower they germinate rapidly.
The plants complete their life-cycle within two or three weeks. After a period of rain the
desert literally'blooms' with flowering plants.
Desert Animals
The two main adaptations that desert animals must make are how to deal with lack of water and
how to deal with extremes in temperature. Many desert animals avoid the heat of the desert by
simply staying out of it as much as possible.

9 | OVtr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

On the other hand since water is so scarce, most desert animals get their water from the food
they eat: succulent plants, seeds, or the blood and body tissues of their prey.
Desert animals prevent water leaving their bodies in a number of different ways. Some, like
kangaroo rats and lizards, live in burrows which do not get too hot or too cold and have more
humid (damp) air inside. These animals stay in their burrows during the hot days and emerge at
night to feed.
Many animals are nocturnal, sleeping during the hot day and only coming out at night to eat and
hunt. Some animals rarely spend any time above ground.
Other animals have bodies designed to save water. Scorpions and wolf spiders have a thick outer
covering which reduces moisture loss. The kidneys of desert animals concentrate urine, so that
they excrete less water. Below you will find a sampling of the animals that inhabit the desert,
along with a few interesting facts about each.

The camel) Nicknamed "ships of the desert", camels are the most recognizable desert animals.
Camels always overeat and stock extra food as fat in their humps. When there is no water,
camels start shedding pounds. While most animals die if they lose 20% of their body weight,
camelscanfunctioneveniftheylose25%oftheirbodyweight. Someotherpointsarethatthe
camel's feet are wide so they can walk on sand more easily. Their huge feet help them to walk on
sand without sinking into it and they have thick lips so they can eat the prickly desert plants
without feeling pain. They also have long eye lashes to avoid any sand entering into their eyes.

Aantelopes strategy is that their survival tip is not to drink water. Well, antelopes get enough
moisture from just licking dew and eating plants. When the temperature gets too hot, they rest
in shade.

The desert ,scorpion is a typical animal dwelling in sandy deserts. Some adaptations are by
burrowing underground during the day to escape the heat, coming out at night to hunt and eat
due to the cooler temperatures. They can also conserve water because they have thick skin.

Kangaroo)ln orderto survive the heat and dryness of their environment, kangaroo burrow into
the dirt, in order to take away the top layer, which is heated by the Sun, to get to the cool dirt
underneath. They also obtain most of their moisture needs from the food they eat, and do not
need to take in extra water.
Kangaroo have well developed hind legs. The animal uses its legs to escape from predators, and
it is able to leap very high.

Features of erosion in a desert

Desert scenery is formed by weathering and erosion by water and more significantly by wind.
The great difference between the daytime temperatures and the night temperatures causes the
rock surface to expand and contract to the extent that it cracks and becomes exfoliated. This is
known as onion-skin weathering. To our great surprise, water has also formed some interesting
features in the desert. First of all, in geological times deserts were wetter and water formed
many features which can still be found today. Secondly, although rainfall is scarce in hot deserts,
when this comes it is in short heavy bursts which can affectthe shape of the rocks.

10 | Owr. P. Bonnici& E. Mangion Geography Department

 Water as an agent in the formation of desert scenery
ffi. wadi)A-wdru-alfver-clemel![aL!.as*b.qer&rugd_-e*
taJ*S.
tJ&&_,,l*
SeIne"-€s!yritn:ry.Le'*F!"Lw|ieh*r'*"!_oJ*_dry_en"q__
fills with water onlv a
Ftu,*S'*
#**{- fofL *n* #'
*.** r&&
Iso|ated HiIIs) An.q_tbcr.Jmp_ff_t$.t tl$as_
- -b.ss"n*
formed
s---'-.--"-__,J*
bv

@
water in hot deserts are a series of isolated hills
which have formed when running water glP I cut deepp
d
_! llg=w -c.! !_ 9 . 9-

trenches in the floor where thetock was soft, leaving

_behind a number of hills which resisted erosion
tu**'-
he"S,C,.Ute""*IllSJ -".W"gJ*-e' -!]sl.*"W. lf these hills have

,r_qyld_ed-tp_p;
*"**-*-'.-*\sq*__
they are called .&&-6.".-e
jJrselberg_es, but if their
are llg[they aie The lisflat are of
unding"tHese hills is known as a pediment.
#p"

+.
Buttes) A butte is a conspicuous isolated hill with steep, often v8rtical sides and a small,
relatively flat top; buttes are smaller than mesas. ,i;r":;.t. ,,i ., :

Plavas) A plevs'J g-qry.:s"eg!*9lJr99.ll9-lgt99i!J!t-r-Lgy-9*lgll*ollt

ltg'*t=l_og:git .
bpsjn* lt is a location where ephemeral lakes form during wet periods, and is r"derlam by
stratified clay, silt, and sand, and commonly, soluble salts. Although playas may appear as
featureless plains, they are rich in features and characteristics that can reveal information about
climates, past and present. f\# yege"*-e".b-;*n r-esr"SXa3 c$:y
ct*ryr", " "! a ,, #d*J-
€**g3L, Sffiq*

Landforms produced by wind in the deserts

Wind action is very powerful in deserts and other dry regions. Erosion by wind is caused either by
abrasion or deflation. Abrasion happens when the wind carries sand [particles which attack the
rock and scratch it as they hit it. Deflation is when sand is blown away from the surface of a
desert. Wind erosion is responsible for a number of features:

Deflations Hallows) ln some areas the sand is blown 1.:ri*v,ail:irrul+incl

'"-""4' r*n:dlrrr*?ov@df{om
' tl're riepra:rion
away by the wind to form a deep valley which may tl$f restic:tt'a by th* wtnl is
prr:o)ut:,ud d*p*xt*4 as dunr!
sometimes reach the water table to form an oasis. A hy drfl;rtic,n

good example is the Qattara Depression in Egypt, which

is 1-22m deep.

wa'ler w*ps *tfi al agurt*r and

formr rw*mp: ol *n oaSit

@Mr. P, Bonnici & E" Mangion Geography Department

 ie ss tesrsial]t Rock Pedestals) Rock pedestals also known as
resists nt rock
mushroom rock, these are strange shapes produced by
wind at a very fast speed and carrying sand particles.
Erosion is concentrated at the base and the middle of
the rock because wind cannot lift the sand particles.
resistant rock
is worn away
rnore slowl-y Yardangs) When layers of soft rock and hard rock lay
next to each other in a hot desert region, the wind
abrasion
attacks and erodes the soft rock, forming deep valleys
is greatest
near tr: and leaving behind ridges of hard rock called yardangs.
glround level

Zeugen) Wind abrasion turns the desert surface into a

rccky mass forrned of
alternate layers of resirtant ridge and furrow landscape, e.g. various areas in
ancl less-resista nt rock
Bahrain.

r-l rr clercLrt vtind abrasion develops

,l:y r,vind furlcws in the less-
a[:rasicn resi:tant rrrcks
1

cilrecti*rl r:f
"'''',.
X:'rev;*i?i:ng zeugen
r"q.,ind

height ot
3mto30m
less rcsistant
rock

Iess- resistant r*rk forms

r,E:,istant btock-like ridger
rt:ck ralled zeugens

Barchans) These are sand dunes that are less common and height can vary between 2 and 30
meters. They are crescent-shaped and form in this way because wind blows from the same
direction' The horns form because the wind deposits some sand on the sides of the dune.

Monsoon
Monsoon climate is found in lndia, Bangladesh, Thailand, the Philippines, South-western Africa,
French Guiana and south-eastern Brazil.

The countries located in monsoon climate experience plentiful rainfall like that of the equatorial
climate countries but almost all of the years rainfall is received in summer months. As they are
located quite near the equator, the tropical monsoon climate experiences warm temperatures
throughout the year and the average temperaiure of every month is usually over ( 21' C
).

Ttre-re- ef€- .tt-,"-d-' -:!f,r--g*.1"i lr b{c: r'q$o.r 6-lrr'"i^gh* ,,

i . Fl.v.": tlad,,*
-'1j*.*-\\n \-,n.i€-€\ {vv:}d^}-r{'r{-:ji'\ '"Ss.o:r.r",-r"

N,i crv^H: Fcl-*-F fln*,rtr;f-r*lrl , r"r.Jr.\\t'-f

@Mr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department
Temperature
The temperatures in the areas falling underthe monsoon climatic zone remain high all year. For
instance at Manila, the capital of the Philippines , the average annual temperature
is {26.7 "C)
but the difference between the hottest and coolest month is only (4 "C The
). monsoon climate,s
temperature range is somewhat similar to that of Equatorial climate but shows a slight
dip in the
cooler months.

Rainfall
The concentration of almost all of the year's rainfall in the summer months is the most
prominent characteristic feature of the monsoon climate. Again referringto the
climatic data for
Manila we find out that it has total annual rainfall of (2069 mm) of which summer rainfall is
(1918 mm) which accounts for more than 90 percent while the winter precipitation
is only (300
mm) which is less than 10 percent of the total annual rainfall. Thus the rainfall pattern is highly
seasonal; typical of monsoon climates.

The monsoon Effect

The highly seasonal rainfall pattern of these areas is due to monsoon effect, The monsoon is a
seasonal change in wind direction, ln summer when the land gets much hotter than the oceans,
the direction of wind is from ocean towards the land. As the wind is saturated with moisture
which it picks up from the ocean, so it gives heavy rains to the tropical monsoon lands. ln winter
the direction of wind is reversed.Nowthe land is coolerthan the oceans sothe wind direction is
from the lands towards the oceans. As the wind moves over the land so it is dry and so brings
little or no rain to monsoon lands, This is the reason of the huge difference between the rainfall
figures for warmer and cooler months.

ln a nut shell
monsoon season is a

welcome relief to
drought conditions in
many areas of the
N*'
world. Monsoons can t"{cy<Y
also bring about
widespread famine
and enough rain to
kill hundreds of
people in floods.

:D
,b ,' Eastern m
Lands -
I
go'ti

,Cj'inSeern Cti^^e^,fe* c',c1 #''^"ot ;n€car tt€ Trcp r c5

@Mr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

Case study, lndian Monsoon

g!$lllllEm ffifiI{S$t}H
El[ll{TEfr frCl$'H$t}&ru WIHIIS
during monsoon rains. Despite the potential for destruction, the summer monsoons are
welcomed in lndia. Farmers depend on the rains to irrigate their land. Additionally, a great deal
of lndia's electricity is generated by water power provided by the monsoon rains.
lndia's climate is
dominated by
monsoons. Monsoons are strong,
often violent winds that change
direction with the season. Monsoon
winds blow from cold to warm
regions because cold air takes up
more space than warm air.
Monsoons blow from the land
toward the sea in winter, and from
the sea toward land in the summer.
lndia's winters are hot and dry. The
monsoon winds blow from the
northeast and carry little moisture.
The temperature is high because the
Himalayas form a barrier that
SSI.HtrS prevents cord air rrom passins onto
the subcontinent. Additionally, most
of lndia lies between the Tropic of
Cancer and the equator, so the sun's
rays shine directly on the land. The
temperature can reach as high as
110oF during the lndian winter.
The summer monsoons roar onto
the subcontinent from the
southwest. The winds carry moisture
from the lndian Ocean and bring
heavy rains from June to September.
The torrential rainstorms often
cause violent landslides. Entire
virlages have been swept away

Pakistan is much drier than lndia. The summer Chittagong / sanstadesh

27 rn 22'21'N/91"50'E
monsoon winds in lndia bring moisture from the 1'litfl
5t*
lndian Ocean; Pakistan is north of the ocean and
4*t)
receives much less rain. The Thar Desert is on the :3*Q

border between lndia and Pakistan. lt covers ztto

itJ*
more than 77,A00 square miles, about the size of
Nebraska. 30 *r
2B 4"1:

10 2{)
(]
JFMAMJJASOND *
1474E 1

OMr. P. Bonnici & E. Mangion Geography Department

-

Which job goes into which category?:

lndustry

he word industry
covers a range of activities which may involve
making, supplying or delivering goods and
services to a
number of people.

Types of work

Primary lndustries

These are extensive industries which

means that .thefggt raw._ae]er!4s_ frq-nn,
thS ElqqtC, .!he l.qa-"or,
Jhe air. some
p ri m a ry exa m p es a re;
fa.rr"0{rg, f-o-r:g gUy*
I

fi th ilF-, q y?t yi_ns an

UI$nE,*
Secondary lndustries

These are where raw materials are

ll].e- finishing goods, Jobs within this

industry includes jobs in the
manufacturing industries which means
that they make things. Examples of this
i n d u st ry are; anqqn t e{.s, f o-q d p ro ce
-c s. s u_r&
car * a$erybly, aqngfpgturiu_, and
buildlrg-
Tertiary industries
..Jr
'::it:

Ihgy pJqvide,q sery.tce. For example, a

shop keeper provides a service by selling
goods and a doctor provides a service
by
looking after our health. Some tertiary
industry examples are; workers workins

and caterins.
%

Quaternary industries
ri l':
,:rl. t..l
I :,:
These include pgqple who preyides
:;:it

tlre abgve -ssgtors. Some quaternary

industries include; .rgsgetqh,
.de*Sie.n.
en ei! e-erilg an d go m qulAr- grqe|ap i n e.,
 This classification makes it easy to explore the link between providing the raw materials (primary
industry), turning these raw materials into finished product (secondary industry),
and selling them
(tertiary industry). Also many jobs in tertiary industry are supported by earnings
of primary and
secondary industry so this relationship can also be looked at.

Comparing Employment structures

Employment structures can change over time and it also can differ from country to another. pie
charts
are normally used to show the proportion of people working in three different sectors.

UK
2%

25%-- -. ,_22%
r Primary r
I Primary
r Secondary
Secondary
Iertiary
r Tertiary

The pie chart for Bangladesh shows that the highest portion of the population
work in the primary
industries like farming, while an MEDC countries like the UK has a high proportion
of workers that are
engaged in the tertiary industry. Employment structures can also change
over time within the same
country' ln UK in 1800, most people would have been employed in the primary
sector (75%). During the
industrial revolution, more people were needed to build ships work in steel
making and with textiles. By
1900 over half of the workers in the UK were employed in secondary industries
(55%).

The demand for work increased in schools, hospitals and retail industries.
Many people left the rural
areas in the search for jobs in the towns and cities. By the year 2000 over half
of the UK workforce were
employed in tertiary industries. This has changed the work people do, and also where
they work.
Quaternary industries are a relatively new concept, and it is becoming a growing sector in the UK
as many
firms want to carry out research and development for their products.
 Regional Employment structure

Employment structures are used to show differences between places in several manners such as:

.c-hanesrln-eltsleytss$Jrrssrul€-*

f tt,
r/
fr Primary -tr **ry ?,Btr!,ffflft
il Secondary .t'
1 ff|s
r,
I I,ffi,S00
n Tertiary sfls,ffifi
!0s.0ffs

Most often the richer, industrialised llgrqecglglltqAllyjgyelqpd qgunttes_{ME_D_GIhye _a_hish

P9,[9lt189ll-thg9-e-LqNgty-:gglgl*Atd-e--v.gryl$rgqrgelrlese rnJIe pltq]alJ-sector. while the poorer,

lettt'ldutl':i"ljtedjet-rqge{LonrsallyCqvs].we{q9*!glq-:JlF-o-9t-).llqu",}_y-q_oJIl?:t, f,igl'!
i! priTq|L:gqH "yery
(-[gsljtlgfillt gj"d _q[C-l !9_!y pstcgllegqi'] bolh l]re recqndarv ano
,

Pgrclntase lhe
Jelvice sector! .-d}o{l,^ir}g
- , *( ;s,-r-fYrp\e*, L,\\4. tsr{i$ {'\ruc)r"t: pe*Ere-
r {\ !\te- \*-r !iar'1 ,*r(}u^'s\'1 L'tJlri \€-
' e-
Triangular graph \ n B ancltc.cl,*-:it" tn t r<- cL{ fl\d'sq
p{,-cq:\r J*t*"^g rfi Lv"e Pr 't"r'c'-Y
lnd,",,t::[.-1 . o
A triangular graph is an equilateral 100
t5
triangle with each of its three 20 ?0
'bases' divided into percentage 30 80
scales. Each base represents one of 40 70
the three variables, primary, Prinnary
50 60 Secondary
secondary and tertiary activities. 60

70
-ao Js
ln Place A there are !5Yo in the BO 30

primary industry, 35% working in 2E

the secondary industry and 50 %in 10

the tertiary industry. rl

2rl 3n a0 SO 60 70 80 gil r0B
Tertiary
 lndustry as a system

lndustries are different in terms of the scale of their operations. Some are small and operate in the local
area, others are large and have world wide operations, However there are similarities and differences in

the ways in which industries work whether their operations are small scale or large scale.

One way of describing how the manufacturing industry works is to view it as a system. A 5ystem is a way.

pl"_o_lggnpit_1g 1q.g.gtiyitg|t iq made up -efjr€g_tFlff99gjseg q.nd elr_tpJtr

Jnpv.ll-* *-PtggesseJ _ 9qtPutl'

These are the raw These are jobs or activities that These are often the finished
materials that go into take place in a factory. goods, which are sold to make a
making a product. profit for the company.

llpqtq
- Proqessg*s
A$ru$--
Physical (natural) and First processing stage e.g. pulp,
human/economic (artifi ci steel
Waste, e.g. slag
inputs.
Products for sale
;" Second processing stage. E.g.
E.g: timber, iron ore newspapers or assembling of
parts. E.g. cars

ffiffiM
;r**3 t* f re :"rf,.flre*. ti i,,:eq h.h,.m ,l,n*:ffi.t$ n, ,;,f !Yr *,ru ieq*q.,]ffi ?.f*fl

Different industries have specific needs of factors which influence their

location. Factories may be -built*bu_anJ_0diyidu3-LenjlepJgnetrL such as a
private firm, a nationalised company or a transnational corporation. Before
the factory is built, however decisions have to be made as to which will be
the bgst si.tgj,oJ lo-cgti.An. Where several sites are available, the individual or
company must decide which is likely to provide the best location. ln many
cases this decision is determined by predicting which site_gil giyg !he_
greatest profit. This will be where the costs of materials, land energy, labour
and transport ale mtnimLsed and where there is a.large_nallgt for the
p rqq U.c.t, _Th e d ec i s i o n s m ay a I so b e aff ected lylgvSMgllgdgg J,_

Physical factors affecting lnciustry location

rw materials
Manufacturing industries like steelmaking rely on bulky raw materials, for
example coal and limestone, which are expensive to transport. The bulkier
and heavier these are to transpo.rt, .

*glhgj.agffggfhh.This was even more important when transport was less

developed.

l-o*Ygt"
ln the past it was important for factories to be close to power supplies.
P.p,w_e"!:,Jg_CIgs{edJg-*w*o:Lths.m_eEbjg€SjnJk&*g1:y. Each industry needed
to be sited near to fast flowing rivers or coal reserves, but today electricity
be transported long distances.
_c_an

lYelg#lrsttt.e:-
River valleys and flat areas were essential in the days before the railway, car
o r I o rrv.
W*erias*edsgJs-edgg-l*tgs--a$a:*l*[at=1"* d.
Often the cheapest and most suitable sites are on greenfield locations away
from the city.

ln the nineteenth century it was

Site and land
physical factors such as the
Although every industry did not at first take up much space, it did need flat source of raw materials (e.g.

Iand. _n*9Jgje!^qJi.Lnggd9g. IdeaIIy such sites

iron ore) and sources of energy
(eg. lron ore) and sources of
should be low quality farmland were the cost of purchase is lower. ln the last
energy (e.g. coal) which
century many sites were in today's inner city areas whereas now they tend determined industrial locations.
to be on edge-of-city greenfield locations.
 Human and economic factors

Labour

This inclu both nti arge numb

v
lndustries that rely on a large workforce, like car production,
#rgil
t'end to be found close to or within easy reach of cities where many of
their workers and customers live. Labour intensive factories such as
clothing factories are often found in inner cities.

eqPital (npney)
F
I\
Early industry developed on wealthy entrepreneurs. Now II
banks and
governments may provide the money.

"lVgt-ell _

Manufacturers do not like to be far from their markers

as this increase
costs. The size and location of markets have become more important
than the source of raw materials. For example, sony decided to
make
televisions in Britain to be nearer to its European markets.
The Eu is a
market of nearly 350 million, mainly wealthy, people.

T.ranspo*_li[ks

Factories need to be located close to good transport links to ensure that

the raw materials they need and the finished products they
manufacture
are moved with ease. cost increase when items moved
are bulky, fragile,
heavy or perishable. Many industries prefer to locate
near to motorway
junctions.

Economies of scale

small units may become unprofitable and so mere with, or

are taken over
by other firms.
the late twentieth
century, the three main
factors declining industrial
Government policies
location were more likely to
As governments tend to control most wealth, they can influence industry be nearness to a large

location. market, the availability of

skilled labourer, and
ment policies.
 \T
i1 {T1,\/
i"{
r iJ *h :q } 1 rnroa/ ",,} 1,r-a rq s'3
' ' r : $ I " ar I f I { i'\ * "-lJ
:"J
lqte t.qgndqry qgtiy_ilg: ._?! bg e,r-gyqg{_ ?gggfglfelg-tl_ql
lq.rl-gl Heavy industries rety on butky raw
materials and tend to be found close to them, to reduce transport
costs. Although this physical factors
were more important in the past.Nqgedryr
?€a..qle*in*9sa&_

Modern replacements industries many of which are high technology and

connected with electronics
'employ fewer people
and are often located away from the traditionai manufacturing
areas. They are said
to be footloose, as not being tied to raw materials, they have a relatively free choice
of location. Light or
footloose industries can locate almost anywhere, provided that communications
are good. lnfact,
footloose industries have come about due to the development in transport
network. Footloose industries
often have spatially fixed costs, which means that the costs of the products
do not change despite where
the product is assembled. Diamonds and computer chips are some examples
of footloose industries.
These industries can be located at a wide variety of places as
these are not weight losing or raw material
specific' Moreover, they produce in relatively small quantities, employing
smaller workforce and are
considered to be more efficient from an ecological point of view.
rn the past, manufacturing industries
werefoundclosetotheirrawmaterials.Nowwithdevelopmentsoft,,n,po,t,M
Todaymanyproductsaremadeonindustrialestates
located close to the city. These newer industries have;

routes.

!-njh_e*gege__ell.,sl"'en g -v-g.t.rlmen!.policiq9, w,-e-.11e,Lglg-gte{. t_g_]-o-gate.Jhes"e industrigs_ in

U

Higf ty specialised quaternary activities like research take place

in science parks. The widespread use of
computers, modems and the lnternet will probably allow more people
to work from home in the future
or in smallcommunities known as tele cottages, such as those already
in existence in rural areas of south
Wales.

Task B:

Which are the two major factors which is affecting the location
of the industry?

Mention and explain three physical aspects which influence the location
of an industry.
\ea't icx-r-cl ft).c-"r-_) r\.\a{ .} q *-r'c-r,t: 'Delrx-r q.r rreri\zub;
r-J*-*=ri-,c^

Mention and explain three human and economic aspects which influence
the location of an industry.
&r\,.*e-}" tO-\c *._*-r- ,'Fo.,it r 11\ tzll _\

{ce:r--.4}t }y ) {y,{- r-i'14,2\.,€y i {:a (l

4. What is a footloose industry?
$-r ni lr: c,r ir-'C

5. Which are the two main aspects which can influence the location of the new footloose industry?

6. Mention four products that can be produced from a footloose industry.

z. lJ ; n rh irn.j 5

4. ${s gr \(a

i\,X 3 I
{, t- * %ir'\'.,.4
,:X
4 * '+, :'& I .,\ t'%'-^^ Fry ,w )ft t?
'$
t, :r4
r.l 4 1 11 {
1. t.{i{1d;:.q $

i ''
..2 .l

p.-e- n-
i d.g st r! a I
i s.a ti o n

D-eindustrializa-tion !s a process of social,and eco-nomic change caqsed by thq removal oq. rg.g[ption of
industrial cqpgcity or qclivilV in a country-or region, especially heavy industry or.manufacturing industry.
It is an opposite of industrialization. There are many reasons why there could be a decline in certain
industries such as in the primary and secondary industries. These include;
r ffi€chanisation and automation. This mean that fewer people are needed in factories.

. Lack of money for upgrading factories. Some industries which do not upgrade their system can
result in business loss.

. Competition from newly industrialised countries producing similar products that are cheaper.
Examples of such countries include South Korea and Taiwan, who can manufacture products more
cheaply and efficiently.

Deindustrialization is happening in various places . Due to this change there will be several impacts.
Unemployment can have a devastating effect upon individuals, families, economy of the country and
society at large. lt can result in:

. High levels of poverty

. lncreased levels of crime and vandalism

. Low educational achievement and expectations

. People may loose their homes

. Local shops close because people can't afford to use them.

. Families may break up.
10
lnd ustria I Cha nge

South Wales

There were time when the industrial landscape of wates was littered with chimney stacks and smoke.
These were signs that the region was dominated by heavy industry. During the 1820s there were over a
quarter of a million coal miners in South Wales. This industry became centred on places like Ebbw vale
and Merthyr Tydfil, by 1850 there were 35 ironworks in the area.

Whole villages were constructed in linear patterns along the valley floors, and these were totally
dependent upon their local iron works. ln 1856 an improvement in iron smelting meant that it became
economic to manufacture steel rather than the previously brittle iron. After l-860, steel works slowly
began to replace iron foundries. By the 1970s there were only two steelworks left in South Wales. These
were not located in the valleys but on the coast at Port Talbot and Llanwern. This is because many of the
initial advantages for steel making no longer existed. Only a handful of coalmines remained opened and
the iron ore had long since been exhausted. As both these raw materials needed to be imported, it was
logical to build any new modern steelworks on the coast at break of bulk locations. Break of bulk is when
a product has to be transferred from one form of transport to another a process that takes both time and
money. Therefore, it was easier and cheaper to have the new steelworks where the imported raw
materials were unloaded, rather than transporting them to the older inland works. Added to this, it was a
government decision, as they were helping financially to locate the new sites on the coast.

The number of miners and collieries declined dramatically. Coal was a major source of fuel and helped
provide the power needed to lndustrial revolution. South Wales also had the raw minerals needed to
make steel; Limestone, iron ore and coal. Coal and steel were the two biggest industries in the region and
part of their success was due to the fact that Britain still had an empire which was a ready market for coal
and steel.

1-L
Today coal mines are more likely to be tourist attractions. The last British Coal owned mine closed in
L994, although a small number of privately run mines still operate. The steelworks that remain are found
on the coast because they now rely on imported coal and iron ore. Reasons for the decline in coal mining
included:

. The Uk lost many of its markets for coal.

. Competition from Japan and South Korea destroyed the coal using industries.

. All the easily worked coal seams were exhausted.

. Natural gas is now a major source of fuel so demand for coal has fallen.

Regenerating South Wales

ln recent years, however, unemployment has fallen and South Wales has succeeded in diversifying by
attracting a range of different industries. The Welsh Development Agency was set up to attract new
investments into Wales. Parts of South Wales were given Enterprise Zone status. This meant that new
companies locating in the area did not have to pay local taxes, and received help with planning. The work
of the Welsh development Agency and the Enterprise Zone have helped to change the industrial scene in
South Wales.

As a result, many large industrial estates have emerged on the southern edge of the old coalfield where
the road links are better. Grants and loans were given to new companies. This, combined with a pool of
skilled workers acted as a magnet for foreign firms like Sony Bosch and Toyota, who have all set up
factories in South Wales.

16 Km,
'1
ffi
ffr,:
q 10.fllil6s

L2
 The Rhine-Ruhr region in Germany

The Rhine is Eastern Europe's largest river. The Ruhr is

western Europe's largest coal field. lt is not
surprising therefore that where they meet is the largest region
of manufacturing industry in the EU.
There are many large, well-known industrial towns. cologne
and Dusseldorf are located on the banks of
the Rhine others such as Dortmund and Essen are on the coalfield
north of the Ruhr valley.

For many years the region was dominated by heavy industries

such as iron and steel, engineering, metal
smelting and chemicals, just the same as in south wales or North
East England. The original reasons for
growth were also the same. Local coal provided the large
amounts of power heavy industries needed.
The River Rhine passing through the area was a big advantage.
lt is navigable by 2000 tonne barges. This
allows bulky raw materials to be brought in using cheap water
transport. The River Rhine remains a major
asset' lt is a busy water highway with links northwards to the
North sea shipping lanes and southwards
into the heart of Europe' As a cheaper way of transporting raw
materiars, fuels and large manufacturing
goods than road or rail, it allows the region to overcome
the disadvantage of its inland location.
ln other ways its inland location is a great advantage because the
Rhine-Ruhr is in the middle of the
richest part of the EU' lt is in the centre of the EU with more
that 350 million consumers.
There is a high
density of motorways and high speed railways, and many regional
airports. Nowhere in Europe is better
placed to take advantage of the increasing market
as the EU grows.

As a result, there are no longer just the old heavy and

textile industries in the region. cars are made near
cologne and Bochum' Hundreds of smaller companies make parts
for them. There are high tech
companies specializing in electronics and telecommunications
equipment. Many food and drink
manufacturers are here, as well as the logistics firms which
arrange their distribution. cologne has
become the region's administrative aqnd servixe centre
with numerous banks and offices; it has been
helped by its pleasant location on the banks of the Rhine.