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AMERICAN STUDIES
IN EUROPE

I
 Publications of

T H E A M E R I C A N I N S T I T U T E

U N I V E R S I T Y OF O S L O

In cooperation with the

D E P A R T M E N T OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION

Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

U N I V E R S I T Y OF PENNSYLVANIA
AMERICAN STUDIES
IN EUROPE
THEIR HISTORY
AND PRESENT ORGANIZATION

VOL. I

S I G M U N D SKARD
Professor of Literature, especially American,
University of Oslo

U N I V E R S I T Y OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA
© 1938 by the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania

Published in Great Britain, India, and Pakistan

by the Oxford University Press
London, Bombay, and Karachi
Published in Norway by Gyldendal Norsk Forlag
Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 57-11986

This publication
was largely subsidized by
Norges Almenvitenskapelige Forskningsrid,
the University of Oslo,
and the
Norwegian Ministry of Church
and Education

Printed in Norway by
A.S J O H N GRIEGS BOKTRYKKERI, BERGEN
 TO A L L
WHO COLLABORATED
IN T H I S BOOK
 PREFACE

In 1946 the Parliament of Norway established a chair of "Lite-

rature, especially American" at the University of Oslo.
T h e introduction of the new subject into the university curricula
provoked some discussion. In order to obtain an idea of the ways
in which American studies were organized elsewhere, the author
of this book collected some information in 1951 about their or-
ganization in a few of the countries of Western Europe.
These tentative samplings made it clear that interest in the
study of American Civilization in the widest sense was much more
general than was commonly known. Since the recent war discussion
had been going on in almost every European country about the
definition and scope, character and purpose of the new subject;
and the problems were the same everywhere. But there was little
coordination. Schools, universities and individuals were often
ignorant of the work that was being done in other countries, in
their own country, and even in neighbouring institutions or
faculties, and forged ahead on their own with a pioneering pride
which was the supreme sign of their isolation.
This book originated as an effort to serve this immediate need
for contact and cooperation. But the complexity of the subject
soon made it clear that even for practical purposes the present
could only be understood by tracing its development in the past.
American Studies could be isolated neither from their national
backgrounds nor from the general forces that have moulded the
American impact on Europe; and almost everywhere the tradition
of the subjects proved to go farther back and to contain more both
of variation and of consistency than had hitherto been realized.
What began as an administrative report, has thus ended as an
attempt to write the History of American Studies in Europe from
the American Revolution to the present day as one part of the
interrelations between the Old World and the New.
8 Preface

"Europe" is, in the following pages, understood in its traditional

geographical sense. T h e Soviet Union is included; so are Turkey
and Israel because of their ties with European tradition. T h e Uni-
versity of Algiers is regarded as a part of the metropolitan univer-
sity system of France, but no attention is paid to the many Common-
wealth and colonial connections of British learned institutions.
East Germany is discussed together with the other states in the
present Soviet-dominated zone.
T h e term "American" Studies in this book means the study of
the Civilization, past and present, of the United States of America,
principally the study of those aspects that are fundamental to all
national civilizations: human and cultural geography, political,
economic, social, religious, and intellectual developments, laws and
institutions, language, literature, and the arts. Particular importance
is attributed to literature. Less attention is paid to the study of North
America before 1776, and none at all to the study of the ethnology,
archeology, and cultural anthropology of the native American tribes.
"Studies" is taken to mean the systematic attempt to know and
understand these various aspects of American life as parts of an
American Culture. T h e r e are other kinds of "American Studies"
which may in quantity have meant even more to Europe, viz. the
adoption of American methods and procedures in technology,
medicine, economics, sociology, political science, psychology, philo-
sophy, and many other branches of learning. But even if these
efforts may often involve American material, they do not aim at
the understanding of American Civilization as such. They are
therefore not included in this book, with the exception of border-
line cases.
T h e survey is concerned with American Studies in secondary
schools (public and grammar schools, gymnasiums, lycées, etc.) and
at universities and other similar institutions of higher learning
and research. American Studies are also carried on today in many
other kinds of schools and institutions, and by way of other mass
media; these receive no attention in this book except when they
throw light upon the real subject. T h e survey is primarily con-
cerned with the institutional organization of the studies, — plans,
regulations and requirements, teaching, and examination practice.
Pertinent documents are quoted extensively, and some are reprinted
in full in the Appendices. W i t h regard to the secondary schools, a
sampling is made of typical textbooks in the most important
 Prejace 9

subjects, particularly for the period after 1945. T h e education of

girls and women, when organized separately, has been omitted for
the sake of simplification.
Higher learning forms the core of the book. An attempt has
been made to follow the development of academic American
Studies, their inclusion in curricula and syllabuses, the establish-
ment of chairs or teaching positions, the n u m b e r and subjects of
courses, the names of the teachers, and the general trend of their
work, at the universities of all the countries of Western Europe.
T h i s historical analysis leads u p to a survey of the situation in
each institution today. A similar picture, albeit more sketchy, is
presented of American Studies in the Mediterranean countries
and in Eastern Europe.
As a background, an outline is given in each chapter of the
research in American Civilization d u r i n g the various periods.
These references are offered as examples and without pretension;
the internal history of American scholarship in the nations of
Europe lies beyond the scope of the book.
As far as possible, a preliminary survey has been made of
available library resources in each country and institution. Atten-
tion is only paid to collections which are of importance to the
study of American Civilization in the narrower sense outlined
above. T h u s , the holdings of a library in "American periodicals"
has reference only to general and literary American reviews, not
to professional journals, for instance, in Medicine or Physics.
In order to facilitate the establishment of contacts, the book
is furnished with a list of European scholars who are now active
in teaching or research in American Civilization, at the universities
or outside them. T h i s list is open to criticism; it is of necessity
incomplete, and often arbitrary in its selection. But is was felt
that in this case the perfect might be the enemy of the useful.
Even within these limits the task has proved to be beset with
difficulties. T h e educational systems of Europe have always been
remarkable in their variety, not only from nation to nation, b u t
often from institution to institution, with complications that some-
times baffle even the natives. These varying conditions have been
subject to continuous change during the last 180 years, often as
part of political and social convulsions. T h e outline that is given
of this historical background is bound to suffer from all the defects
of generalization.
10 Prejace

T h e source material for the investigation itself was not easily

accessible. Research into archives could not be undertaken; and
even the printed sources, — government decrees, plans and regula-
tions, school journals and university gazettes, professional perio-
dicals, books and pamphlets, — were often hard to get at. Few
libraries keep complete files of the more ephemeral sources, even
for their own country. In some regions, material has perished by
fire and bombing; in others, the authorities are not eager to make
their publications available to foreigners. For some institution»
the material had to be pieced together from the holdings of librariei
in several countries.
For the universities, the main source of information has been
the lecture catalogues. It has proved possible to compile tolerably
complete lists of American courses at the most important universities
of Western Europe since the beginning of the 19th century, at a
few of them even from the late 18th century. These lists are printed
in the book in the service of future research. But the material is
in many ways unsatisfactory. T h e information given in the cata-
logues is often patchy, or does not correspond to the actual
teaching; for some types of courses the subjects are not indicated
at all. In the abstracts that have been made, only the subjects of
the courses could be listed, and not the number of teaching hours
involved. Several countries and periods could not be covered com-
pletely; and many details have certainly been overlooked during
the stultifying perusal of thousands of catalogues.
Naturally, only those courses could be listed that were explicitly
devoted to American subjects, wholly or in part. But such courses
never represented more than a section of the academic teaching
on American subjects. In all faculties the most weighty discussion
of American Civilization was frequently offered in general courses
and seminars; as a rule, such contributions cannot be ascertained.
This difficulty will occur in the investigation of any specific uni-
versity study; it does not reduce the value of the specialized courses
as indicators of the organization of American teaching and of its
relative importance. Nevertheless this shortcoming is serious and
must be borne constantly in mind.
T h e investigator soon discovers that even if all the printed
material in existence could be collected, it might still give a mis-
leading picture. T h e gap between regulations and actual practice,
between claim and achievement, is always wide in a new field,
 Prejace 11

and no less so when that field has the friendly backing of a

great foreign power. American Studies were always the focus of
conflicting interests, and are still controversial. T h e student of the
subject is often entangled in susceptibilities, national, professional,
and even personal, which make it hard to distinguish between
fiction and fact.
Since the plan of the book grew during the collection of material,
the completion of it has been much delayed; the manuscript was
written over a period of almost four years. This delay has in some
respects proved fortunate; the years from 1953 to 1957 were im-
portant to the growth of American Studies. But its slow production
has made the book uneven; especially in the first chapters, it has
not always been possible to bring the details up to date.
T h a t all these difficulties have to some extent, at least, been
overcome, is due to an extraordinary willingness to cooperate on
the part of authorities, institutions, and individuals in many parts
of Europe. T h e basic material was culled in the Education Depart-
ment of the University Library in Oslo. This material was supple-
mented by extensive information obtained by correspondence with
the Ministries of Education of virtually every government in
Western Europe. It was checked and added to by means of a
questionnaire on teaching and examination practice, sometimes
also on library facilities, which was circulated to practically all
universities in the region, addressed either to the Registrar or,
more usually, to one leading scholar in each of the following
subjects: English, History, Geography, Political Science and Law,
Economics, Philosophy, and Education. In all, such questionnaires
were circulated to about 600 scholars at about 160 universities, and
were answered by more than 350, with about the same percentage
of reply from nation to nation. In addition to answering these
questionnaires many of the scholars elaborated on special points
in continued correspondence; quite a number of them wrote broad
analyses of special problems. These letters and statements are not
infrequently quoted in the text, as a rule anonymously, since they
were not formally submitted for publication. For obvious reasons
questionnaires were not circulated to scholars in the countries of
Eastern Europe. All information given about those parts of the
world is based on publicly accessible printed material, which was
sometimes provided by the respective Embassies.
In addition, during the years from 1953 to 1956, the author was
12 Prejace

himself able to visit almost fifty universities in twelve European

countries. H e attended three national and two international
conferences on American Studies and made extensive minutes of
their proceedings. H e was able to work in a n u m b e r of libraries,
to supplement his printed material, and in many cases also to
sample the American holdings. Above all he could discuss and
check the material he had collected by personal interviews with
more than 200 officials, teachers, and scholars in Ministries, schools,
and universities.
When the manuscript had been drafted, the chapters together
with the list of scholars were again circulated in stencilled form
to almost 600 informants. More than 260 of them were kind enough
to add their- critical remarks and last-minute supplements, or even
to subject the relevant sections to a thorough revision.
All these contributions are listed in the Acknowledgements
below. No exhaustive account can however be given of the spirit
of helpfulness and active friendship in which this assistance was
extended. T h e author can only express his deep-felt gratitude for
this generous cooperation, for patience, confidence, and willingness
to voice an opinion. T h e personal views expressed in the book
are, however, those of the author, and are often at variance with
those of his informants.
T h e book could not have been written without free access
to the stacks and the unfailing patience of the staffs in a number
of great research libraries, above all the University Library in
Oslo, the University Libraries in Göttingen and Lund, the Bodleian
Library in Oxford and the University Library of the Sorbonne.
T h e author owes a special debt of gratitude to Mrs. Joan Tindale
Blindheim, M. A. (University of Oslo), Professor Paul Christopher-
sen (University of Oslo), Professor R. B. Davis (University of
Tennessee), Mr. Jaimes D. Edmondston (The British Council,
Oslo), Professor Leonard Lutwack (University of Maryland), Pro-
fessor John O. McCormick (Freie Universität, Berlin), Rev. Jörgen
Shaw (Princeton, N. J.) and Mrs. Alma G. Wolfe (Sonora, Calif.)
who have read parts of the manuscript, worked on the language,
and added much valuable advice; Mr. Edmondston has also read
the proofs. T h e author has enjoyed cooperation of many kinds from
his friends Dr. L. Ähnebrink (University of Uppsala) and Pro-
fessor Robert E. Spiller (Department of American Civilization,
University of Pennsylvania), his father-in-law, Dr. Halvdan Koht,
 Pujace 13

and his wife, dosent Ase Gruda Skard (both of the University
of Oslo).
T h e United States Information Service all over Europe has
assisted the work in countless ways with the greatest readiness to
serve; so have a number of Norwegian and United States Embassies.
A particular debt is due to Dr. Norman Nordstrand and Mr.
William Auman (the United States Embassy in Oslo). A grant from
the Rockefeller Foundation (Dr. Edward F. D'Arms) made much
of the travelling possible; the University of Oslo gave the author
leave of absence on several occasions, and additional travel grants.
T h e Salzburg Seminar in American Studies and its personnel
(Dr. R. O. Mead) placed their resources at the service of the
investigation. Lecture invitations from the Universities of Amster-
dam, Arhus, Cologne, Groningen and Lund and from the Swiss-
American Society for Cultural Relations in four Swiss cities (Pro-
fessor Max Silberschmidt, Zurich) facilitated the necessary research.
So did the faithful hospitality of Paris friends, René Arditti and
his late wife, Genevieve.
T h e publication of the book was made possible by contributions
from the Norwegian Ministry of Church and Education, from the
University of Oslo (Fondation Universitas, Wedel Jarlsbergs Fond),
and above all from the Norwegian Research Council for Science
and the Humanities (Norges Almenvitenskapelige Forskningsràd).
In spite of this manifold support the author is only too aware
of the shortcomings of his work. T h e book is a pioneering job
and is weighed down by documentation. It tells the same story
in many versions, and the gratitude of future scholars may not
quite compensate for the tedium of living readers. In spite of its
bulk the book is often sketchy; much desirable information could
not be obtained in spite of serious effort. T h e exertions of many
scholars will still be needed in order to create a full picture of
the history of American Studies in Europe.
T h e importance of these studies may, however, emerge even
from this first attempt, — their proud traditions, and their close
relation to the forces that have moulded the modern world. T h e
author hopes that his work may further the growth of these studies,
and in so doing serve that international cooperation to which the
book by its origin is a living testimony.

Oslo, August 1957. s i g m u n d s w

 A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

Below are listed institutions and persons that have in some

way or other contributed material to this book. Several of the
informants may have been promoted, or have moved to other
institutions, since their names were entered on the list.
Attention is called to the fact, that the author has the sole
responsibility for the opinions expressed in the text; some of his
informants have strongly emphasized their disagreement.

GENERAL RESEARCH LIBRARIES

Biblioteca Nazionale; Library of the Ministero della Pubblica Tstruzione; and the
H. Nelson Gay Memorial Library, Rome. Bibliothèque Nationale, and the Musée
Pédagogique, Paris. T h e Bodleian Library, Oxford. T h e British Museum, London.
Det kongelige Bibliotek, Copenhagen. Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. Bibliothèque
Royale, Brussels. Koninklijke Bibliotheek, T h e Hague. Niedersächsische Staats- und
Universitätsbibliothek, Göttingen. Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesbibliothek, Kiel. In-
stitute for the Study of the History and Culture of the U. S. S. R., Munich. West-
deutsche Bibliothek, Marburg a. L. Stadt- und Hochschulbibliothek, Berne. Zentral-
bibliothek, Zürich. T h e University Libraries of Basle, Berlin (Freie Universität),
Copenhagen, Freiburç- i. S., Geneva, Ghent, Heidelberg, Innsbruck, Kiel, Lausanne,
Leipzig, Liège, London (University, University College, Institute of Slavonic Studies,
Institute of Education), Lund, Marburg a. L., Munich, Münster, Naples, Neuchâtel,
Newcastle, Oslo, Sorbonne, Tiibingen, Uppsala and Vienna.

AUSTRIA
Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Vienna. T h e Salzburg Seminar in American
Studies (Messrs. G. W. Adams, H. P. Gleason, R. O. Mead), Salzburg. Graz. Uni-
versität: Professors K. Eder, H. Koziol, J . Mokre, K. Radakovic, F. Wein-
handl; Dozent F. Stanzel; Dr. B. Kautsky. Technische Hochschule: the Rektor.
Innsbruck. Universität: Geographisches Institut (H. Paschinger). Professors H. Bayer,
K. Brunner, H. Kramer, R. Strohal; Dozent H. H. Kühnelt. Vienna. Universität: Dean
of the Faculty of Law and Political Science. Philosophisches Institut (K. Wucherer).
Seminar für englische und amerikanische Sprache und Literatur (Assistants P. Grande
and Trude Jackson). Professors H. Benedikt, H. Bobek, L. von Hibler (+), R. Meister.
Hochschule für Welthandel: the Rektor; Professor L. G. Scheidt. Technische Hoch-
schule: the Rektor.

BELGIUM

Ministère de l'Instruction Publique. U. S. Educational Foundation (Mrs. D. M.

Deflandre), Brussels. Belgian American Educational Foundation (Mr. E. Clark Still-
man), New York. Brussels. Université Libre: Le Recteur. Professors A. Baiwir, Sylvain
de Coster, Pierre Gourou, Jean Lameere, Suzanne Tassier (t); Dr. Françoise Dony.
Ghent. Rijksuniversiteit: Professors R. L. M. Derolez and M. E. Dumont; Lecturer
J.-A. Goris. Liège. Université: Le Doyen de la Faculté de Philosophie et de Lettres.
 Acknowledgments 15

Professors A. Clausse, R . Demoulin, Philippe Devaux, X. Janne d'Othée, P. Lambert,

Mlle I. J . Simon, O. Tulippe; Visiting Professor W. Van O'Connor (Minnesota).
Louvain. Université: Professors L. H. Dupriez, L. Genicot, J . F. Vanderheyden.

DENMARK

Arhus. Universitetet: Professors Torsten Dahl, J . Humlum and S. Möller Kristensen;

Docent G. Albeck. Copenhagen. Universitetet: Filologisk Laboratorium (Dr. H. Ander-
sen). Professors P. Bagge, C. A. Bodeisen, P. Christophersen (Oslo), Sven Henningsen,
T h . H. Johnson (Lawrenceville), K. B. Murdock (Harvard), K. Schibsbye; Lektor
E. Storgaard.

FINLAND
Helsinki (Helsingfors). Kauppakorkeakoulu: T h e Rector. Svenska Handelshög-
skolan: Professor L. Krusius-Ahrenberg. Universitetet: T h e Secretariat. Professors D.
Aaron (Smith College), E. Anthoni, H. E. Pipping, O. R. Reuter. Turku (Abo).
Akademi: Professor S. Lindman; Docent N. E. Enkvist. Svenska Handelshögskolan:
T h e Secretary. Turun Vliopisto: T h e Secretary.

FRANCE
Ministère de l'Éducation Nationale (M. G. Berger, Directeur Général de l'Enseigne-
ment Supérieur; M. G. Roger, Inspecteur Général de l'Instruction Publique). Paris.
T h e American Library in Paris (Dr. Ian Forbes Fraser, Director). Centre de Docu-
mentation Pédagogique, Paris. Comité France-Amérique. Commission Franco-Amé-
ricaine d'Échanges Universitaires (Professor Ed. Morot-Sir; M. Morgan Swope). Col-
lège l ibre des Sciences Sociales et Économiques, Paris. École des Hautes Études
Sociales, Paris. École Supérieure de Commerce, Paris. Librairie Croville-Morant,
Librairie Didier (M. Malblanc), Paris. T h e United States Embassy (Mr. L. S. Morris;
Mr. G. T . Moody; the USIS Staff), Paris. M. Johs. Bygstad (Bibliothèque Sainte-
Geneviève); M. S. J . Copans; Mme J. Delsaux (Bibliothèque de la Sorbonne); Pro-
fessor G. Minllon (Lycée Henri IV), Paris.
Aix-Marseilles. Université: Professor M. Clavel. Alger. Université: the Recteur.
Professors A. Breton, M. Emerit; Maîtres de conférences J.-J. Denonain. R. Ellrodt.
Besançon. Université: Professor F.. Préclin Chargée de conférences Mlle S. Prieur.
Bordeaux. Université: Professors I. G. I.oiseau. L. Papv Caen Université the Recteur.
Professors A. Journaux, M. Reinhard; Assistante Mlle M. Parent. Clermont-Ferrand.
Université: the Recteur. Professors L. Gachon, P. Janelle. Dijon. Université: the
Recteur: the Faculté des Lettres. Professors y . Chardonnet, P. Hugueney F L'Huil-
lier; Lecturer M. Jorré; Assistant M. Gonnaud. Grenoble. Université: Professors P.
Baratier, J. Jalabert. A. Jobert, R. Mossé, A. Tune, P. Veyret; Assistant J. Guiguet.
I.'lle. Université: Les Doyens G. Debeyre, L. [acob: Professors C. Arnavon, P. Pinche-
mel. Lyon. Université: the Recteur. Professors R. M. Asselineau, A. Gibert, J. Lam-
bert, P. Legouis, M. Le Lannou, L. Villard. Montpellier. Université: Professors E.
Becqué, R. Martin. Nancy. Université: the Recteur: the Faculté des Lettres. Professors
J . Bourdon, P. Gaudemet, R. Goetz. A. Guilcher, P. Voirin. Paris. Collège de France:
Professors M. Giraud and A. Siegfried. École d'Agriculture Tropicale: Professor R.
Dumont. Université: Professors R. Besnier, P. Birot, Ch. Cestre, G. Chabot, J .
Chapsal (Directeur, Institut d'Études Politiques), René David, A. J . Farmer, L.
Landré, M. Le Breton, J. Perret, A. Plassart, P. Renouvin, I. Simon. Poitiers. Uni-
versité: Professors J . Descroix, F. Léaud, J . Robert, J . Weiller. Rennes. Université:
the Recteur. Professors P. Bouzat, H. Contamine, A. Meynier; Assistant J. Soulas.
Strasbourg. Université: the Recteur. Professors F. Ponteil, R. Pruvost, M. Simon.
Toulouse. Université: Professors F. Carrère, J . Godechot, J . Maury.

T H E GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Bundesamt für gesamtdeutsche Fragen, Bonn and Berlin. Deutsches Pädagogisches
Zentralinstitut. Berlin. Verband deutscher Studentenschaften (D. Spangenberg). Berlin.
Verlag Volk und Wissen, Berlin. Many of the individuals and institutions mentioned
below under the German Federal Republic.
16 Acknowledgements

T H E GERMAN FEDERAL REPUBLIC

Auswärtiges Amt, Bonn. Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister (Präsident, Dr. E.

Löffler, Stuttgart; Oberregierungsrat Dr. W. Seitzer, Bonn). T h e Kultusministerien
in Baden, Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Hessen, Niedersachsen, Nordrhem-Westfalen,
Rheinland-Pfalz, Schleswig-Holstein, Württemberg-Baden, Württemberg-Hohenzollern;
Senator für Volksbildung, and Wissenschaftliches Landesprüfungsamt, oerlin; Senator
für Schulen und Erziehung, Bremen; Schulbehörde der Hansestadt Hamburg. Office
of the U. S. High Commissioner for Germany (Miss M. E. English, Professor J . J .
Oppenheimer, Mr. George A. Selke, Dr. Fr. H. Tenbruck), Bonn. Hochschule für
Internationale Pädagogische Forschung (Professor E. Hylla), Frankfurt. Landesinstitut
für Neue Sprachen (Oberschulrat, Dr. A. Bohlen), Münster/W. Pädagogische Arbeits-
stelle (Oberschulrat F. Hilker). Wiesbaden. Dr. Ahting (Oldenburg); Dr. Erich
Dieterich (Hannover-Munden); Professors H. Frenz (Indiana), Harold Jantz (Johns
Hopkins), E. Meynen (Bundesansialt für Landeskunde, Remagen); Dr. R. Mönnig,
Stuttgart; Professor M. Roth, Karlsruhe; Dr. H. Schottelius, Hamburg.
Aachen. Technische Hochschule: T h e Rektor. Bamberg. Phil.-theol. Hochschule:
T h e Rektor. Berlin. Deutsche Hochschule für Politik: T h e Aussenkommission. Freie
Universität: Amerika-Institut (Dr. A. Weber). Professors E. W. Barnes, W. G. Becker,
E. Fels, E. Fraenkel, H. Herzfeld, W. Hübner, J . O. McCormick, E. Otto, R. Sühnel,
W . Wengler. Technische Universität: Professor D. Blackett; Dr. Fr. Geisler. Bonn.
Universität: Dean of the Faculty of Law and Political Science. Professors Fr. Bartz,
E. Feldmann, W. Richter, W. F. Schirmer. Braunschweig. Technische Hochschule:
T h e Rektor. Cologne. Universität: Amerika-Institut. Seminar für Wirtschafts- und
Sozialgeschichte (Dr. F. G. Stahl). Professors L. Beutin, H. Brüning, D. Gerhard, H.
Guradze, G. Kegel. R. König. T h . Kraus, W. Kraus (Washington D. C.). H. Paoa-
jewski, T h . Schieder; Privatdozent E. Weigt; Dr. P. G. Buchloh. Erlangen. Universität:
T h e Rektor. Amerikanisches Institut (Dr. D. Oberndörfer). Professors Ed. Brenner,
A. Ernstberger. H. Helfritz, E. Lichtenstein, G. Weippert; Dr. ). Bliithgen. Frankfurt.
Universität: the Rektor. Amerika-Institut (Dr. F. H. Link). Professor T h . Spira; Lektor
F. Meinecke. Freiburg i. B. Universität: Professors Ed. Baumgarten. A. Bcr<istraesser,
N. Creutzburg, Gerh. Ritter; Dozent T . Riese. Güttingen. Universität: Professors W.
Kromphardt, G. Leibholz, H. Marquardt, P. E. Schramm, E. T h . Sehrt. H. Wein, E.
Weniger; Dr.s H. H. Harms and K.-H. Thomas. Hamburg. Amerika-Bibliothek (Dr.
B. C. E. Börner). Max-Planck-Institut für ausländisches und internationales Privat-
recht (Dr. des Goudres). Universität: Professors L. Borinski, W. Flitner, E. Genzmer,
Alb. Kolb, E. Otremba, G. Ralfs, E. Zechlin; Dr. H.-J. Lang. Hanover. Technische
Hochschule: Dean of the Faculty of Science and Humanities. Heidelberg. Amerika-
Haus. Universität: Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy. Professors Ghr. Cnselmann. Fr.
Ernst, H. M. Flasdierk, G. Pfeifer, A. Sommer; Dr. H. Kömmerling-Fitzler. Institut
für ausländisches Recht; Max-Planck-Institut für ausländisches öffentliches Recht.
Kiel. Institut für Weltwirtschaft (Professor H. Gross). Universität: Dean of the
Faculty of I aw; Institut für Internationales Recht (Dr. D. Beth). Professors O.
Becker, F. Blättner, H. Blume, H. Bock, W. Bröcker. Mainz. Universität: Dean of the
Faculty of Philosophy. Professors H. G. Ficker, H. Galinsky, P. L. Jaeger, Leo Just,
A. Montaner, R. Noll von der Nahmer. Mannheim. Wirtschaftshochschule: T h e
Rektor. Marburg. Universität: Amerika-Institut (Dr. B. Fabian; Dr. H. Wetiskus).
Professors H. Arndt, F.. Blorhmann. W. Fischer, J . Ebbinghaus. H. Herrfahrdt. E.
Kessel, H. Mutschmann (+), Carl Schott. Munich. Technische Hochschule: Syndikus.
Universität: Faculty of Philosophy. Professors W. Clemen, M. Förster (+), H. Kuhn,
W . C. Lehmann (Syracuse). H. Louis, H. Stammler (Northwestern), E. Uliner,
A. Wenzl; Privatdozent Fr. Wölcken: Dr. E. Angermann; Bibliotheksdirektor Dr. T h .
Ostermann; Internationale Rechtsbibliothek (Eva M. von Wegerer). Münster. Univer-
sität: Professors W. Conze, H. Pechan. M. Petrone. A. Petzelt. H.-U. Saioin- Lektor
G. H. Blanke. Nuremberg. Hochschule für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften:
Seminar für England- und Amerikakunde (Cand. Phil. M. Distel). Saar. Universität:
Professors J . Derbolav and F. Meyer; Dr. F. Dick. Stuttgart. Technische Hochschule:
Rektor E. Fues; Sekretariat. George-Washington-Institut für Amerikakunde. Tübin-
gen. Universität: Dean of the Faculty of Law and Fronomics. Professors K Borries,
H. Dolle, Fr. Huttenlocher, J . J . Kwiat (Minnesota), G. Müller-Schwefe; Assi-
stant W. Besson; Dr. H. Rupp. Würzburg. Universität: Professors J . Büdel, W .
Gerling, H. Huscher, H. Meyer.
 Acknowledgements 17

GREECE

Ministry of Public Instruction (Mr. E. Papanoutsos), Athens. United States Embassy

(Messrs. Ted Olson and VV. E. Weld, Jr.), Athens. Professor W. Randel (Florida State
University). Athens. University: Professor M. Bishop (Cornell). Salonika. University:
Professors E. Current-Garcia (Alabama Polytechnic Institute), M. Lasca lis, and Henry
YVasser (City College of New York).

ICELAND

Professor Einar Haugen (University of Wisconsin). Reykjavik. Hàskóli (University):

T h e Rector. Lektors A. Eydal and Ivar Orgland.

IRELAND (EIRE)

Dublin. National University of Ireland: University College. Professor J . J . Hogan;

Lecturer Roger McHugh. University of Dublin: Trinity College. Professors T . W.
Moody and H. M. O. White; Lecturers J. P. Haughton, J. F. La Croix (f) and
F. S. Leland Lyons. Galway. University College: The Registrar.

ISRAEL

Ministry of Education and Culture (Department for Higher Studies and Research),
Jerusalem. Jerusalem. Hebrew University: Professor A. A. Mendilow; Lecturer S. J .
Kahn.

ITALY

Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Rome. Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Division
for Cultural Relations (Minister V. E. Bonarelli), Rome. Centro Didattico Nazionale,
Florence (Professor A. Roveri) and Rome (Professor Giovanni Gozzer). Centro Ital'ano
di Studi Americani (Umberto Fongoli, Librarian), Rome. Consiglio per gli Studi
Americani (Mme Biancamaria Tedeschini-Lalli. Mr. A. Lombardo), Rome. Società
Italiana per l'Organizzazione Internazionale (Conte Umberto Morra di Lavriano),
Rome. The United States Embassy (Messrs. Donald Bullard and G. G. Fox), Rome.
The U. S. Information Service, Rome (Mr. Ph. J. Conley, Mrs. G. S. Hooker, Mrs.
E. V. Mancuso): Florence (Messrs. James Moceri and Guido di Montegnacco); Genoa
(Messrs. Russell Harris and Ph. Di Tommaso); Milan (Miss Gabriella Rombo, Messrs.
Arturo Bassi, Jack Crockett and M. W. S. Swan); Naples (Miss Enrica Epifania, Mrs.
C. Rinaldi, Mr. R. Jacoby); Turin (Mr. K. R. Boyle. Mrs. B. M. White). Dr. Glauco
Cambon (Milan); Mr. M. Dodderidge (British Council, Oslo); Dr. Lia Griselli. Pisa;
Dr. Olga Pinto (Biblioteca Nazionale, Rome). Dr. Camillo Scaccia Scarafoni (Director,
Catalogo Unico, Rome): Dr. V. Gabrieli (The Italian Institute. London): Professors
Leslie A. Fiedler (Montana University), Alfred Kazin (Amherst), G. N. G. Orsini
(Wisconsin), Mark Schorer (California, Berkeley) and R. C. Simonini, Jr. (Longwood
College, Virginia).
Bari. Università: Professors M. Lattanzio and Gabr. Pepe. Bologna. Università:
Professor F. Battaglia, E. Dupré Theseider, Rod. Mondolfo, F. Pergolesi. Florence.
Università: Professors S. Raldi, L. Borghi, E. Codignola. Anna Maria Crini), G.
Maranini, N. Rodolico, A. Sestini. Genoa. Università: Professors A. Obertello, Fr.
Viglione. Milan. Università Luigi Bocconi: Professore Giovanna Cantoni-Foà, L.
Castigliano, A. de Maddalena, M. Hazon (f). Università degli Studi: Professors G.
Martini. P. Rebora, F. Valsecrhi. Università del Sacro Cuore: Professors Alb. Castelli,
G. Nangeroni. Mario Viora. Fr. Vito; Libero docente Marco Agosti. Naples. Istituto
Orientale: Professors F.. Migliorini and M. Petrocchi, Lecturer W. Gargiulo. Istituto
Universitario di Magistero 'Suor Orsola Benincasa". Università degli Studi- Professors
CI. Carbonara, C. Colamonico, D. Demarco, Cesare Foligno. E. Pontieri. Padua.
Università: Professors M. Fanno, G. Lucatello, S. Policardi. Pavia. Università: Pro-
fessors M. Ortolani, E. Paci. Pisa. Università: Professors R. Anzilotti. Alb. Mori. G.
Pellegrini. Rome. Università: Professor» G. Baldini. G. Caraci, F. Chabod, S. Galgano,
2
18 Acknowledgements

R . Morghen, M. Praz, T . Salvemini, L. Volpicelli. Trieste. Università: Professor N.

d'Agostino. Turin. Università: Professors N. Abbagnano, A. Zanco. Venice. Università:
Professors B . Cellini, C. M. Cipolla, B . Zevi.

THE NETHERLANDS

Ministerie van Onderwijs, T h e Hague. Nederland-Amerika Instituut, Nederlandsch-

Amerikaansche Fundatie (Miss W. J . M. Kwast), Amsterdam. T h e United States
Information Service (Mr. Milos O. Ptak), Amsterdam. Amsterdam. Vrije Universiteit:
Rector Magnificus. Universiteit (Municipal): Amerika Instituut (Assistants J . P. Prins
and T . Steenbergen). Professors J . Barents, E. W. Beth, P. N. U. Harting, A. N. J . den
Hollander, I. Kisch, M. G. Levenbach, J . Presser, Helena W. F. Stellwag; Assistant
Lecturer Abraham Verhoeff. Groningen. Ri¡ksuniversiteit: Professors P. J . Bouman,
H. J . Keuning, P. J . van Winter, R. W. Zandvoort. l.eiden. Rijksuniversiteit: Institute
of Geology. Professors A. G. H. Bachrach, T h . J . G. Locher, Perry Miller (Harvard),
A. A. Prins, B. H. M. Vlekke. Nijmegen. R . K. Universiteit: T h e Secretary. Professors
T . A. Birrell, F. T h . Visser. Rotterdam. Nederlandsche Economische Hoogeschool:
Professors W. E. Boerman, F. L. Polak, J . Tinbergen, C. W. de Vries, J . Wisselink.
Tilburg. Katholieke Economische Hoogeschool: T h e Rector. Utrecht. Rijksuniversi-
teit: T h e Rector. Professors P. C. A. Geyl, J . G. van Dillen, A. C. de Vooys.

NORWAY

Rektors H. Ruge and T . Sirevaag, Oslo. Bergen. Norges Handelsh0yskole: Professor

Anton Mohr. Oslo. Universitetet: Professors Fr. Castberg, Fr. Isachsen, H. Koht, J . A.
Seip, K. Smidt; dosent T h . Chr. Wyller; Mrs. M. Ottoson (Librarian, the American
Institute). Trondheim. Noregs Laerarh0gskule: Professor S. N0rsteb0.

PORTUGAL

Ministerio da Ed u carao Nacional (Inspeccao do Ensino Liceal; Instituto de Alta

Cultura), Lisbon. United States Embassy (Mrs. G. Alvares-Cabral, Messrs. L. J . Benoit,
A. E. Manell), Lisbon. Lisbon. Universidade: Reitoria. Professors A. G. Pereira,
Virginia Rau, O. Ribeiro, A. G. Rodrigues.

T H E S O V I E T UNION AND T H E S A T E L L I T E S
(except T h e German Democratic Republic).
T h e Soviet Embassy, Oslo. T h e Polish Legation, Oslo. T h e United States Embassy,
Moscow. Institute for the Study of the USSR (Professor A. Jurchenko), Munich.
Institute of Slavonic Studies, University of London. Ryska Institutet (docent N. Ä.
Nilsson), Stockholm. T h e Library of Congress (Dr. Sergius Yakobson), Washington
D. C. "La Nation Roumaine", Paris. Professors Fr. C. Barghoorn (Yale), G. S. Counts
(Columbia), W. H. E. Johnson (Pittsburgh), Erik Krag (Oslo), S. Levitsky (Fordham),
Ph. E. Mosely (Columbia), F.. J . Simmons (Columbia); Dr. Pavel Fraenkl (Oslo);
Dr. Nicholas Hans (King's College. I ondon): Rektor August Lange (Hamar); Lektor
G. Dahm Rinnan (Oslo); Ragnar R0ed, Librarian (Oslo).

SPAIN

Ministerio de Educación Nacional, Secretaría Técnica, Madrid. Consejo Superior

de Investigaciones Científicas, Departamento Internacional de Culturas Modernas,
Madrid. United States Embassy (Messrs. R . D. Barton, M. Cody, J . T . Reid), Madrid.
Royal Norwegian Legation, Madrid. Instituto de Estudios Norteamericanos (Dr. E. P.
de Las Heras), Barcelona. Professor W . C. Atkinson (Glasgow); Dr. H. V. Livermore,
London. Barcelona. Universidad: Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. Professor J . Llorens-
Ebrat. Granada. Universidad. Madrid. Universidad: Facultad de Filosofia y Letras.
Professors D. Ramón Ezquerra, M. Fraga Iribarne. Salamanca. Universidad: Secretaría
General. Professor Charles David Ley.
 Acknowledgements 19
SWEDEN

Skolöverstyrelsen (Messrs. K. Axnäs, E. Källqvist, B. T h o i é n ) , Stockholm. T h e

United States I n f o r m a t i o n Service (Mrs. C. D j u r k l o u ; Mr. N. W. Olson), Stockholm.
Sverige-Amerika Stiftelsen (Mrs. Adèle H e i l b o m ) , Stockholm. Pedagogiska Biblioteket,
Stockholm. Professors H. W:son A h l m a n n , A. Cowie (Wesleyan), Ebba Dalin (+),
Herbert Tingsten; Mr. Thorsten Jonsson (f). Gothenburg. Universitetet: Professors
F. Behre, E. L ö n n r o t h . Lund. Universitetet: Professors J. Akerman, O. Arngart, Sture
Bolin; docent H. Elovson Stockholm. Stockholms Högskola: Professors F. Lindben»,
S. L j u n g m a n , M. T . Löfvenberg, A. Rynell, E. F. Söder 1 und, P. A. Varg (Ohio State
University). Uppsala. Universitetet: Professors H. W. Donner, C. A. Hessler, S. B.
Liljegren, G. Westin, St. E. W h i c h e r (Cornell); docent L. Ahnebrink.

SWITZERLAND

Schweizerische Zentralstelle f ü r Hochschulwesen, Zürich (Professor B. Boesch).

Staatliche Lehrmittelkommission, Basle. Basle. Universität: Dean of the Faculty of
Law. Professors H. Barth, H. Lüdeke, E. Salin; Dr. Wolfgang von Wartburg. Berne.
Universität: Professors O. Funke, H . Marti, R. Stamm; Dr.s H . G. Keller, W. Staub,
H a n s Strahm. Freiburg. Universität: Professors G. Castella, L. Dupraz; Dr. J. F. Parr.
Geneva. Université: T h e Secretary. Bureau International d'Éducation. Institut Uni-
versitaire de Hautes Études Internationales. Professors Ch. A. Burky, J. Piaget, W. E.
R a p p a r d , Ch. W e r n e r ; Dr. R. T s c h u m i . Lausanne. Université: T h e Secretary. Pro-
fessors G. Bonnard, M. Bridel, L. Meylan, H. O n d e , R. Rapin. Archives Cantonales
Vaudoises. Neuchâtcl. Université: T h e Secretary. T h e Dean of the Faculty of Letters.
Professors D.-J. Gillam and E. Privat. Zürich. Universität: Professors H . Barth, H .
Boesch, M. Silberschmidt, H . S t r a u m a n n . Technische Hochschule: Professors J. R .
von Salis, R . Savioz (f).

TURKEY

Professor K e m p Malone (Johns Hopkins); Mr. H o w a r d A. Reed, Ankara. Ankara.

Üniversltesl: Professor H a m i t Dereli; Vis. Prof. R . B. West, Jr. (Iowa). Istanbul.
Üniversitesi: Visiting Professors H . J . Muller (Purdue) and G. F. W h i c h e r (f Amherst);
Professor V. T u r h a n . Robert College (Dean H . L. Scott).

T H E UNITED KINGDOM

T h e Ministry of Education, London. T h e British Committee for the Interchange

of T e a c h e r s (Dr. Edith A. Ford). T h e British Council (Mr. J. D. Edmondston, Oslo;
Mrs. M. S. Wyatt, London, a n d local offices in Great Britain). T h e Historical Associa-
tion, London. T h e United States Embassy (Mr. William Morris, Cultural Attaché;
T h e USIS Library Staff), London. T h e United States Educational Commission (Mr.
R. P. Taylor). T h e Commonwealth F u n d (Mr. Gorley Putt). Manchester Grammar
School. T h e Public Schools of Bembridgc, Eton, H a r r o w , Oundle, Westminster and
Winchester. Mr. J. I. H . B a u r (Curator, W h i t n e y Museum, New York City); Professor
B. Blanshard (Yale); Mr. Michael A. F. Cooper (East Grinstead, Sussex); Faber a n d
Faber Ltd., London; Professor Leon H o w a r d (University of California, Los Angeles);
Mr. A. Jayne, Oslo; Mr. B. Karpel (Librarian, T h e Museum of M o d e m Art, New
York City); Professor H. W . Schneider (UNESCO, Paris); Mr. Ed. N. Waters
(Librarian, T h e Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.).
Aberystwyth. University College of Wales: T h e Registrar's Office. Lecturer A. V
Conway. Bangor. University College of N o r t h Wales: T h e Registrar's Office. Professors
A. H . Dodd, H . G. W r i g h t ; Lecturer M. Gray. Birmingham. University: Professors
A. E. Duncan-Jones, J. A. Hawgood, M. V. C. Jeffreys, R. H . Kinvig, Allardyce
Nicoli; Dr. D. R . W i g h t m a n . Bristol. University: T h e Registrar's Office. Librarian
J. S. Cox. Reader F. C. Jones. Lecturers A. E. Frey, J. L. J a r m a n , R. S. Milne; Visiting
Professor Louis Filler (Antioch College). Cambridge. University: T h e Registry.
20 Acknowledgements

Lecturers W . R . Brock (Selwyn College), D. Daiches, F. R . Leavis, F. Thistlethwaite

(St. John's College); Demonstrator J . H. Paterson; Visiting Professors Avery O. Craven
(Chicago), Ralph H. Gabriel (Yale), Dexter Perkins (Cornell). Cardiff. University
College of South Wales and Monmouthshire: T h e Registrar's Office. Professor Brinley
T h o m a s ; Lecturer I. B. Powell. Durham. University: T h e Registrar's Office. Lecturer
P. A. Bromhead. Exeter. University: T h e Academic Secretary. Professors Frank Bar-
low, Arthur Davies, W . N. Medlicott; Lecturers E. J . Patterson, W. S. Steer. Hull.
University: T h e Registrar's Office. Reader F. W . Brooks; Lecturer R . L. Smyth.
Leeds. University: Professors A. Briggs, B. Dobree, R . F. Peel; Lecturers C. Collyer,
G. Rimmer. Leicester. University College: T h e Registrar's Office. Professor A. G.
Pool; Lecturer M. Hookham. Liverpool. University: Professors K. Muir, W . Smith,
Mark A. Thomson; Lecturers M. Allott, A. Davenport, W. J . Rowe, S. B. Saul, D. V.
Verney. London. University: Institute of Advanced Legal Studies. Institute of Educa-
tion (Mr. Brian Holmes; Professor J . A. Lauwerys). Institute of Historical Studies
(Mr. A. Taylor Milne). London School of Economics ( T h e Registrar); Queen Mary
College ( T h e Registrar). Professors H. C. Allen (University College), H. Hale Bellot
(University College), G. Bullough (King's College), H. C. Darby (University College),
W . G. East (Birkbeck College), U. Ellis-Fermor (Bedford College), R . H. Graveson
(King's College), O. Kahn-Freund (School of Economics), Gordon Manley (Bedford
College); Readers H. L. Beales (School of Economics), R . W . Greaves (Bedford
College); Lecturers W . A. Armstrong (King's College), L. Haddakin (University
College), A. Johnston (Bedford College), R . H. Pear (School of Economics), R . A.
Sisson (University College); J . H. P. Pafford, Goldsmiths' Librarian. Manchester.
University: Professor P. R. Crowe; Lecturers M. Cunliffe, G. Moore, H. B. Rodgers.
Newcastle. King's College: Professors W . L. Burn, J . E. Butt; Lecturers A. D. Airth,
J . W. House, E. W . Hughes, J . C. Maxwell, O. G. Tomkeieff. North Staffordshire.
University College: Professors S. H. Beaver, J . W. Blake, S. E. Finer, J . J . Lawlor.
Nottingham. University: T h e Registrar's Office. Professors K. C. Edwards, V. de Sola
Pinto, H. Street, A. C. Wood; Readers J . D. Chambers, F. A. Wells; Lecturer D. S. R .
Weiland. Oxford. University: T h e Registrar's Office. Professors M. Beloff (Nuffield
College), F. H. Lawson (Brasenose College), Sir Donald MacDougall (Nuffield College),
H. ]. Paton (Corpus Christi College), H. H. Price (New College); Director M. L.
Jacks (Department of Education); Lecturers R . P. Beckinsale, D. W. Hamlyn (Corpus
Christi College), W. Harrison (Queen's College), W. Robson (Lincoln College); Visiting
Professors H. S. Commager (Columbia), L. H. Gipson (Lehigh), Charles S. Sydnor
(Duke). Reading. University: T h e Registrar's Office. Professor D. J . Gordon; Lec-
turers E. S. Budden, J . Parkinson. Sheffield. University: T h e Registrar's Office.
Professors D. L. Linton, G. R . Potter: Lecturer J . W. L. Adams. Southampton.
University: T h e Registrar's Office. Professor H. Rothwell; Lecturers A. J . H a i n a ,
D. Ch. Large, P. G. Richards. Swansea. University College: T h e Registrar's Office.
Professor D. B. Quinn; Lecturer J . Oliver.
T h e Scottish Education Department, Edinburgh. Aberdeen. University: The
Secretary's Office. Professor A. C. O'Dell; lecturers W. R Humphries. A. P. T h o r n -
ton; Visiting Professor J . W . Silver (University of Mississippi) Edinburgh. University:
Professors A. G. Ogilvie (f), W . L. Renwick, N. Kemp Smith; Lecturers D. Nobbs,
G. Shepperson, Innes Smith, L. C. Wright. Glasgow. University: Professors R . Miller
and Esmond Wright; Lecturers G. C. Moodie and J- H. Warrender. St. Andrews.
University: T h e Secretary's Office. Professor Norman Gash. Lecturers R . G. Cant,
G. A. Cumming, S. J . Jones.
Ministry of Education of Northern Ireland. Belfast. University: T h e Secretary.
Professor F. W . Baxter; Lecturer E. Jones.

YUGOSLAVIA

T h e Yugoslav Legation, Oslo. T h e Bibliographical Institute, Belgrade. T h e United

States Information Service (Mrs. H. E. Beko, Mr. M. Ptak), Belgrade. Professor V. de
Sola Pinto (Nottingham). Dosent Arne Gallis (Oslo).
Belgrade. Univerzitet: Professor M. Stansfield Popovic. Ljubljana. Univerza: Pro-
fessor J . Goricar. Novi Sad. Filozofski fakultet: Docent S. Brkic. Zagreb. Sveuciliste:
Professors J . Roglic, J . Torbarina. Docent R . Filipovic. Lecturer E. Pucic.
 T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S
VOLUME I.
Page
Preface 7
Acknowledgements 14
Table of Contents 21

Chapter I. T H E G E N E R A L B A C K G R O U N D 25

Chapter II. T H E U N I T E D K I N G D O M (England and Wales;

Scotland; Northern Ireland) 45
A. Before the First World War 45
B. The Inter-War Period 57
C. After 1939 71
D. Individual Institutions 103
Chapter III. F R A N C E 131
A. Before 1870 131
B. 1870—1914 141
C. T h e Inter-War Period 155
D. The Fourth Republic 168
E. Individual Institutions 192

Chapter IV. G E R M A N Y 209

A. Before 1870 209
B. The Empire 232
C. The Weimar Period 256
D. T h e Reign of Nazism 277
E. After 1945 291
F. Individual Institutions 330

VOLUME II.

Table of Contents 363

Chapter V. T H E SMALLER W E S T E R N C O U N T R I E S . . . . 365

1. T h e Republic of Ireland (Eire) 365
2. The Netherlands 368
3. Belgium 378
4. Switzerland 385
5. Austria-Hungary 404
22 Table of Contents

Page
Chapter VI. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 420
1. Iceland 420
2. Denmark 422
3. Norway 428
4. Sweden 439
5. Finland 453
Chapter VII. THE MEDITERRANEAN NATIONS 462
1. Italy 462
A. Before the Unification 462
B. From the Unification to the First World War 470
C. Fascism 478
D. The Post-War Period 489
E. Individual Institutions 506
2. Spain 514
3. Portugal 529
4. Greece 533
5. Turkey 537
6. Israel 542
Chapter VIII. EASTERN EUROPE 552
1. Russia 553
A. Before 1917 553
B. From the Revolution to the Nazi Attack 558
C. The Second World War and After 566
2. The Satellites 580
A. The German Democratic Republic 582
B. The Other Satellites 601
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania 601
Czechoslovakia 601
Hungary 605
Rumania 606
Bulgaria 609
Albania 611
Poland 611
3. Yugoslavia 618
Chapter IX. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION 634
Chapter X. CONCLUSION 639
Appendices 655
List of Sources 660
List of Scholars 669
Index of Names 706
AMERICAN STUDIES
IN E U R O P E
 I.
THE GENERAL BACKGROUND

An old country is a study, but a new

country is a problem.
John Nichol.

T h e studies of the great national civilizations of the world have

a thrilling history because their motives are so manifold. T h e
place of such studies in schools and universities is only in a limited
sense the concern of Pedagogy and Education. It is a part of the
international inter-play of cultural traditions. It is determined by
the orientation of the nations toward the entire world, and their
systems of creed and belief add their flavour even to the tech-
nicalities of curricula and examination statutes.
T h i s complexity takes on a particular significance with regard
to the United States of America, since it has always held a position
of its own among the nations.
From its very discovery the Western Hemisphere fascinated the
Europeans by its exotic landscapes, its enormous size and resources
and its colourful aboriginal civilizations. In comparison, the Bri-
tish settlements on the East Coast of North America long appeared
insignificant. But from the time of the American Revolution they
suddenly took on a tremendous importance, and were never to
be overshadowed again by any other part of the continent.
T h e virgin soil of the United States proved to be the testing
ground for European ideas. T h e visionary dreams of the Old
World came to life in the New; they returned to the countries
of their origin with a strange power and signalled the greatest
revolutionary period in modern European history. T h e American
Republic, its political liberty and its unconventional social orga-
nization became a symbol of European progressivism. It was a
constant source of inspiration to the enlightened reform movement
26 The General Background

which left its mark on Europe towards the close of the 18th
century. It held a similar position within the wave of liberalism
which followed the period of the Holy Alliance. From the 1830's
Tocqueville made the United States a focal point for democratic
debate all over Europe; and he was only one of many. For more
than a century America remained the arsenal of European radical-
ism, the hope of the down-trodden, "the Common Man's Utopia". 1
As the new country developed, these dreams were verified by
personal experience. T h e treasures of the New World were literally
thrown open to the peoples of the Old. T h e ever-increasing flow
of emigrants across the ocean established a link unequalled in its
personal character; and what the newcomers told in their letters
home was largely in praise of the wonders they had encountered.
T o millions of Europeans the U. S. A. was the only foreign country
to live in their imagination.
When the American nation began to settle down to ordered
development, moreover, there came an increasing flow, back along
the new bridges of connection, of manifestations of a new culture.
It showed a curious blend of strangeness and familiarity, of Euro-
pean tradition and "Americanism". But always it had a strong
touch of human relevance, — those traits that Crevecceur had in
mind when, as early as the 1780's, he spoke about America's "close
affinity with our present time".
Thus, even before 1800, and increasingly all through the nine-
teenth century, interest in the United States was both widespread
and keen in large parts of Europe. But when it came to making
the new nation a subject of formal studies, incorporated into the
national systems of education, difficulties arose that were connected
with the whole situation of the New World versus the Old and
in many instances were to accompany the development of American
Studies up to this day.
There were practical obstacles, above all America's geographical
remoteness, which was always the greatest hampering factor in its
intercourse with Europe. For a long time trans-atlantic travel and
transportation were slow and they were always expensive. Mutual
contact was casual and rare, much more so than was the case
between the nations of the Old World. Few Europeans ever went
to the United States except those who did not return. For a long
period knowledge was largely second hand.
Little was done to lay the foundations for more thorough know-
 The General Background 27

ledge in the future. Until this century there was only a limited
flow of printed material from America to Europe. Few European
libraries built u p a stock of the literary productions of the new
nation — newspapers and periodicals, books, pamphlets and files
of government publications — on the scale that was a matter of
course with regard to other great countries. It is no wonder that
systematic scholarly research in American Civilization was slow in
coming: the most elementary tools were lacking. European scholars
were naturally hesitant about studying or teaching the civilization
of a country they had never seen and about which the printed
material available was obviously deficient. Deep into the nineteenth
century the picture of the United States in the mind of Europe
was only too often based on the sketchy reports of travellers and the
theories of armchair philosophers, supplemented by rumour and
prejudice.
And there was a cleavage deeper than that of the ocean.
From its origin the United States was associated with the forces
of change and reform; but these were not in the saddle in Europe
during the first half of the 19th century. T h e liberal spirit of the
revolutionary period survived in opposition groups. But in most
countries conservative parties were back again in power after the
fall of Napoleon, representatives of a political and cultural tra-
ditionalism that America had never known. Their main task
was to preserve the heritage of the past; to them, American
"republicanism" appeared subversive and dangerous.
In 1824 Chateaubriand, as French Minister of Foreign Affairs,
declared the political principles of the United States to be "directly
at variance with those of every other Power"; he was stating a fact
that held true for decades to come. 2 T o most European governments
the United States was the great bugaboo. T h e division of opinion
was revealed by the European attitudes during the Civil War:
liberals and labour circles sympathized with the North, but the
governing classes believed the Confederacy to represent the genuine
European tradition rising against rootless American radicalism.
When it came to the social structure of the United States, American
"mobocracy" soon appeared abhorrent even to many liberals, in a
Europe that was only in the beginnings of its social upheavals.
T h e United States was not only repugnant politically and
socially; it was an upstart culturally. Into the established family
of European nations, where everybody had known each other for
28 The General Background

centuries, the young republic broke like a barbarian from the

wilderness, often without even the charm of the primitive. Until
the end of the nineteenth century the United States was largely
absorbed in the gigantic task of putting its house in order. T h e
general picture was one of continuous flux, of rawness and cultural
poverty, without that integration, that depth and perspective that
are the privilege of established societies. European condescension,
even among America's admirers, was not without reason.
Even the attractive aspects of American civilization presented
Europe with a particular problem. In the Old World national
variations were long ago accepted as an established fact. T h e United
States was in a different position; it shared the language and
traditions of Great Britain and in many ways remained closely
tied to the mother country. An independent growth early began
to manifest itself, conditioned by the peculiarly American sur-
roundings; but these beginnings were slow. In many fields of
culture America still had little to offer but "feeble replicas" (Sam.
Johnson); in others, the American contributions were not yet
realized by the Americans themselves. And even the typically
American traits could be fully understood only against their British
background. T h e American was "at the same time separate and
connected"; 3 the tension between American independence and
European tradition was going to be a main motif of American
cultural development.
This ambiguity explains why a national American civilization
in the deeper sense was slow in gaining recognition in the Old
World. T o Europe America was long overshadowed by Great Bri-
tain with its established standards and its much more important
culture. T h e American variation within the Western pattern came
to be regarded by many Europeans as an uncalled-for provincialism,
not to be taken quite seriously, and symbolized by the vulgarity
to educated European ears of the sound of American English.
This attitude was the more natural since many Americans
adopted the same view. T h e integration of the new nation was only
in its beginnings, and so was its self-understanding in matters of
culture. "Europe stretches to the Alleghenies", Emerson wrote
about 1850. When Barrett Wendell lectured on American Civiliza-
tion at European universities in the decade before the First World
War, the picture he presented to his listeners was not much
different.
 The General Background 29

T h e attitude of the average European towards America thus

showed a typical mixture of sympathy and reserve. And nowhere
was negativism stronger than in education.
Deep into the 19th century schools and universities in the
European countries were the guardians of tradition. They were
politically conservative, socially selective, and strongly Europe-
centred. Amidst the rapid changes of the modern world they
pointed to the safe heritage of classical idealism, the expression
of the stratified society of the past; their formalistic and retrospec-
tive curricula were part of their respectability. Traditionally, their
main concern was with the languages and cultures of Greece and
Rome. W h e n the civilizations of the modern nations gradually had
to be admitted to the syllabuses, similar emphasis was given to
the earlier phases of their development. In most countries, little
attention was paid to Living Languages, Recent History, Political,
Economic and Social Studies, where the United States would come
into the picture. W h e n such modern subjects gained recognition,
moreover, there was acute competition for space in the curricula
and no eagerness to include a new and far-away nation which
was suspect because of its radicalism and which had little cultural
prestige.
All this meant that the introduction of systematic American
Studies into European education was b o u n d to be gradual. It was
dependent on the growth of the United States in world importance.
Until well after the American Civil W a r that importance was
not striking as compared to the position of the old Great Powers.
Even more, it was dependent on the general progress in Europe
itself of those liberal forces of democratization and modernization
with which the United States had become associated. Until after
the middle of the century this progress was jerky, with many set-
backs and great national differences. So was the development of
American Studies. But beginnings were made early; and if the
difficulties are taken into account, they were sometimes surprising.
Results were least impressive in the secondary schools, which
were most closely tied to the ideals of the groups in power. In
most countries pedagogical Realism had to fight an up-hill battle;
and among the many demands of the reformers America came far
down on the list. But from about the middle of the century the
movement began to have effect, parallel to the transformation of
society and the general economic changes. In Geography and
30 The General Background

History, there was an increasing emphasis on recent times; here

American material took some share in the process, particularly in
France, where the connection with liberal tendencies was obvious.
In the study of English, some American texts were early accepted
all over Europe because of their excellent style; and from the
1850's onwards there was a slight tendency to widen the circle.
But in all subjects the amount of American material was small.
At the universities the process was more colourful. As a whole,
European universities remained a conservative stronghold through-
out the period. But liberalism had a foothold in many of them;
and American Studies were often involved in the battle. An
exceptional position was held by a few universities in Northern
Germany, where the study of contemporary American conditions
was established as a tradition even from the 1770's. In the new
century, the subject largely continued to be neglected or repudiated,
and courses on the United States were sometimes taught at the
risk of political persecution. But in a few countries the U. S. A.
began to be paid more serious attention; in federal Germany and
Switzerland, where universities were relatively modern and political
interest in the subject strong, specialized courses were given quite
frequently, even before 1870, on American Geography, History,
Constitutional Law, and Economy. Research on America had
originated in many countries before 1800, but mostly outside the
universities. Now an increasing number of academic teachers took
part in it.
These beginnings were limited geographically. Requirements
were usually vague, if they existed at all. There were no American
chairs, let alone a specialized American discipline. But there were
indications of things to come.

T h e American Civil War and the decades immediately following

it inaugurated the Modern Epoch in the history of American
Studies in Europe.
T h e development of the United States itself during the new
era was decisive. Within the framework settled by the Great Con-
flict the American nation saw a period of general flourishing that
has few parallels in modern history. Its economic and industrial
expansion moved the country into the first rank among the nations.
Its diplomatic and military strength was demonstrated from the
 The General Background 31

1890's onwards; and its position as a Great Power was finally

confirmed by the First World War.
Behind this new importance there was a growing integration
of the heterogeneous components of the nation, and of its civiliza-
tion. More and more clearly the United States emerged as the
leading representative of the new technical form of culture: and
the country accepted its role lustily. On an unprecedented scale
it took into its service the new and popular media of mass com-
munication T h e world was increasingly flooded with the products
of American civilization, from mechanical gadgets to cheap books;
and all of them had an unmistakably American flavour.
At the same time, deep internal changes in the Old World made
it increasingly receptive to the offerings of the New. T h e forces
that had shaped the development of the United States now made
their appearance everywhere, and the feeling of strangeness and
distance lessened. Political democracy gained a permanent foothold
in large parts of Europe, along lines similar to those prevalent in
America. T h e rigid stratification of society began to break down.
Even in more backward countries economic and social life took
on the general aspects of modern industrialism and capitalism that
were dominant in the States; frequently this happened under the
direct influence of American inventions.
T h e world was shrinking fast. Modern science, technology, and
international communications made geographical isolation impos-
sible. With the speed and dimensions of modern development man
was increasingly absorbed in his contemporary problems; historical
isolation seemed obsolete as well. Instead of being a symbol of
dangerous radicalism the United States more and more appeared
as one instance in a general change that involved mankind.
T h e attitudes of the Europeans toward this new America still
had serious qualifications. The economic piracy of post-war Ame-
rica and the violence of its social conflicts under the mask of
liberty made a strong impression in Europe. American emphasis
on the technical and economic aspects of progress; the uprootedness
and cultural poverty of many emigrants; and the mores of some
of the countless Americans who now began to travel abroad, verified
the impression of coarseness and strengthened the European at-
titude of patronizing superiority.
There were deeper grounds for hesitation, which were not all
32 The General Background

based on thoughtless conservatism. Many trends of modern tech-

nical civilization obviously ran counter to essential values in
Western culture; and while these phenomena could be found in
all countries regardless of American influence they often reached
Europe in their most infectious form with an American trade
mark and as a whole seemed more typical of American civilization
than did its more acceptable manifestations. T h a t Europe was
being "Americanized" was a current idea soon after the middle
of the nineteenth century; in 1902 William T . Stead was able to
write a book on "The Americanization of the World". Such ideas
expressed a growing concern among responsible Europeans, a
concern that was also shared by some Americans.
T h i s criticism was, however, little more than a marginal note
to the inevitable. T h e need for real knowledge of the great Western
power gained ground all the time in Europe after the Civil War,
and the trend of European schools and universities made them
more and more open to innovation; often these tendencies de-
veloped under the direct influence of American pedagogy. Demo-
cracy became a professed ideal even in education, although the
realization of it was still far distant. T h e spirit of retrospective
idealism faded; the Realists came out victorious with their histórica 1
relativism and their emphasis on the economic and social factors
of contemporary life. Even the great civilizations of the world
outside Europe began to loom on the horizon of the schools. But
in education as elsewhere the decisive factor was the demonstration
of America's economic and military might. In some countries the
efforts to build u p more systematic American Studies had an
immediate background in their foreign policies.
These efforts were again sporadic and uneven, and generalization
is difficult. But the change of atmosphere is notable from the
1870's; the work gained real momentum from the 1890's, and
reached its first peak in the decade before 1914. In the secondary
schools of the leading nations the use of American material con-
tinued to grow slowly; and steps were taken at a few universities
to give American Studies more formal recognition. T h e first spe-
cialized chair (in Germany in the 1870's) was soon abolished and
had no successor anywhere during the period; but courses on
American subjects continued to grow in number almost everywhere,
even though they were mostly irregular and casual. In several
countries voluntary specialization was made possible in some
 The General Background 33

branches of American Studies; in France American subjects were

made compulsory at intervals in certain examinations from the
early 1880's onwards.
As before, the study of literary and intellectual life made the
slowest start; it was the field in which America still had least to
offer. Anglistics as a subject for scholarship had its origin in the
early 1870's in Germany, whence it spread widely. But these studies
were concentrated on the earliest periods in the history of English
language and literature; even modern British writing was regarded
as suspect. America, in comparison, had no old language and not
even a language of its own. Its most important literature belonged
to a period which has hardly been studied as yet, and its distinguish-
ing traits did not appear sufficiently different to demand any
separate attention. Even in the United States itself the influence
of German Anglistics after the Civil War dampened interest in
the literature of the country itself; the subject did not enter much
into American college courses until the mid-1890's.4 In this
light, the attempts at studying American Literature at some Euro-
pean universities, particularly from the 1890's, appear quite im-
pressive, even if they were still feeble and few and far between.
In Geography and History, a certain knowledge of America
began to be recognized by several universities as a normal part
of the curricula. The same held good in Economics and Political
Science, which had a rapid growth during these decades, partly
at new institutions outside the universities. Before 1900 travel in
America had been extremely rare in academic circles. About the
turn of the century a number of European scholars in the fields
mentioned above went to the United States, and their American
studies bore fruit in teaching and research.
Again, this growth has to be seen in its true proportions. It
was notable if singled out for inspection, but small in the overall
picture of education. In the work of the average European pupil
or student America continued to be a negligible quantity. Re-
sources were scarce, and ignorance often shocking, inside and out-
side the institutions of learning. But progress was unmistakable.

This quiet progress would certainly have continued into the

20th century by its own momentum. But it received a tremendous
additional impetus and was turned into a general movement by
the First World War and America's participation in it.
3
34 The General Background

T h e psychological effect of the War can hardly be exaggerated.

For the first time there was a general feeling of fellowship between
democratic Europe and democratic America. In the post-war world
the United States kept aloof from the international difficulties it
had helped to create. But its general position was immeasurably
strengthened; and its political and financial influence ran parallel
to an increasing cultural impact on all spheres of life. T h e Old
World and the New were brought close to each other in a way
unparalleled hitherto.
This new intimacy created new frictions. T o a much greater
extent than before the European attitude towards the United
States was influenced by day-to-day events and the swiftly changing
currents of public opinion. T h e concern about "Americanism"
on behalf of established European traditions was strengthened
both by mounting American influence and by Europe's weakening
power to resist it.
But there were positive factors as well. After 1920 the impact
of America partly assumed a new character. American research
took the lead in many general fields of learning; contact with
American scholarship became a necessity to Europe. T h e new
strength of the U. S. A. was expressed in an American literature
which in the course of a few decades became a world power
through its human relevance and its mixture of simplicity and
art. These intellectual influences gained new depth from the 1920's
onwards by the development in America itself of a scholarly analysis
of the "American m i n d \ Historical and literary research revealed
a national tradition that was more coherent in its growth and more
distinctly American than was previously realized and created a
new feeling even outside America of its cultural mission.
European eagerness to study and understand the United States
was supported by the continued readjustment of the national
educational systems. Over a large part of Europe the upheavals
caused by the war broadened the social foundations of education
and brought it closer to the actual needs of the people. These
reforms were carried through unevenly and often proved abortive;
dissensions were violent and the power of conservatism strong. T h e
study of the United States nowhere formed the focus of these
debates. But it was always connected with the basic issues and
sometimes came to the fore.
 The General Background 35

Now the schools often proved to be less traditionalist than higher

education, and more sensitive to the currents of public life. They
were also more manageable by government directive. In several
states in Western Europe, particularly France and Germany, the
1920's saw general school reforms which strengthened the position
of American subjects in the service of a democratic ideology. There
was a growing tendency to regard the United States and its civiliza-
tion as an indispensable part of the school syllabuses.
At the universities, there was now a planned movement in the
same direction. Academic contacts with America became more and
more close all through the inter-war period, both with regard to
the acquisition of books and the exchange of ideas and staff.
Research foundations on both sides of the ocean began to support
transatlantic travel; the methods of American scholarship became
an influence, not only in technology and science. T h e Social
Studies made their entry, with their emphasis on the practical
application of learning and its responsibilities in society. In the
Humanities a broad comparative approach developed in the study
of civilization; all these trends were apt to further the study of
America in particular.
At several European universities academic American Studies
were for the first time given a permanent position in the inter-
war period. Some scholars, at least, were now qualified to take
the lead in organized work; beginning with France (1917), a number
of specialized chairs and teaching positions were established, often
with American assistance. T h e chairs were in several disciplines,
but particularly in History and in Literature, reflecting the new
importance of the latter subject. More and more, regulations
secured a certain credit for the studies that developed. T h e number
of courses, general and special, was still small compared with other
fields, but impressive in relation to pre-war conditions. T h e
systematic purchase of American source material was established
and the first specialized libraries and research institutes were
organized in American Studies.
As before, the bulk of this work was done within the traditional
subjects. But behind it was a growing realization of the relative
independence of American culture, an independence which had
to be defined and qualified, but always had to be taken into
consideration. In these studies new methods made their appearance,
36 The General Background

particularly chose of the Social Sciences. There was a tendency to

break the bonds of specialization and embrace all aspects of civiliza-
tion in an integrated and structural "Kulturkunde", across the
border lines of traditional studies. T h e American material seemed
particularly suited for such experiments; demands were raised for
the organization of separate "American Studies" or "Americanis-
tics", an "Amerikakunde" which grasped the totality of civilization
by means of a team-work between many branches of learning.
These ideas seem to have originated in Europe. But they found
support in the integrated "Area Studies" of American Civilization
that were built on a similar ground and gained importance from
the 1930's within the United States themselves.
These movements held great promise; but their results were far
from adequate. In the new world which was taking shape the
United States more and more emerged as a dominating factor; its
influence, politically, economically and culturally, was felt every-
where. T o create a balanced understanding of America in the
leading groups of society was no longer of academic concern to
the nations, but a prerequisite to a realistic orientation in modern
life. Only education could manage to create such understanding;
here the efforts of the inter-war years lagged far behind.
In the schools the new requirements often remained on paper
as far as America was concerned; the established subjects did not
yield enough space. In the universities there was often more discus-
sion than palpable results; when it came to regular work within
the established disciplines the gap often remained immense be-
tween what was offered and what was needed. Some great uni-
versities in great countries had much to show; but the bulk of
the smaller institutions everywhere continued, as before, to do
little or nothing in the American field. And in practically all
countries there was a discrepancy between requirements in the
schools and in the universities which rendered specialized American
Studies something of a luxury and made recruitment small.
There was a widespread difference of opinion with regard to
the aims and limits of "American Studies". There was a shortage
of material and trained staff in both teaching and research, and
a general lack of library resources after long negligence in the
past. There was also a feeling of uneasiness or reserve with regard
to the language. As a modern study of spoken English got under
 The General Background 37

way and Received Pronunciation was established as a standard

everywhere, a fear of the American accent became a real obstacle
to cultural exchange with the United States in most parts of
Europe.
Snobbery and educational conservatism were yielding in places,
but were certainly not broken. It was the period of the "treason
of the intellectuals", when in a number of European countries
the universities sadly disregarded the demands of society, isolated
themselves behind their curricula and left the world to its fate.
T h e effort to introduce American Studies was often frustrated by
this inertia.
Beyond these cultural and educational cross currents even more
general contrasts were lining u p for battle and challenging the
entire position of the United States.
During the nineteenth century America had been to Europe
the representative of political and social radicalism; but in the
twentieth their ways parted. Socialism, which never gained any
real ground in the United States, became a formative power in
European political and social life. T o many groups in the Old
World, not least to intellectuals, Great Britain gradually came to
occupy America's position as the torch-bearer of progress, while
the United States stood forth as the representative of an economic
and social conservatism that qualified its political freedom and
to some observers even overshadowed it.
In Western Europe this questioning attitude towards America
was balanced by the traditional respect for democratic principles
and unbiased research that was felt as a basic fellowship malgré
tout. Such feelings were strengthened during the era of the New
Deal with its new rapprochement of American and European
political practice; moreover, radical scepticism was never more
than one tendency among others. But in the state which was
founded in Russia after the revolution in 1917 developments took
a different turn. There was an old sympathy towards the United
States in Russia. But as the communist Soviet State more and
more revealed its dogmatic and totalitarian character and education
and scholarship were made the tools of authoritarian policies, the
study of the United States on all levels in Russia was made to
serve the needs of an ideology that regarded the United States
as its leading antagonist. This development was only in its be-
38 The General Background

ginnings before 1939. But the tendency was clear, and pointed
toward an unprecedented cleavage of the world, where the attitude
for or against the United States was a part of the dividing line, and
where many European resentments and fears of America could
find a political focus.
A much more immediate threat to the American position in
Europe sprang u p in the 1930s in Germany.
For a number of reasons Nazism came to develop towards a
crisis at a much more spasmodic pace than did the Soviet Union.
But the chaotic Nazi philosophy with its contempt of contradictions
brought under one roof the whole series of anti-American ten-
dencies, conservative and radical, of Modern Europe: the extreme
historic traditionalism; the contempt of the old and racially pure"
nations toward American composite civilization; the protest of
"blood and soil" and indigenous heritage against the levelling
tendencies of international technology and science; the aristocratic
hatred of political and social equality of the Western type; the
romantic, Nietzschean contempt for the multitude; and the socialist
protest against capitalist exploitation.
In this ideology there was the same basic anti-Americanism as
was inherent in Communism; and from their very seizure of power
Che Nazis displayed the same unscrupulous determination to make
the study and teaching of American civilization a weapon of their
political aims. Because of its hectic development Nazism never
managed to build u p a picture of America quite as striking in its
distortion as was the case in the Soviet Union. But its situation
was the same: Nazism could not prevail without conquering the
United States, politically, economically and in the mind of Europe,
as the symbol of that Western Civilization which the "German
Movement" tried to negate.
These ideals were much stronger in the world than the Nazis
realized. For that reason, the war they forced upon mankind in
1939 came to create a fellowship of arms and ideas between the
United States and the other nations of the West which was even
more general and genuine by far than had been the case in the
first world conflict. T h e total defeat of the Axis was made possible
by the contribution of the U. S. A.; and it influenced the position
of America in Europe, and in European education, even more
than did the victory in 1918.
 The General Background 39

T h e United States emerged from the Second World War with

overwhelming power and prestige. Its resources were largely un-
impaired; and it faced a Europe that was completely exhausted
and for years had to rely on America's might for its military
protection and its physical existence.
In Europe itself there was a strong feeling of dependence and
need for help. There was sincere gratitude all over Western Europe
towards the great liberator. Political sympathy was reborn among
radicals and conservatives alike, although for different motives.
There was a new openness of mind towards the English-speaking
nations generally, their languages and literatures, their scholarship
and ways of thinking; it was symbolized in the introduction of
English as the first foreign language in the schools of a number of
European countries. As never before America had a market in
Europe in all senses of the word.
In the United States there was a corresponding willingness to
assist actively in European reconstruction; and such efforts soon
became part of a long-range government policy. This development
was accelerated by the deteriorating relations with the Soviet
Union. T h e cooperation of East and West proved to be an inter-
lude; the old anti-Americanism of the Communists broke into
the open again soon after 1945. T h e contrast to the United States
became the obsessive idea of Russian politics: America was the
main obstacle to the achievement of world revolution. In the Soviet
Union and in all the satellite territories a propagandist«: study
of America became an important part of the formation of public
opinion, in preparation for the unavoidable clash of the two ir-
reconcilable systems. T h e danger forced the Western nations to
close their ranks under American leadership. And behind the
military and economic cooperation the Europeans felt the need
to join their forces even intellectually, by a more systematic effort
to understand the common cultural foundations of the West, in-
cluding the United States.
This general rapprochement ran parallel to a veritable invasion
of Europe by American civilization. T o the starved and war-worn
peoples of the Old World poured, in a continuous stream, all the
products of the New, to a large extent as gifts, — not only capital
and military equipment, food and consumer goods, but the mani-
fold output of American cultural life, on a scale unequalled before:
40 The General Background

records and films, newspapers and weeklies, professional journals,

plays, and books. For the first time in history the two great halves
of the Western World began to approach each other, in some fields
at least, as if the Atlantic were not there. T h e elimination of
distance was symbolized in the European editions of American
dailies and the tremendous circulation all over Europe of American
Pocket Books and journals in the original language.
This American impact made itself felt with particular strength in
education. It was recognized more and more generally that the begin-
nings of American Studies made before the war were inadequate, and
that their development could no longer be left to chance. In some of
the belligerent countries large-scale reforms during the war itself
tried to give the United States a broader place in the schools.
After the end of hostilities similar movements got under way in
many European countries. T h e universities followed the lead.
Definite programmes of American Studies, within the existing
subjects, separately, or both, have been organized at an increasing
rate since the war in most of the countries of Europe, together
with a great number of speciali American Institutes. T h e im-
provement of the economic situation made this trend even more
marked in the 1950's than it was in the 1940's.
In countries where discussion was free these attempts were
accompanied by an active exchange of opinion that held much pro-
mise. It was paralleled by an impressive growth, as far as resources
would permit, of research in American Civilization. In the 1950's
national and international associations came into being in order
to bring these American Studies into contact with each other.
Particular attention was devoted everywhere to the history of Ame-
rican influence in Europe. Here the research material was on the
spot, and the results added significance and perspective to the
efforts of the day.
If this movement is compared to that following the First World
War, it is not only much more general; it has the support of
American institutions on a much larger scale. Experience during
the war opened the eyes of many Americans to the handicaps that
faced the United States because of geographical remoteness and
European neglect. After the war the American government con-
tinued to expand its cultural information activity all over the
globe; it intended to break the bonds of distance and bring the
United States home to Europe on a par with the great nations of
 The General Background 41

Europe itself. From 1945 onwards a flood of American printed

material, old and new, reached the European libraries from private
sources, institutions, and foundations in the States, and from the
American Government. Well-equipped U. S. Information libraries,
in European cities large and small, opened American literature
and current American source material of all kinds to the widest
circles. Extensive hospitality on the part of American institutions
and large scale allocations by the U. S. Congress, above all through
the Fulbright and Smith-Mundt Bills, facilitated the exchange of
students, research scholars and visiting teachers in all fields and
on all levels of education. T h e work of hundreds of American
professors teaching their own civilization in practically all the
universities of Western Europe since the war is one of the most
striking features in the history of cultural interrelations.
Much of this activity was intended to distribute general in-
formation about America to the European man in the street. But
much was also done to support the organized studies of American
Civilization in schools and universities. Many of the latter efforts
were due to the initiative of private citizens; this was the case
above all with the Salzburg Seminar in American Studies, which
was put at the service of Europe in 1947. But the activity of the
U. S. Information Service and the Fulbright Committees, the
distribution of scholarships, the arrangement of courses, summer
schools, and conferences, and the inviting of visiting professors
and teachers soon established close cooperation even between
educational authorities in America and Europe. T h e United States
was forced to play a part in the development of American Studies;
in its occupation zone in Germany it even had to carry much
more far-reaching responsibilities.
From these efforts, badly coordinated as they often were, there
gradually emerged an American educational policy. Even in the
Old World there had long been a growing concern about the
retrospective tendencies, the over-specialization, the lack of social
responsibility and contact with life in European schools and uni-
versities; many Europeans felt these shortcomings to be one of
the reasons for the European disaster. Such ideas found expression
in many countries in movements for the establishment of a studium
generate in the universities. American authorities were in agree-
ment with these efforts. In their advisory work, in Germany and
elsewhere, they pointed to a parallel in the integrated, interdepart-
42 The General Background

mental "Area Studies" of American Civilization that were de-

veloping in America itself from the end of the inter-war period, in
close connection with the Social Sciences. They were inclined to
put their influence behind similar efforts in Europe, and some-
times to make these American Studies a lever for general educa-
tional reform.
The results of such efforts were, however, dubious. While there
was much willingness in Europe to develop American Studies and
even use them for experiments in "integration", the authorities
were usually intent on doing it in accordance with European
traditions. And there were other sources of hesitation which worked
in the same direction.
Many of the conflicting tendencies of the previous decades
reappeared in the transatlantic relationship after 1945. They were
strengthened by economic difficulties, and by new tensions and
irritations on both sides as the post-war honeymoon wore off. T h e
basic anti-Americanism was not dead; and it received fresh support
through the suddenness and immensity of the new American
impact, which might be felt to be frightening particularly by the
small nations. Now as before the British part of Anglo-Saxon
Civilization was often played up against that of the United States
as being closer to the European tradition.
There was political distrust, not alone in the Communist parties,
but also among many of America's friends. As so often before, the
position of the United States in the eyes of Europeans was a
reflection of its internal development. The defects of the West
were hidden to nobody as the world moved into the 1950's; and
they were constantly played upon by Soviet propaganda, which
stuck to its basic interpretation of America regardless of all
opportunistic readjustments.
American Studies were increasingly paid for by European alloca-
tions. But there was still a great need for American assistance, and
sometimes resentment at having to accept it. There was occasional
impatience with the American interest, with expectations that were
not always based on understanding and claims that went beyond
the limits of the possible. There was an uneasiness about what
F. R. Leavis called the "inflationary bent", the "preoccupation
with Americanness" in the American approach, an attitude that
was as natural in the Americans as was the reaction to it in the
Europeans. There were new trends in scholarship that tended to
 The General Background 43

weaken interest and curiosity; to the literary interpreters of texts

and texts alone the American background appeared less relevant
than before.
Behind such doubts there was also, in almost all Western coun-
tries, that basic conservatism with which American Studies had
always had to struggle and, in addition, a general weariness which
followed the war, an escapist clinging to established patterns, to
"spiritual" and "eternal" values of almost any kind, in a world
of levelled standards and chaotic change. These attitudes were not
likely to strengthen interest in the studies of American Civilization;
and they battled with the inherited feelings of fellowship and
sympathy and the urge to understand and to base judgement on
real knowledge, in a picture of extreme complexity.
This outline of trends and backgrounds is, however, abstract and
simplified. The real development takes place within the nations,
where the general trend is modified by time and place. A study
of such developments will be undertaken in the following chapters.

NOTES
General Sources.
In the Notes, reference is made only to such source material as is of direct
importance to the subjects under discussion. Much literature was not available in
any of the libraries at the author's disposal; even in the great national libraries the
lacunae are sometimes surprising.
General literature on the interrelations of the United States and Europe is listed
in a number of bibliographies, particularly F. Baldensperger and W. P. Friederich:
Bibliography of Comparative Literature (Chapel Hill 1950 — extremely incomplete)
and Literary History of the United States, vol. Ill: Bibliographies by T h . H. Johnson
(New York 1948). Special bibliographies are found in several of the books which are
referred to under the various chapters below. A preliminary survey of the problems
of interrelation is made in American Influences Abroad. An Exploration, ed. R. II.
Heindel (New York 1950).
T h e outline above is largely based on material presented in the book itself; no
earlier survey has been made of the whole subject. T h e author i9 indebted to the
following books and articles of a more general kind: M. Beloff: The Projection of
America Abroad (American Quarterly 1, 1949, 23—29); Comparative Education, ed. A.
H. Moehlman and J. S. Roucek (New York 1952); M. Curti: T h e Reputation of
America Overseas (1776-1860) (American Quarterly 1, 1949, 58-82, reprinted in his:
Probing Our Past, New York 1955, 191—218); A. Flexner: Universities — American,
English, German (New York 1930); H. Koht: The American Spirit in Europe. A
Survey of Transatlantic Influences (Philadelphia 1949; Swedish edition with an
additional chapter, Amerika i Europa, Stockholm 1950); J . H. P. Pafford: Library
Co-operation in Europe (London 1935).
T h e first known survey of any special phase in the development of American
Studies is an article: America at the Continental Universities (Appleton's Journal
9, 494 f., April 12, 1873). While the anonymous author presents some interesting
information about the situation about 1870 in a surprising number of countries, he
44 The General Background

also makes many statements that are completely fantastic. His description of the
number of chairs and courses etc. is much exaggerated; many of the details it has
proved impossible to verify. (They have sometimes been repeated without further
investigation by other scholars.) When the article is used below in cases where its
reliability could not be checked, reference is always made to the dubious character
of the source.
An early sketch of developments at European universities in the 1920's is R. W.
Zandvoort: American Studies (English Studies 12, 1930, 209-218). Similar brief surveys
of the situation after 1945, particularly in Italy and France, are E. N. W. Mottram:
American Studies in Europe (Groningen 1955) and St. T . Williams: W h o Reads an
American Book? (Virginia Quarterly 28, 1952, 518—531). Personal impressions by
American Visiting Professors in the post-war period are sometimes referred to in the
Notes under the respective countries. Much material has appeared in the Bulletin of
the British Association for American Studies (1956 ff.), the Mitteilungsblatt der
Deutschen Gesellschaft für Amerikastudien (1954 ff.) and the Newsletter of the
European Association for American Studies (1955 ff.). A general discussion of the
European situation is found in Summary of the Proceedings of the Second Inter-
national Conference of University Professors of English (Paris 1953, 66—70).

1 T h e quotation is a chapter heading 88 ff., 161; J. D. Hart: The Oxford Com-

in Marcus • Lee Hansen: The Atlantic
Migration, 1607-1860 (Cambridge 1940).
Quoted from Koht, I.e. 72.
2 Koht, ibid. 32.
3 Adapted from M. Bewley: The Com-
plex Fate (London 1952), VIII.
* H. M. Jones: The Theory of Ame-
rican Literature (Ithaca, N. Y. 1948),
panion to American Literature (New
York 1945), 567; F. L. Pattee: Penn State
Yankee (State College 1953), 117, 270.
5 F. R. Leavis: T h e Americanness of
American Literature. A British Demurrer
to Van Wyck Brooks (Commentary 14,
1952, 466—474). A similar concern is
expressed by M. Beloff, I. c. 28 f.
 II.
THE UNITED KINGDOM
(England and Wales; Scotland; Northern Ireland).

A. Before the First World War.

Among the nations of Europe the British, to the superficial

observer, would seem predestined for leadership in the study of
American Civilization. For the first century and a half after the
settlement of what was to become the U. S. A., Americans and
Britons were for all practical purposes one nation; and they have
continued to live in an intimate relationship, political, economic,
and intellectual, up to this day. T o a large extent they still have a
common racial and cultural background, common traditions, and
a common language. T h e pre-requisites for understanding America,
which Europeans of other nations have to acquire painfully and
always imperfectly, come to the British as a birthright. But there
have been other factors at work which have made Great Britain's
relation to and understanding of America an exceedingly com-
plex matter.
T h e general traditionalism that, from the very beginning, was
the main obstacle to a serious study of the United States in most
European countries, was deep-rooted in Great Britain. A t the time
when the American colonies broke away from the mother country,
England was already in the first throes of that industrial revolution
which was going to sweep the world and in the twentieth century
was to be symbolized by the United States. Great Britain was
eventually to adapt itself to this development with an elasticity
unparalleled among the other great nations of Europe. But up to
the First World War, at least, these changes in British life were
gradual, leaving intact considerable Temnants of an aristocratic social
structure. Even when these conservative powers had to give way
to changes in the fabric of society, much of the old was still
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