KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO AVIONICS

1
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

INTRODUCTION TO AVIONICS
AVIONICS

Avionics are the advanced electronics used in aircraft, spacecraft and satellites. The term
Avionics derived from the combination of Aviation and electronics. It is the science and technology
of electronic systems and devices for aeronautics and astronautics. Avionics covers the diverse topics
of computing, electronics, control and communications. In essence it comprises all electronic systems
designed for use on an aircraft. At a basic level this comprises communications, navigation and the
display and management of multiple systems. It also comprises the literally hundreds of systems that
are fitted to aircraft to meet individual roles.

AVIONICS SYSTEMS

Avionics systems perform various functions include communication, navigation, flight

control, display systems, flight management etc. There is a great need for advanced avionics in civil,
military and space systems. All electronic and electromechanical systems and subsystems (hardware
and software) installed in an aircraft that are dependent on electronics for its operation. Avionics
Systems are essential to enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and to meet the
mission requirements with minimum flight crew.

1.1 NEED FOR AVIONICS IN CIVIL AND MILITORY AIRCRAFT

AND SPACE SYSTEM
Reliable and timely transfer of data between avionics systems is a necessity in military and civil
aircraft design.

Modernization initiatives put forth a road map for avionics in areas mainly

 Published Routes and Procedures – Improved navigation and routing

 Negotiated Trajectories – Adding data communications to create preferred routes dynamically
 Delegated Separation – Enhanced situational awareness in the air and on the ground
 Low Visibility/Ceiling Approach/Departure – Allowing operations with weather constraints
with less ground infrastructure
 Surface Operations – To increase safety in approach and departure
 ATM Efficiencies – Improving the ATM process

To meet the mission requirements with the minimum flight crew in any flight operations

 Have to consider economic benefits such as crew salaries, expenses and training costs.
 Reduction in weight, which results more passenger carrying capability or longer range on less
fuel.

System safety

All parts of the aircraft are subject to regular system safety analyses. In avionics, methods for
analyzing the safety impacts of a system are dictated by airworthiness authorities of the individual
nation. Invariably methods like one managed by the FAA or EASA (JAA) will be used for civilian
aircraft. In the military world, whilst there are some worldwide standards, lots of military purchasing
authorities will dictate local standards (like Def Stan 00-56). The safety methodologies will

2
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

significantly impact the design in terms of reliability and usage. Any system using software will be
subject to even more scrutiny with respect to its safety impact.

Physical environment

The environment for any aircraft is different. Systems have many uses. Some need to be more
robust than others. Today all avionics systems go through some level of environmental testing. This
allows design authorities the ability to be assured of the robustness of the design. The testing comes in
many forms, and has for many aircraft been pre-ordained by airframe manufacturers. As avionics
became more ubiquitous on all sorts of aircraft, the Airworthiness Authorities (e.g. UK CAA or US
FAA) set performance standards which equipment should meet. The manufacturers grew this to
standards that define the environmental standards that the equipment should meet.

These standards place upon the avionics manufacturers predefined methods and agreed levels
of testing for aircraft parts. Things such as salt spray, waterproofness, mould growth, and effects of
external contamination and so on are all tested for. Standards such as BS 3G 100, MIL-STD-810,
DEF STAN 00-35 have all been written to provide manufacturers with these methods. Each individual
test is assessed as to its usefulness on the item (e.g. salt spray tests may not need to be done on
equipment housed inside sealed bays). Manufacturers maintain standards by cross referencing these
standards and level of testing required; often generating top level general requirements. These do not
dictate performance, but are an expression of the environment which the equipment must operate
within.

Vibration

For even the most benign of aircraft (like an airliner), vibration is a serious issue as it has major
impacts on reliability. On more aggressive aircraft like helicopters, vibration can be the major driver
in the design. There are aircraft standards available for vibration, but many airframes do not recognize
them. Vibration resonances will be different for almost every aircraft built, but they are certainly
different for every type.

Quality

The procurement of avionics equipment is all part of a worldwide assortment of

manufacturers. Whilst highly recognizable manufacturers will provide the parts for the 'insides' of a
box or LRU (Line-replaceable unit), the specialist element of packaging, testing and managing the
configuration of avionics falls into the domain of a few big players. Quality control of parts is a
significant part of any major industry, but in avionics and aviation as a whole, supplier quality can
break entire programs (see the Boeing Chinook problems). Quality procedures dictated by ISO 9001
are now the starting blocks for any major business. However, all the main air framers have their own
highly stringent quality procedures for delivery of documentation and hardware. It is often said that
aircraft fly not on fuel, but on paperwork, since a single LRU (a radio or instrument) can produce
excessive documentation.

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

EMC is the interaction of electrical and electronic equipment with its electromagnetic
environment, and with other equipment. All electronic devices have the potential to emit
electromagnetic fields.EMC is an engineering activity that assesses the effect of one electrical
electronic system on another. In the world of aircraft, EMC can cause all sort of problems, and
equipment’s and aircraft are extensively tested using specific standards (Def Stan 59-41, MIL-STD-
464 etc.).

3
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

Design constraints

Any equipment fitted to aircraft has to meet a series of rigorous design constraints. The
aircraft presents electronics with a unique and sometimes highly complex environment. Airworthiness
and certification is one of the most costly, time consuming, troublesome and difficult aspects of
building any aircraft. As aircraft and aircrew reliance on avionics has increased, it has placed a heavy
duty of responsibility on the robustness of these systems. One necessary factor of constructing
avionics systems is that a flight control system must be designed so that it never fails. However,
degrees of this level of robustness can be found in every system fitted to aircraft.

Other considerable needs are

 Minimal power consumption

 Air traffic control requirements
 All weather operations
 Reduction in fuel consumption
 Improved in aircraft performance and control
 Reduction in maintenance cost.

ADVANTAGES OF USING AVIONICS IN CIVIL & MILITARY AIRCRAFT AND

SPACE SYSTEMS:

The major advantages of using avionics in civil aircraft are

 To enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and efficiently.
 The reduction in weight can be translated to increased passengers or long range.
 All weather operation and reduction in maintenance costs.
 For better flight control, performing computations and increased control over flight control
surfaces.
 For navigation, provide information using sensors like Altitude and Head Reference System
(AHRS).
 Provide air data like altitude, atmospheric pressure, temperature, etc.
 Reduce crew workload.
 Increased safety for crew and passengers.
 Reduction in aircraft weight which can be translated into increased number of passengers or
long range.
 All weather operation and reduction in aircraft maintenance cost.

The major advantages of using avionics in military aircraft are

 A single seat fighter or strike aircraft is lighter and Costs less than an equivalent two seat
version.
 Avionics in fighter aircraft eliminates the need for a second crew member like navigator,
observer etc., which helps in reducing the training costs.
 Improved aircraft performance and control and handling and reduction in maintenance costs
 Secure communication.
 Reduction in maintenance cost.

The general advantage of Avionics over the conventional aircraft system is

4
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

 Increased safety
 Air traffic control requirements
 All weather operation
 Reduction in fuel consumption
 Improved aircraft performance and control and handling and reduction in maintenance costs

The usage of avionics in space systems are

 Fly-by-wire control systems were used for vehicle attitude and translation control.
 Sensors used around the aircraft for data acquisition.
 Redundancy system and autopilot.
 On board computers used in satellites for processing.

INTEGRATED AVIONICS&WEAPON SYSTEM

Integration of systems into aircraft is one of the largest problems for engineers today. The
early avionics systems were integrated by the air crew who had to look at various dials and displays
connected to disjoint sensors, correlate the data provided by them, apply errors corrections,
orchestrate the functions of the sensors and perform mode and failure management in addition to
flying the aircraft. However small the aircraft, there is always some level of integration (whether or
not it operates with the aircraft power supply, for example). As the digital technology evolved, a
contract computer was added to integrate the information from the sensors and subsystems. The large
aircraft projects (military and civilian alike) employ hundreds of engineers to integrate these complex
systems.

The Avionics and Weapon System (AWS) in any modern day fighter aircraft enable the pilot
to perform various mission functions and thereby meet the stipulated operational role of the aircraft.

The AWS must meet the following functional requirements in order to complete a Mission:

a) Receive inputs from

 Sensors
 Communication Systems
 Radio Navigation System
 Identification System
 Missiles
 Electronic Counter Measures System
 Pilot Controls

b) Compute required parameters for navigation and fire control

 Navigation algorithms
 Fire Control algorithms

c) Output computed results to

 Displays:
 Audio System: AWS status and warnings
 Weapons

5
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

d) Control weapon launch/firing

 Weapon selection and preparation

 Launch/fire sequencing

e) Control/co-ordinate/manage sensors optimally

 Mode commands
 Slaving commands

Integration

The means of connecting the vast array of systems together such that the information can be
used in a cohesive and useful fashion have vexed the avionics industry from the start. The simplicity
of a discrete wire telling a device that something is either on or off has grown all the way to the
incorporation of fibre optic data buses moving flight control data around the aircraft. Ever more
complex software has been written to ever more rigorous standards.

In modern avionics systems, the mission requirements are met by the cooperative functioning of
various subsystems each containing segments of the operational flight program (OFP).Integration of
avionics system is essential for the success of any aircraft program. The major advantages obtained by
integrating the avionics system using multiplex bus are;

 Reduction of total hardware, by sharing sensors, controls and displays

 Weight reduction and flexibility
 Effective redundancy without massive hardware duplication made possible by the integration
of identical, similar or dissimilar sensors to make multiple sources of similar data available
 Reduction of the effect of systematic error sources by the effective use of dissimilar or similar
subsystems to reduce the effect of systematic error sources.
 Built in redundancy with consequent fault tolerance
 Battle damage tolerance
 Growth potential in a cost effective manner

INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONICS SYSTEMS

The Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA) provides computation, memory and Input/output data
processing resources, shared between several avionics applications. Airplanes require avionics
systems that offer excellent maintainability and high dispatch reliability. By eliminating the need for
separate Line Replaceable Units, Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) concept reduces weight, space
and power consumption while improving overall system reliability and maintainability.Avionics
systems are conventionally designed using a federated architecture. The system is partitioned into a
number of physically separated black boxes, each of which is then treated as a separate subsystem.
Integrity requirements are often defined at this level of resolution, with each black box being given an
integrity requirement based on its most critical function.

Integrated functions include: Flight Management, Displays, Navigation, Central Maintenance,

Airplane Condition Monitoring, Flight Deck Communications, Thrust Management, Digital Flight
Data, Engine Data Interface and Data Conversion Gateway. Future plans include integration of more
airplane utility control functions, such as Environmental & Electrical Control, Fire & Smoke
Detection, and Fuel System Control & Indicating

• Conventional Federated Architecture:

6
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

 Each unit has individual control in the cockpit

 Connected by a dedicated wire;
 Continuous signals
 Tons of wires onboard

• Integrated Modular Avionics:

 Units are connected to a common bus (AFDX);
 Discrete signals;
 Control protocols
 Readings are processed and displayed by onboard computing nodes

Integrated Modular Avionics Architecture

Figure: basic IMA computing module.

INTEGRATED AVIONICS PROCESSOR SYSTEM

The latest technology used to simplify the variety of avionics systems found on corporate
aircraft is called the integrated avionics processor system (IAPS). The system is designed to function
as a central distribution network for virtually all the avionics of an aircraft. The IAPS coordinators the
weather radar (WXR); the instrument display unit (IDU); the flight management system (FMS); the
flight control system (FCS); the radio sensor system (RSS), which may include all navigation and
communication radios, the aircraft data acquisition system (ADAS), the air data system (ADS); and
the altitude heading system (AHS).

The IAPS uses a digital data bus system to link all the avionics sub systems to the IAPS. The
processor controls the outputs to the various flight deck displays and monitors the system for defects.
A central diagnostic system is used to record and troubleshoot faults within the avionics sub systems.
This type of built in test equipment greatly enhances troubleshooting of these relatively complex sub
systems. The centralized design of the IAPS also reduces the number and size of sub system
components.

INTEGRATED NAVIGATION AND FLIGHT SYSTEMS

When all or most of the conditions affecting the flight of an airplane are brought together and
sensed by a system that is able to present information regarding the conditions to the pilot, the total
system may be termed an integrated navigation and flight system or simply ‘Integrated flight

7
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

systems’. A completely integrated navigation and flight system includes flight instrumentation,
navigation systems, communication systems and the automatic flight systems.

Aircraft Networks

The avionics systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft are
interconnected using an avionics data bus. These network protocols are similar in functionality as an
in-home network connecting computers together, however, the communication and electrical
protocols can be very different. Here is a short list of some of the more common avionics data bus
protocols with their primary application:

 Aircraft Data Network (ADN): Ethernet derivative for Commercial Aircraft

 AFDX: Specific implementation of ARINC 664(AND) for Commercial Aircraft
 ARINC 429: Commercial Aircraft
 ARINC 629: Commercial Aircraft (Boeing 777)
 ARINC 708: Weather Radar for Commercial Aircraft
 ARINC 717: Flight Data Recorder for Commercial Aircraft
 MIL-STD-1553: Military Aircraft

Few examples of integrated avionics system used in civil airlines are

• INS & GPS (Navigation)

• MFKs and MFDU (Display I/O)
• HUD
• Glass Cockpit

Few examples of integrated avionics system used in weapon system are

• Hemet Mounted Display (HMT)

• Head Level Display (HLD)
• Night Vision Goggles (NGV)
• Forward Looking Infra-Red Displays (FLIR)

WEAPON SYSTEM
The overall planned equipment and backing required to deliver a weapon to its target including
production, storage, transport, launchers, aircrafts etc., known as weapon systems. It is the
combination of one or more weapons with all related equipment, materials services, personal and
means of delivery and deployment required for self-sufficiency.

1. GUNS:

Aircraft cannons are effective in attack against all types of vehicles, field guns, aircraft on the ground,
moving troops and ship superstructures. They are however, limited in range to about 800 to 1000m air
to air and 2000m air to ground. Smaller caliber machine guns have even less range and their use is
limited to armed light aircraft and helicopters. There are two categories of aircraft cannon:

(a) Gas operated revolver:

These guns use a single barrel combined with a four or five chamber rotary revolver. The operation of
the gun is powered by the gas discharged during the firing of the first round. When the first round is
fired by means of an electrical signal, the exhaust gas revolves the breach and removes the used case

8
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

and link. Their rates of fire are considerly less than for the rotary guns, but they tend to be lighter and
less bulky.

(b) Rotary ‘Gatling type’:

This type of gun has a varying number of identical barrels ranging between three and seven external
power is required to rotate the barrel cluster, and rotate a cam to feed and fire the ammunition.
External power may be electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic. The ammunition is again, either electrically
or percussion operated. The former method may be sensitive to electromagnetic interference.

Fig: M61 AI Vulcan gun installation

The above figure gives two views of the M^! cannon and its specification is

Caliber : 20mm
Masses : 120kg (gun)
150kg (400 rounds)
Overall length : 1880mm (gun)
No of barrels :6
Rate of fire : 4000 rounds/min
Muzzel velocity : 1036 m/s

Gun performance:

Gun type ADEN/DEFA Oerlikon Valcon M GE 525 GAU 8 GE 430

304RK 61
Calibre 30 30 20 25 30 30
(mm)
Gun length 1.66 2.69 1.88 2.11 2.88 2.79
(m)
Muzzle 815 1075 1036 1100 1040 1040
velocity
(m/s)
Rate of fire 21 23 100 60 70 40
(rounds/s)
Shell weight 0.236 0.326 0.1 0.18 0.37 0.37
(kg)
Round 0.363 0.664 0.254 - 0.70 0.70
weight (kg)
Shell weight 4.96 7.48 10.0 10.98 25.9 14.8
/s

2. BOMBS:

9
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

These are the primary weapons for the stationary targets, for the destruction of runways, oil dumps
and other installations.

(a) Conventional free fall bombs:

The classic free fall bomb has been used from aircraft since World War I and is now usually in the
1000 lb category. The dimensions of this weapon are length 90” (2.26m) and diameter 16.5” (0.42m).
Whilst being a reasonable aerodynamic shape, they also produce a considerable amount of drag. A
range of low drag conventional bombs has been developed. They are more slender than conventional
types, but are necessary longer.

Most free fall bombs use a high explosive charge but it is possible to use a nuclear or chemical
warhead.

Disadvantages:

i) There is the danger that the aircraft may itself be damaged by the bomb explosion
ii) The trajectory of the bomb is very flat and the bomb tends to bounce or skip after import.

(b) Retarded bombs:

The difficulties of free fall bombs have been overcome by fitting the bomb with a retarder fail. This is
a drag increasing device opening somewhat like an umbrella which slews the bomb design and
steepen its trajectory. So that it impacts the ground some distance behind the aircraft. Retarded bombs
are normally ejected from altitudes of between 200 and 500 ft.

(c) Cluster bombs:

The cluster bomb is a versatile weapon which can cope with a variety of targets. It comprises a large
number of small bomblets enclosed in a bomb shaped casting. Each bomb let has its own sensor and
fusing device. After the bomb is released, a charge explodes the casting and a further charge ejects the
bomb lets in a controlled pattern so that jostling between them is avoided. The cluster bomb is
effective against both hard and soft targets.

(d) Laser guided bombs:

Laser target marking and laser spot seeking bombs have been in use for about 20 years. In this system,
special ‘smart’ bombs are fitted with a sensor in their nose, which seeks the laser spot trained on to
the target by a ground or airborne target designator and homes the bomb onto the spot. The bomb is
given a limited degree of maneuverability in both azimuth and elevation by control surfaces replacing
the fixed fins.

Weight Length Width Depth

Weapon type Elevation
(Kg) (m) (m) (m)
Short range attack missile
1000 4.25 0.5 0.5
(AGM-69A)

Low attack dispenser

1200 3.85 0.6 0.42
(appache)

Low attack dispenser

1220 4.15 0.63 0.48
(CWS)

10
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

1000 LB laser guided

bomb [Paveway II (MK 500 3.45 0.52 0.52
13/18)]
Cluster bomb (BL 755) 280 2.45 0.4 0.4
Free fall or Retarded (MK
455 2.45 0.42 0.42
13/18 1000 LB bomb)

Fig: Overall dimensions of widely used ground attack weapons

3. GUIDED MISSILES:

A guided missile is an unmanned explosive-carrying vehicle that moves above the earth's surface in a
flight path controlled by an external or internal source. There are many kinds of guided missiles, but
all have the same ultimate function: destroy enemy "targets", i.e., personnel, tanks, vehicles, airplanes,
ships, and weapons, including attacking missiles. Although a missile is unlike a manned aircraft in
that it is designed for only one flight, the most important and fundamental difference is in its guidance
system. Even in a modern, sophisticated aircraft with many automatic flying aids there is always a
pilot to monitor the behavior of the machine. A successful missile must be capable of destroying its
target without this human monitoring, at least as far as the actual flying vehicle is concerned.

There are numerous types of guidance, each of which is suited to a particular application. When
attacking a static target the missile requires only to know its position relative to the target, or to some
known origin which is normally derived from a flight program fed in before launch.

(a) Missile guidance – Surface to surface & Air to surface:

One of the simplest types of guidance systems is that of using a predetermined magnetic heading. An
autopilot in the missile receives information from a magnetic sensing element and keeps the missile
on the desired course. Other guidance systems used are similar to those of manned aircraft, ie., radio
navigation and inertial navigation. The later may be updated by star tracking.

Terrain comparison (TER COM) is a recent development in which sensitive altimeters measures the
profile of the ground beneath it and check it against preprogrammed information. This system is
combined with inertial systems to give extreme accuracy and is used on cruise missiles. The system,
however requires good intelligence about potential targets and is therefore inflexible.

(b) Missile guidance – Surface to air & Air to air:

i) Command systems:

In a simple command system, the missile is controlled by an operator who is located in a position
suitable for sighting the target. The operator observes both the target and missile and guides the
missile accordingly. There are three usual types of link between the operator and the missile, wire,
radio and television.

ii) Command link systems:

11
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

Fig: command link system

A command link system is a more elaborate development of the simple command system and aims at
removing its limitations. The target is tracked by ground based radar and its velocity and position are
computed. A similar installation tracks the missile and computes its motion. The results for the targets
and missile are then compared automatically and a radio transmitter sends control signals to the
missile to enable it to engage the target.

iii) Beam – riding:

A beam is pointed towards the target and the missile is controlled to fly along this, either surface or
airborne installation being used to direct the beam. It is normal to use a radio beam but, with the
development of lasers, which are capable of producing intense, narrow, light beams, these give a good
alternative.

Fig: Beam riding guidance

iv) Homing guidance:

In homing guidance system the missile itself has a device for looking at the target. With this, the
accuracy of the system will tend to increase as the target is approached. The size of the reflector in the
homing head may be decided either by the range or by the discrimination necessary against multiple
targets, which may determine beam width at a given range. There are three variations of a homing
guidance system.

Active homing is the most complex (& expensive). The missile is equipped to transmit radar signals
in the direction of the target. The reflected signals obtained enable the target to be followed by the
homing head, which computes the required control signal. This missile is independent of external
guidance.

12
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

The semi active radar target is illuminated by a transmitter located away from the missile. The missile
receives the reflected signals as in the case of active homing. Guidance in the missile is less complex
as it carries only the receiving apparatus.

The most common form of passive homing systems employ the use of infra-red heat seeking cells.
Alternatively they may home on the acoustic properties of the target, in a similar fashion to torpedoes.
Both active and passive guidance systems are termed ‘Fire and Forget’ systems.

(c) Typical Air to ground and Air to air missiles:

The Maverick is a relatively large anti-tank weapon which is aimed by television, Semi active laser or
semi active infra-red. The television guided version requires a second crew member to guide it, but
the other versions are of the ‘Fire and forget’ type suitable for launching from single seat aircraft. This
does however imply a comprehensive avionics fit. It would possible to fire four semi active versions
on a single attacking maneuver. This weapon has a range of greater than 7Km.

Fig: Maverick missile

The ‘side winder’ is a widely used short range weapon with a range in excess of 5Km. Figure shows
the missile, complete with its launcher. These missiles are often placed on aircraft wing tips where
their end plate effect reduces induced drag, but the wing has to be sufficiently stiff to carry them. The
missile is suspended from three points.

Some airborne missiles:

There is a vast range of such missiles, but a few of the main NATO weapons will be described.

1. AO-120A AMRAAM

Type : Air to air semi active laser homing

Length : 3650 mm

Body diameter : 178 mm

Wing span : 630 mm
Range : 50 Km
Masses : 157 Kg
(missile)
42 kg
(launcher)

13
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

Propulsion : Solid propellant

2. ASRAAM

Type : Air to air passive imaging infra red homing

Length : 2900 mm

Body diameter : 165 mm

Wing span : 450 mm
Range : 10 Km
Masses : 85 Kg (missile)
42 kg (launcher)
Propulsion : Solid propellant

3. AGM-65 Mauerick

Type : Air to ground semi active radar, laser or TV

Length : 2490 mm

Body diameter : 305 m m

Wing span : 720 mm
Range : 25 Km (F/G)
Masses : 307 Kg (missile) F/G
37 kg (launcher)
Propulsion : Solid propellant

4. Alarm

Type : Anti-radiation missile

Length : 4300 mm approx.

Body diameter : 230 mm approx.
Masses : 260 Kg approx. (missile)
70 kg approx. (launcher)

4. ROCKETS:

Rockets provide greater hitting power than gun and when used in a dive attacks are highly lethal and
economic relative to guide missiles. However the aircraft a living from altitude is vulnerable to attack

14
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

from ground defenses. In a low level attack, rockets are less effective because of the difficulties of
gravity drop and of precise aiming.

TYPICAL AVIONICS SUBSYSTEMS:

The cockpit of any aircraft is the most obvious location for avionics. It is also the most contentious
and difficult. Systems that allow the aircraft to fly safely or have direct control over the aircraft are all
directly controlled by the pilot. These safety critical systems and the items that support them are all
referred to as aircraft avionics.

Fig: Avionics sub systems

Main categories:

The main avionic sub systems have been grouped into five layers according to their role and function.

 Systems, which interface directly with the pilot

 Aircraft state sensor systems
 Navigation systems
 External world sensor systems
 Task automation systems

1. SYSTEMS INTERFACING DIRECTLY WITH THE PILOT

 Displays :The display system provide the visual interface between the pilot and the
aircraft systems and comprise head up displays (HUD), Helmet mounted displays
(HMD) and Head down displays (HDD). Display systems carry out checks of key

15
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

sensor data that allows the aircraft to fly safely in very aggressive environments.
Display software is often written in the same way as that for flight control software, as
essentially the pilot will follow it. The display systems can take multiple different
methods of determining attitude, heading and altitude that the aircraft use, and provide
them in a safe and easy to use manner to aircrew.

The latest multi function color displays provide the

 Primary flight displays (PFD) information such as height, air speed, mach number, vertical
speed, artificial horizon, pitch angle, bank angle and heading, and velocity vector.
 Navigation displays such as aircraft position and track relative to the destination or way
points together with the navigational information and distance and time to go
 Weather radar display information
 Engine data are presented so that the health of the engine can easily be monitored and any
deviations from the normal can be highlighted.
 The aircraft systems such as electrical power supply systems, cabin pressurization system and
fuel management system can be shown in easy to understand line diagram format on the multi
function displays.

 Communications

Communication radio systems provide reliable two way communication between the ground bases
and the aircraft or between aircrafts. Probably the first piece of avionics to exist, the ability to
communicate from the aircraft to the ground has been crucial to aircraft design since its inception. The
boom in telecommunications has meant aircraft (civilian and military) fly with a vast array of
communication devices. A small number of these provide the critical air to ground communications
systems for safe passage. On board communications are provided by public address systems and
aircraft intercoms

Military communications:

While aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems are designed
to withstand the rigours of the battle field. UHF, VHF Tactical (30-88 MHz) and SatCom systems
combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography secure the communications. Data links like Link
11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA provide the means of transmitting data (such as
images, targeting information etc.).

 Data entry and control

Data entry and control systems are essential for the crew to interact with the avionics systems

 Keyboard
 Touch panels
 Direct voice input(DVI) controls

 Flight control

Airplanes and helicopters have had different means of automatically controlling flight for many years.
They reduce pilot workload at useful times (like on landing, or in the hover), and they make these
actions safer by 'removing' pilot error. The first simple auto-pilots were used to control heading and
altitude and had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces. In helicopters, auto
stabilisation was used in a similar way. The old systems were all electromechanical in nature until

16
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

very recently. The software driven systems fitted to almost all new major aircraft today have made a
significant leap forward. The advent of fly by wire and electro actuated flight surfaces (rather than the
traditional hydraulic) has massively increased safety. As with displays and instruments, critical
devices which were electro-mechanical had a finite life which was very restrictive. Electronic systems
are not limited by the mechanical constraints. With safety critical systems, the software is written in
very strict conditions, where the ideal scenario is that it will never fail.

Two areas of flight control are

 Auto stabilization systems

 FBW flight control systems

2. AIRCRAFT STATE SENSOR SYSTEMS:

These comprise the air data systems and inertial sensor systems.

 Air data system

Information on the air data quantities such as altitude, calibrated air speed, vertical speed, true air
speed, Mach number and air stream incidence angle is essential for the control and navigation of the
aircraft. Air data computing systems calculates these quantities from various sensors that measure the
static pressure, total pressure, air stream incidence and the outside air temperature.

 Inertial sensor systems:

The altitude and the heading information is provided by the inertial sensor systems. These consist of
set of gyros and accelerometers, which measures the aircraft angular and linier motion about the
aircraft axis together with a computing system, which derives aircrafts altitude and heading from the
gyro and accelerometer. These data are utilized in INS (Inertial navigation system) to provide aircraft
velocity vector information. The INS is thus a very important aircraft state sensor system – it is also
completely self-contained and does not required any access to the outside world.

3. NAVIGATION SYSTEMS:

Navigation information such as aircraft position, ground speed and track angle (direction of motion of
the aircraft relative to true north) is clearly essential for the aircraft mission, weather civil or military.
Navigation systems can be divided into two major categories:

- Dead reckoning navigation systems (DR)

- Radio Navigation systems

 Dead reckoning navigation systems

DR navigation systems derive the vehicle’s present position by estimating the distance traveled from a
known position from knowledge of the speed and direction of motion of the vehicle. They have the
major advantages of being completely self-contained and independent of external systems. The main
types of DR navigation systems used in the aircraft are

- Inertial navigation systems

o They are the most accurate and widely used systems
- Doppler / Heading reference systems
o These are widely used in helicopters.
- Air data / Heading reference systems

17
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

o These systems have lesser accuracy than the above systems

 Radio Navigation systems

Various important navigation systems used in the aircraft are

- Position fixing systems

- Hyperbolic navigation systems
- Satellite navigation

Various examples of radio navigation systems commonly used are ADF, VOR, DME,
OMEGA, GPS, ILS, TACAN

4. EXTERNAL WORLD SENSOR SYSTEMS:

These systems, which comprise

- RADAR systems
- Infrared sensor systems

This gives all weather and night time operation and transform the operational capability of the
aircraft.

5. AIRCRAFT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The main purpose of these systems is to reduce the crew work load by automating and
manage as many tasks as appropriate, so that the crew role is a supervisory management one.

As integration became the buzzword of the day in avionics, and as PCs came onto the market,
there was a natural progression towards centralized control of the multiple complex systems fitted to
aircraft. Combined with displays and flight control systems, these three core systems allow all the
aircraft systems (not just avionics) to have their data compiled and manipulated to make it easier to
maintain, easier to fly and safer.

Engine monitoring and management was an early progression into aircraft management for
ground maintenance. Now the ultimate extension of this is total management of all the components on
the aircraft, giving them longer lives (and reducing cost). Health and Usage Monitoring Systems
(HUMS) are integrated with aircraft management computers to allow maintainers early warnings of
parts that will need replacement.

The aircraft management computer or flight management systems are used by aircrew in
place of reams of maps and complex equations. Combined with the digital flight bag they can manage
every aspect of the aircraft chock to chock.

Although avionic manufacturers provide flight management systems, aircraft management

and HUMS tend to be specific to the airframe as the design of the software is dependent on the
aircraft it is fitted to.

 Navigation Management systems:

It collects the data of all navigation systems such as from GPS and INS systems, to provide
the best possible estimate of aircraft position, ground speed and track. Then derives the steering

18
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

commands for the auto pilot, so that the aircraft automatically follows the planned navigation route.
This function is carried out by the flight management system, if installed.

 Autopilot and flight management systems:

The modern autopilot systems in addition to height hold and heading hold can also provide a
very precise control of the aircraft flight path, for example automatic landing in poor or even zero
visibility conditions. The tasks carried out by a FMS are;

- Flight planning
- Navigation management
- Engine control to maintain the planned speed
- Control of the aircraft flight path to follow the optimized planned route
- Control of the vertical flight profile
- Minimizing the fuel consumption

 Engine control and management:

Modern jet engines have a ‘Fully authority digital engine control system’ (FADEC). This
automatically controls the flow of fuel to the engine combustion chambers by the fuel control unit, so
as to provide a closed loop control of engine thrust in response to the throttle command. FADEC also
ensure the engine limits in terms of temperatures, engine speeds and accelerations. It has a high
integrity failure survival control system, so that in case of failure, avoids the damage of the engine.

Other important engine avionics systems include engine health monitoring systems, which measure
process and record every wide range of parameters associated with the performance and health of the
engines. These give early warning of engine performance deterioration, excessive wear, fatigue
damage, high vibration levels, excessive temperature levels.

 House keeping management:

It covers the automation of background tasks, which are essential for the aircrafts safety and
efficient operation. Such task includes;

- Fuel management
- Electrical power supply system management
- Hydraulic power supply system management
- Cabin / cockpit pressurization systems
- Warning systems
- Environmental control system
- Maintenance and monitoring systems:
o This provides the information to enable speedy diagnosis and rectification of
equipment and system failures by pin – pointing faulty units and providing all the
information such as part number etc., for replacement units down to module level
in some cases.

6. COLLISION-AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS

A collision avoidance system is an aircraft system that operates independently of ground-

based equipment and air traffic control in warning pilots of the presence of other aircraft that may
present a threat of collision. If the risk of collision is imminent, the system indicates a manoeuvre that
will reduce the risk of collision.

19
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

To supplement air traffic control, most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones use a TCAS
(Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System), which can detect the location of other, nearby
aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision. Smaller aircraft may use simpler
traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are passive (they do not actively interrogate the
transponders of other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for conflict resolution. To help avoid
collision with terrain, aircraft use systems such as ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS), often
combined with a radar altimeter. Newer systems use GPS combined with terrain and obstacle
databases to provide similar alerting for light aircraft.

7. WEATHER SYSTEMS

Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and
lightning detectors are especially important for aircraft flying at night or in Instrument meteorological
conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed
by radar) or lightning activity are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence,
and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.

Recently, there have been three important changes in cockpit weather systems. First, the systems
(especially lightning detectors like the Stormscope or Strikefinder) have become inexpensive enough
that they are practical for light aircraft. Second, in addition to the traditional radar and lightning
detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD) are now available through
satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions far beyond the range of their own
in-flight systems. Finally, modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving
maps, terrain, traffic, etc. onto a single screen, greatly simplifying navigation.

8. RADAR

An acronym for Radio Detecting And Ranging: a method and the equipment used for the
detection and determination of the velocity of a moving object by reflecting radio waves off it.
Airborne radar was one of the first tactical sensors. As with its ground based counterpart it has grown
in sophistication. The obvious massive benefit of altitude providing massive range has meant a
significant focus of developing airborne radar technologies. The general ranges of radar of Airborne
Early Warning (AEW), Anti Submarine Warfare (ASW), and even Weather radar (Arinc 708) and
ground tracking/proximity radar.

The military has used radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels. While the civil market has had
weather radar for a while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the aircraft.

RADAR RANGE EQUATION

INTRODUCTION
One of the simpler equations of radar theory is the radar range equation. Although it is one of
the simpler equations, ironically, it is an equation that few radar analysts understand and many radar
analysts misuse. The problem lies not with the equation itself but with the various terms that make-up
the equation. It is my belief that if one really understands the radar range equation one will have a
very solid foundation in the fundamentals of radar theory. Because of the difficulties associated with
using and understanding the radar range equation we will devote considerable class time to it and to
the things it impacts, like detection theory, matched filters and the ambiguity function.
One form of the basic radar range equation is

20
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

PS PT GT GR 2
SNR   (1)
PN  4 3 R 4kT0 BFn L
where
 SNR is termed the signal-to-noise ratio and has the units of watts/watt, or w/w.
 PS is the signal power at some point in the radar receiver – usually at the output of the
matched filter or the signal processor. It has the units of watts (w).
 PN is the noise power at the same point that PS is specified and has the units of watts.
 PT is termed the peak transmit power and is the average power when the radar is
transmitting a signal. PT can be specified at the output of the transmitter or at some other
point like the output of the antenna feed. It has the units of watts
 GT is the power gain of the transmit antenna and has the units of w/w.
 GR is the power gain of the receive antenna and has the units of w/w. Usually, GT  GR
for monostatic radars.
  is the radar wavelength (see (21) of the Radar Basics section) and had the units of
meters (m).
  is the target radar cross-section or RCS and has the units of square meters or m2.
 R is the range from the radar to the target and has the units of meters.
 k is Boltzmann’s constant and is equal to 1.38  1023 w  Hz K  .

 T0 denotes room temperature in Kelvins  K  . We take T 0  293 K and usually use

the approximation kT0  4  1021 w/Hz .

 B is the effective noise bandwidth of the radar and has the units of Hz. I emphasized the
word effective because this point is extremely important and seldom understood by radar
analysts.
 Fn is the radar noise figure and is dimensionless, or has the units of w/w.
 L is a term included to account for all losses that must be considered when using the
radar range equation. It accounts for losses that apply to the signal and not the noise. L
has the units of w/w. L accounts for a multitude of factors that degrade radar
performance.

9. SONAR

Sonar (originally an acronym for SOund Navigation And Ranging) is a technique that
uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate,
communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water.Soon after radar came
sonar. Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect shipping
assets from submarines or surface threats. Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar
devices (Sonobuoys) and these are also used to determine the location of hostile submarines.

21
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

10. ELECTRO-OPTICS

Electro-optic system covers a wide range of systems, including Forward Looking Infrared
(FLIR), and Passive Infrared Devices (PIDS). These are all used to provide imagery to crews. This
imagery is used for everything from Search and Rescue through to acquiring better resolution on a
target.

11. ESM/DAS

Electronic support measures and defensive aids are used extensively to gather information
about threats or possible threats. Ultimately they can be used to launch devices (in some cases
automatically) to counter direct threats against the aircraft. They are also used to determine the state
of a threat or even identify it.

12. MISSION OR TACTICAL AVIONICS

The major developments in avionics have tended to happen 'in the back' before the cockpit.
Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears of other
weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military (as for the front) is then used for
whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the
E-3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission management computers.As
the sophistication of military sensors increases and they become more ubiquitous, the pseudo-military
market has started to dip into the product. Police and EMS aircraft can now carry some very
sophisticated tactical sensors.

DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES

Modern avionics design with enhanced functionality makes it possible for airlines to operate safely
and efficiently; designers to develop and manufacture electric and green aircraft; air traffic controllers
to manage traffic efficiently; and for military pilots to perform their missions effectively.

Avionics is one of the most developing fields of aircraft design. Its importance and range has
increased over recent years and as much as 40% of the cost of a new aircraft can be attributed to
avionics. There is a bewildering range of avionics systems, each of which usually requires the use of
many acronyms.The main steps in designing section are
- Design
- Coding
- Testing

The process of designing consists of a sequence of steps, as is illustrated in below figure

22
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

Fig: Design process flow chart

The three stages involved in design of avionics system are

i. Conceptual design
ii. Preliminary design
iii. Detailed design

Fig: Three stages of design

DESIGN EVALUATION
During the design/code process, Design/code walkthrough’s were conducted for
• Traceability checks from Software Requirement Specifications to Design/code
• Correctness
• Completeness
• Compliance to design directives/coding standards
• Understandability
 Design objectives for Avionics systems:

- Fulfil the required performance

- Acceptable levels of availability and failure conditions
- Ease of use and maintenance

23
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

- Environmental requirements
- System safety

A good system when operating without fault must perform its intended function under all
operating functions expected in service. In addition, systems must be designed so that there is an
inverse relationship between the probability of the occurrence of a fault and the severity of its effect.
The requirements for availability of function can be achieved by the provision of multiple systems and
stand by services, whilst the integrity of the system is ensured by the provision of appropriate
monitoring devices, capable of deflecting failures, and features that counteract the failure effect.

The architecture of the system must be designed to ensure that failures do not affect both
control and monitoring functions. This is accomplished by segregation of vital components so that
single external failure source does not result in multiple system failures.

Physical and environmental causes can be eliminated by the use of separate locations for
duplicated equipments. Similarly, electrical power supplies, increasingly utilizing digital data buses,
must be configured in such a way that interrupted supply to one bus does not affect the continued
operation of systems connected with another bus.

The assembly arrangements, connections and overall dimensions of airborne avionics

components must be standardized to achieve minimum storage space for the equipment must be
achieved. The use of common sizes of unit cases and standardized racking systems has also helps in
reduction of damage to the connector pins due to misalignment of the connectors.

 The environmental requirements of avionics equipments:

- Operating temperature is usually from -400C to 700C.

- Full performance at 20000 ft within two minutes of take-off
- Operate under maximum acceleration (20g)
- Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
- With stand against lightning strikes. Very high electromagnetic pulses (EMP), which can
be encountered during such strikes.

An increasingly competitive environment, with high frequency, short turn round operations,
has led to a requirement of fault free systems. This can be achieved either by improving the reliability
of individual components or by increasing the levels of redundancy of the component on board the
aircraft.

 Redundancy

For critical systems, a spare unit can be carried aboard the aircraft, this can be either a hot spare or
cold spare – the former is connected to the data bus, ready to be operational in the event of component
failure, the later method would require engineering assistance to bring it on line.

 Reliability

Two measures of equipments reliability are generally used, both related, but dependent on different
factors. The measures are;

- Mean Time between failures (MTBF):

It is a component failure, either of the whole device as far as the airline is concerned, or at part level
for the manufacturer or maintenance organization.

24
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

- Mean Time between unscheduled removals (MTBUR):

This refers to the number of times that a component is removed from the aircraft on the ground of
suspected failure, irrespective of whether it has been subsequently proved to have failed. Equipment
guaranties are generally written around MTBF figures, although many airliners attempt to have the
MTBUR statistic used, as there are clearly more removals under this measure.

 Built in test equipment (BITE):

Built In Test Equipment. The BITE is characterized primarily as a passive fault management and
diagnosis built into airborne systems to support the maintenance process.
The acronym BIT is often used for this same function or, more specifically, in reference to the
individual tests. BIT is an acronym for Built In Test.

The term BIT often includes:

 The detection of the Sensor failure (model, range, cross or plausibility checks)
 The accommodation of the fault (how the system actively responds to the fault)
 The annunciation or logging of the fault to warn of possible effects and/or aid in
troubleshooting the faulty equipment.

These are an integral part of modern avionics design. The BITE is designed to provide a continuous,
integrated monitoring system, both in flight and on the ground, whenever power is applied to the
aircraft. Its main purposes are;

- To provide maintenance assistance to confirm pilot – generated fault reports.

- To improve the accuracy of identification of a failed component
- To assess the serviceability after rectification or re-installation.

The design objectives of an integrated BITE system are;

- Minimize on aircraft maintenance time

- Reduce MTBUR
- Minimize the cost in procurement of LRU’s (Line Replacement Unit)

Most modern aircraft use cockpit displays and avionics bay read out to provide access to the
BITE generated data which is retained in the non – volatile memory of the aircraft computer system.
This facilitates post – flight confirmation as well as storage of fault segment of data, which is useful
for further analysis after returning to the main engineering base.

 Automatic test equipment (ATE):

Automatic test equipment (ATE) is a machine that is designed to perform tests on different devices
referred to as a device under test (DUT). An ATE uses control systems and automated information
technology to rapidly perform tests that measure and evaluate a DUT.

ATE tests can be both simple and complex depending on the equipment tested. ATE testing is used in
wireless communication and radar as well as electronic component manufacturing. There is also
specialized semiconductor ATE for testing semiconductor devices.

25
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

Automatic test equipment is also known as automated test equipment.

These test fixtures can be considered as ‘filtering’ devices, often designed to prevent unwarranted
flagging of unit as faculty. ATE is designed to perform number of roles;

1. Conform a fault that is believed to exist

2. Diagnosing the fault and its location
3. Testing the equipment function before reinstallation.

 Avionics Standards

The requirements for interchange ability of equipment from different manufacturers are called for
industry wide specifications in the 1950’s and 1960’s on such things as box size, performance,
accuracies and the characteristics of inputs and outputs.

In most of the aircrafts, the most important avionics function is flight controls, frequently in flight
critical manner, that is, if the avionics fail, the aircraft is lost. Because of the critical role for the
avionics, it is essential to take early surveys to formulate standards. Those standards must ensure the
aircraft safety even during the critical failure of its avionics components. Those accepted standards
have to be documented so that in future avionics design for various aircraft it would be considered as
reference to build it.

Few examples of Standards used in design of avionics system are

- Military standards - MIL-STD-1629A (Hardware FMEA), MILSTD- 882 (systems safety

program requirements)
- ARINC 429, 629 (Civilian a/c data bus) and MIL-STD-1553A, 1773 (Military a/c data buses)
- Civil Standards - FAR 25 : 1309 A (equipment’s, systems and installation), FAR 25 : 581
(lightning protection systems), FAR 25 : 571 (control systems), FAR 25: 572 (stability
augmentation systems)

 ARINC (Aeronautical Radio Incorporated)

Aeronautical Radio, Inc (ARINC) standards improve cost effectiveness, increase productivity,
and reduce life-cycle costs for airlines and their partners in the avionics, cabin system, and flight
simulation and training segments of the aviation industry.

ARINC Standards come in three classes:

1) ARINC Characteristics: Define the form, fit, function, and interfaces of avionics, cabin systems,
and aircraft networks
2) ARINC Specifications: Define the physical packaging or mounting of avionics and cabin
equipment; communication, networking and data security standards; or a high-level computer
language
3) ARINC Reports : Provide guidelines or general information found by the aviation industry
to be preferred practices, often related to avionics maintenance and flight simulator engineering and
maintenance

Aeronautical radio Inc., is a corporation in which the United states airlines are the principal
stock holders. Other stock holders include a variety of other transport companies, aircraft
manufacturers and foreign flag carriers. Activities of ARINC include.,

- Fulfilment of system requirements to accomplish ground and air compatibility

- Allocation and assignment of frequencies to meet these needs

26
 KIT-AERO/Avionics-NOL 2013

- Co ordinating node for standard airborne communications and electronic systems and the
exchange of technical information

ARINC sponsors the Airline Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC), composed of airline
technical personnel. The AEEC formulates standards for electronics equipment and airborne systems
for the airliners.

 MIL STD (Military Standards)

A document that establishes uniform engineering and technical requirements for military-
unique or substantially modified commercial processes, procedures, practices, and methods. These
specifications are followed by Military aircrafts.

There are five types of defence standards: interface standards, design criteria standards,
manufacturing process standards, standard practices, and test method standards.
For investigation purposes, avionics systems can be grouped in one of two categories. The first
includes those systems, the failure or loss of which may indirectly affect safety. The second, those
systems, the loss or failure of which has a direct effect on safety.

The civil aviation authority’s airworthiness objectives are summarized below;

Sl.No Effect Permitted probability range per hour of flight Probability classification

1 - >1 x 10-3 Frequent

2 Minor 1 x 10-3 to 1 x 10-5 Reasonably
3 Major 1 x 10-5 to 1 x 10-7 Remote
4 Hazardous 1 x 10-7 to 1 x 10-9 Extremely remote
5 Catastrophic <1 x 10-9 Extremely improbable

The whole design process was driven by a set of DESIGN DIRECTIVES in various aspects
of the design. These directives were issued to the design team members during the course of
development by the design team leader in consultation with the project team. These directives served
to achieve uniformity and cohesiveness in design. Some of the issues covered by the directives are;
guidelines for preliminary design from SRS, design consideration for handling overflows in BUS
interface procedures, design considerations for bus outputs etc.

27