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“I read Dr. Nevins’ book with growing appreciation for its significant contributions to the mental
health field. Dr. Nevins’ work offers a contemporary and comprehensive model for understanding
personality traits and emotional difficulties. Significantly, in creative and clear ways, the book also
delineates practical clinical guidelines for evaluating and treating patients. Specifically, Dr. Nevins’
ideas regarding personalized psychotherapy are timely and innovative. This book will surely get
clinicians to think about assessment and psychotherapy in exciting new ways.”
—Efrat Ginot, PhD, author of Neuropsychology of the Unconscious: Integrating Brain
and Mind in Psychotherapy; instructor at the Institute for Contemporary Psychotherapy; and
supervisor at the Fifth Avenue Center for Counseling and Psychotherapy, New York
“Informed by current research, a deep understanding of personality theory, and three decades of
clinical experience, this book makes a persuasive case that psychotherapy needs to do more than treat
isolated symptoms and, instead, must focus on the whole person and ways that person can be helped
to change for the better. This is an important volume that I hope becomes widely read and influential
in the clinical community and beyond.”
—David C. Funder, PhD, chair, Psychology Department, University of California, Riverside;
past editor of the Journal of Research and Personality; former secondary editor of the Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology; published author
“At a time when so-called evidence-based psychotherapies have increasingly reduced clinical
education and practice into a one-size-fits-all recipe book of symptom focused procedures, Dr. Nevins
puts the person back into psychotherapy with rigor, relevance and compassion.”
—William D. Bauer, PhD, clinical psychologist/psychoanalyst acting as a training and
supervising psychoanalyst in Encino, California
“Personality factors are believed to be linked to both mental and physical health as well as interconnected
to all aspects of life. Unfortunately, there is minimal therapeutic practice that currently addresses
these factors. This book presents a new and revolutionary treatment, (Personality Informed: PI), to
help therapists understand these factors, and how they develop and evolve over time. Some effective,
some ineffective; some conscious, some unconscious. The presentation and thorough discussion of
a Personality Wheel diagram provides a blueprint for assessing healthy, unhealthy and maladaptive
factors. Extensive PI methodology is offered to assist with assessment and intervention. A must read
for all dedicated therapists.”
—Jean K. Lundholm, PhD, psychologist and professor emeritus of Counseling and School
Psychology at University of Wisconsin-River Falls
Applying Personality-Informed
Treatment Strategies to
Clinical Practice
A strategic approach for positive change tailored to the unique qualities of different individuals,
this text assists readers in factoring personality functioning into any psychotherapeutic undertaking,
providing a guide for comprehensive Personality-Informed assessment and treatment planning.
Drawing upon research from across scientific disciplines, chapters emphasize the importance
of a multidisciplinary approach in effectuating enduring therapeutic change whilst dealing with
clients’ unique personality styles. Also featured is Dr. Nevins’ Personality Wheel, used throughout as a
framework for therapeutically addressing the problematic personality patterns, styles, or traits related
to most clients’ presenting problems and for constructing healthy personality change.
Graduate students and professionals will benefit from the book’s key insights into the major
contributing factors underlying psychological distress due to maladaptive personality patterns, styles,
and traits.
Bradley G. Nevins, PhD, has been a practicing clinical psychologist, consultant, clinical director,
and faculty member serving medical institutions, universities, mental health, and government
agencies for over 30 years.
Applying Personality-Informed
Treatment Strategies to
Clinical Practice
A Theoretical and Practical Guide
Bradley G. Nevins
First published 2021
by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 Taylor & Francis
The right of Bradley G. Nevins to be identified as author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trade-
marks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Nevins, Bradley G., author.
Title: Applying personality-informed treatment strategies to clinical practice : a
theoretical and practical guide / Bradley G. Nevins.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020002511 (print) | LCCN 2020002512 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367371852 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367371869 (paperback) | ISBN
9781003045618 (ebook)
Subjects: MESH: Mental Disorders—therapy | Mental Disorders—pathology |
Personality | Behavior Therapy—methods
Classification: LCC RC454 (print) | LCC RC454 (ebook) | NLM WM 400 | DDC
616.89—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020002511
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020002512
ISBN: 978-0-367-37185-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-37186-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-04561-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Stone Serif
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
In loving memory of Eleanor Matilda Nevins
1917–2002
Contents
Illustrations and Tables xi

About the Author xiii
Acknowledgmentsxv
SECTION I
Theoretical Foundations and Framework of Personality-Informed (PI) Therapy 1
1 The Importance of Personality 3
2 The Science, Theory, and Therapeutic Principles of the

Personality-Informed Treatment Perspective 17
3 Personality: Processes and Functioning 37
4 Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Relationship Processes 49
SECTION II
Application: Principles of Personality-Informed Therapy 57
5 Personality-Informed (PI) Therapy Personality Wheel 59
6 Self-Regulation and Complex Change 65
7 Personality Trait Regulation 81
8 Personality Self State Regulation 95
SECTION III
Technical Guides to Personality-Informed Therapy 105
9 Guide for Personality-Informed Complex Assessment and Treatment 107
10 Personality-Informed Phase Oriented Treatment Planning Guide 121
11 The Client-Therapist Relationship Process 129
ix
x Contents
SECTION IV
Applications for Clinical Practice 139
12 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Format and Rationale 141
13 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant I 145
14 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant II 163
15 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant III 179
16 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant IV 195
17 Conclusion and Future Directions 211
Index215
Illustrations and Tables
Tables
4.1 Eight contiguous continuums of interpersonal behavior 50
4.2 The potential benefits of healthy, effective, and positive interpersonal
personality (pst) styles and traits 51
4.3 Sixteen extreme, unhealthy, and ineffective interpersonal personality styles
and the possible negative ramifications on self and others 53
6.1 Possible ramifications of a maladaptive interplay of life circumstances
and the self-regulatory processes brought to bear on them 71
11.1 Primary distress triggers of gray-red zone traits 133
11.2 Strategic flow chart for reducing and eliminating unhealthy personality (pst)s
and reconstructing and constructing healthy green zone personality (pst)s134
11.3 Common sources of therapeutic rupture in the therapeutic relationship 136
Figures
5.1 Personality Wheel 60
8.1 Personality Self States at the Start of Treatment 101
8.2 Personality Self State Goals by the End of Treatment 102
Plates
Plate 1 Personality Wheel
Plate 2 Personality Self States at the Start of Treatment
Plate 3 Personality Self State Goals by the End of Treatment
xi
About the Author
Bradley G. Nevins, PhD
Dr. Nevins has been a practicing clinical psychologist providing direct clinical care, supervision, train-
ing, and consultation for medical institutions, universities, mental health agencies, and governmental
agencies for over 30 years. In 2006 he co-founded Midwest Psychological Services, a multidisciplinary,
evidence-based, mental health agency with clinic locations in Minnesota and Wisconsin. He cur-
rently serves as a clinical director for Refresh Mental Health, with over 25 agencies and 100 office
locations throughout the United States. His primary areas of expertise have been in the treatment of
problematic personality traits and disorders, mood disorders, trauma recovery, and dissociative dis-
orders. He has taught courses at the masters and doctoral levels in psychotherapy, psychopathology,
and psychological assessment for over 16 years.
It was from Dr. Nevins’ extensive professional experience that he came to the realization that per-
sonality factors were all too often ignored or overlooked by the extant applied clinical methodologies,
as well as those providing mental health services. It was through the confluence of these factors that
Dr. Nevins developed an alternative conceptualization and operationalization of personality theory
that made possible the principles and techniques offered in Applying Personality-Informed Treatment
Strategies to Clinical Practice: A Theoretical and Practical Guide. Dr. Nevins has also recently founded
a research group, Advanced Neuroscience Resources, whose current projects include a mental health,
machine learning-based psychotherapy tool.
xiii
Acknowledgments
I wish to offer my greatest appreciation to my wife, Audrey, for the love, encouragement, patience,
understanding, and hard work in assisting me in completing this book. I don’t think it would have
been possible without her support, valuable insight, and wisdom. I would also like to thank our son
and daughter, Alec and Ellie, whom we love and respect to no end. Thank you also to my brother,
Greg, who has always been a great source of support, fun, and entertainment for the whole family
over the years. I also wish to thank my wife’s parents, George and Bettey Tomasi, for their love, kind-
ness, and unending support over the years. Finally, I would like to thank my dear friend, Todd Keat-
ing, for being such a sincere, loyal, and unconditional friend for over 50 years.
I also want to reach out to those who served as such wonderful mentors professionally over the
years, including George Oliver, PhD; William Beyer, PhD; and Dennis Klos, PhD; and Jeffrey Hol-
mgren, MD. I am most grateful and have been greatly influenced by the work and writings of Efrat
Ginot, Allan Schore, Daniel Siegel, William Fleesome, Martin Seligman, Jon Kabat-Zin, Theodore Mil-
lon, Robert Stolorow, George Atwood, William James, and Sigmund Freud.
xv
SECTION I
Theoretical Foundations and

Framework of Personality-
Informed (PI) Therapy
1
CHAPTER 1
The Importance of Personality
Our fascination with personality seems to be infinite. Self-help guides abound for the general pub-
lic from countless sources, including personality tests, books, and magazine articles, as well as the
World Wide Web. Major corporations and government agencies use personality measures as pre-
employment screening devices. Personality has been the subject of a vast number of professional
and scholarly texts and journal articles. There are entire journals devoted to the study of personality,
including the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology of the American Psychological Association. Men-
tal health researchers and practitioners have developed and extensively utilized psychological tests
to measure aspects of personality. These include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI, MMPI-A, MMPI-2, MMPI-2 RF), the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-II, MCMI-
III, MCMI-IV), the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, and many more. Personality theory is a part of most
undergraduate curriculums throughout the United States and abroad. Personality disorders have been
the subject of treatment efforts for decades and have been included in the American Psychiatric Asso-
ciation’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders since the 1950s. The DSM-5 includes the
Level of Personality Functioning Scale (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Personality functioning has a large bearing on all facets of one’s life. Research shows personality
trait dimensions are related to a wide variety of important life outcomes, mental health, and interper-
sonal relationships (De Graaf, Bijl, Ravelli, Smit, & Vollebergh, 2002; Hettema, Neale, Myers, Prescott, &
Kendler, 2006; Krueger & Eaton, 2010; Parker et al., 2004). Personality is strongly related to overall
physical health and has been shown to prospectively predict physical health outcomes (Lahey, 2009;
Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006; Poppe et al., 2011). Personality has further been shown to be an impor-
tant factor in well-being (Lucas & Diener, 2008; Malouff, Thorsteinsson, Schutte, Bhullar, & Rooke,
2010; Steel, Schmidt, & Shultz, 2008). Personality traits also appear to be related to resilience, and those
with showing a sense of optimism tend to be more resilient to physical disease (Smith, 2006).
Empirical evidence has further shown maladaptive personality is a crucial prospective risk factor
for ill-health, all-cause mortality, and social functioning deficits (Hengartner & Yamanaka-Altenstein,
2017). It has also been shown that personality difficulty can cause significant distress, increase health
service use, and impair social functioning among those with personality difficulty compared with
those who have no personality disorder (Karukivi, Vahlberg, Horjamo, Nevalainen, & Korkeila, 2017;
Sanatinia et al., 2016; Yang, Coid, & Tyrer, 2010). Research also shows personality traits are highly cor-
related to psychopathology (Hettema et al., 2006; Kotov, Gamez, Schmidt, & Watson, 2010; Krueger &
Tackett, 2006; Krueger & Eaton, 2010; Malouff, Thorsteinsson, & Schutte, 2005). Personality may
specifically predict abnormal behavior and impairment in functioning ( Jokela et al., 2013; Ozer &
Benet-Martínez, 2006; Paunonen, 2003; Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg, 2007; Wright,
Pahlen, & Krueger, 2017). Studies further show personality traits are substantially related to mental
disorders including anxiety and depression, psychosocial functioning impairments and behavioral
3
4 Foundations and Framework of PI Therapy
problems (De Graaf et al., 2002; Hettema et al., 2006; Kendler, Gatz, Gardner, & Pederson, 2006;
Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006; Paunonen, 2003; Roberts et al., 2007), substance abuse (Krueger, 1999;
Turiano, Whiteman, Hampson, Roberts, & Mroczek, 2012), sexual problems (Harris, Cherkas, Kato,
Heiman, & Spector, 2008; Leeners, Hengartner, Rössler, Ajdacic-Gross, & Angst, 2014), psychological
and pharmacological treatment response (Quilty et al., 2008; Spek, Nyklíček, Cuijpers, & Pop, 2008).
There is evidence to support personality factors have adaptive as well as maladaptive conse-
quences on virtually all aspects of our lives. Research has shown maladaptive personality functioning
appears to be common (Yang et al., 2010). Most of the population will have personality dysfunction
to some degree at some time during their lifetime (Tyrer, Mulder, Kim, & Crawford, 2019). When
one’s overall personality functioning is adaptive, the individual is more likely to experience greater
stability of mood, thought, and behavior as well as relationship and job stability (Livesley, 2007). This
in turn means the more the person is likely to feel more efficacious and to have positive self-esteem,
and to feel more satisfied with their life. This too results in the person being more likely to be resilient
to emotional and physical problems including being able to more effectively cope with issues that
contribute to anxiety and general distress.
Conversely, research evidence shows the more the individual’s personality functioning is mal-
adaptive, the more likely the person is to struggle in life. Their ways of coping tend to be rigid and
inflexible, which in turn causes the person to become entrenched in maladaptive and unhealthy life
management practices (Livesley, 2007). Such individuals are thus more likely to engage in behaviors
that negatively affect their health. They tend to have problems coping with day to day situations and
are more likely to have problems in their relationships. Such individuals are likely to get discouraged,
which affects self-esteem. They are thus more likely to suffer from anxiety and depression.
Despite the intense interest and substantial body of research conducted showing the central inter-
connectedness of personality variables to virtually all aspects of our lives, personality factors are all
too often overlooked or ignored by those providing mental health care today. This is perhaps best
illustrated by a study conducted by Cook, Biyanova, Elhai, Schnurr, and Coyne (2010). Over 2200
North American psychotherapists completed a Web-based survey related to variables associated with
their practice, including theoretical orientation, client characteristics, and use of specific psychother-
apy techniques. Most reported identifying with more than one theoretical orientation or as having
an eclectic orientation. The most frequently endorsed techniques were relationship oriented such as
conveying warmth, acceptance, understanding, and empathy. Survey outcome data of specific thera-
peutic practices were ranked in descending order, from techniques used by most clinicians with all or
almost all clients to the least used techniques. The top practices endorsed by more than half of the
participants included trying to convey warmth and respect; communicating acceptance; empathy;
and promoting clear, direct expression of client’s feelings. Identifying, let alone addressing, clients’
personality traits was not on the list. The Psychologists Desk Reference (Chambless & Klonsky, 2013)
listed empirically supported therapies for 51 mental health diagnostic issues. The only diagnoses
listed which related to personality were avoidant and borderline personality disorders. The only well-
established treatment listed was dialectical behavior therapy. Exposure therapy, social skills training,
schema-focused therapy, and transference-focused therapy were listed as probably efficacious.
I have been a practicing clinical psychologist for the past 30 years and as such I have worked with
providers of all levels of experience and theoretical orientations. I have also participated in the train-
ing and supervision of many mental health clinicians at both the masters and doctoral levels. Even
though there is an almost invariable acknowledgment of the importance of personality factors in
psychological functioning, most I have inquired with on the matter seem a bit taken off guard when
asked about conceptualizing their client’s personality traits, or how their client’s personality func-
tioning was related to their current life struggles. I have also noticed that it has become uncommon
The Importance of Personality 5
for personality disorders to be diagnosed at all. When they do, it is usually borderline, narcissistic, or
antisocial personality disorder.
I have further noticed how personality functioning in general is rarely addressed in treatment
plans. Personality traits or styles, let alone patterns, are all but dismissed or not considered relevant.
When I ask providers how they address personality factors, they generally refer back to addressing the
symptoms surrounding the personality issues through a non-specific generic treatment model such as
cognitive behavior therapy. Little if anything is offered regarding the specifics about how they address
the actual personality factors involved.
The predominant models of psychotherapy over the last 150 years have offered highly divergent
and conflicting perspectives on personality which were developed from such disparate sources vary-
ing from Freud’s psychoanalytic framework from 1890s to social-cognitive and humanistic theories
established in the 1950s–1960s era. As such, these models have been criticized as collectively frag-
mented and prescientific (Derlega, Winstead, & Jones, 1991; Mayer, 2005). These conflicting frame-
works were not generally challenged, primarily because there was hope that the conflict among them
would generate important research (Funder, 2001; Hall & Lindzey, 1978; Monte & Sollod, 2003). That
has yet to come to fruition.
Another line of pioneering personality research was developed outside the clinical realm starting
with Sir Francis Galton (1884), who developed taxonomies of personality traits by sampling language.
His work was then expanded upon by Gordon Allport (1937). A few years later, Raymond Cattell
(1940) further expanded the concept by developing a self-report measure for personality trait clus-
ters, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). Joy Guilford provided the first multivariate
research of personality in 1949, which involved analyzing ten factors of personality, which led to the
development of the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (Guilford, 1949).
Most recently, what has come to be known as the Big Five has garnered the most interest in
personality research. The Big Five refers to five basic traits of personality under which reportedly all
other aspects of personality fall. These traits were based on the lexical hypothesis where a search of
trait terms in the English language led to what was determined to be the basic, most important per-
sonality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN)
(Hoyle, 2014). This acronym is also used based on each of the traits. The traits are referred to as “big”
in part because each can be analyzed into smaller traits. For example, extraversion (or surgency) can
be divided into such facets as sociability, assertiveness, and adventurousness. Each of the personality
traits refers to a dimension and is described in terms of a continuum. For example, the personality
trait “openness to experience” refers to a dimension ranging from outgoing, liberal, and interested
in new things, to imaginative, reserved, conservative, traditional, and conforming. People report-
edly all fall somewhere on a continuum, with most falling somewhere in the middle. As another
example, neuroticism refers to the dimension of emotional stability. Someone high on neuroticism
would exhibit instability in their emotions, interactions, and relationships. They may have frequent
or wide mood swings and become more upset over daily stressors or interactions. The person low on
neuroticism may be seen as reserved, calm, and emotionally stable (Hoyle, 2014). Research on the
Big Five has shown how these traits are related to various aspects of psychological functioning and
dysfunction. Neuroticism has been highly related to physical and emotional problems. The other Big
Five traits have been found related to positive personality functioning.
Criticism of the Big Five relates to the manner with which the traits were derived. It is considered
a taxonomy for naming, defining, and classifying personality traits. It is based on common language
descriptors. The lexical model of personality is based on normal personality functioning. The contin-
uums the traits describe are all within a normal range. Since it is only based on normal personality the
model is not able to address issues related to the development and conceptualization of maladaptive
personality functioning hence those with diagnosable personality disorders. It is thus based on the
association of words rather than neuropsychological-based research.
Critics have contended the Five Factor model is too superficial and narrow to be helpful in clinical
use (Merenda, 2008). Personality disorders are a more extreme range. The traits of the Big Five do not
lend themselves to a range of personality outside of their limited range. Because of the limited range
of each of the five personality traits, it could also be argued the ends of the ranges of each trait of the
Big Five are not necessarily opposites. An example of a more inclusive continuum on the outer ends
of the continuum of openness to experience might be more that of being dramatic, manipulative,
and out of control on the one side of the range, to someone completely emotionally disconnected,
uninterested in activity, and unemotional on the other end. Conscientiousness would need to be
expanded to something akin to rigid, controlling, and domineering on the far end of the continuum,
to dependent and self-defeating on the other end. Other criticisms have cited how the Big Five has
not been able to predict future behavior. It could also be argued how the Big Five fails to address a
person’s changing mental states and changing life contexts.
The focus on the Big Five corresponds to, and is a part of, the process of psychology’s general shift
away from the traditional classification-based taxonomies historically used by mental health practi-
tioners. The Working Group Committees for the DSM-5 and ICD-11 advocated for making a revised
classification of mental disorders in general, but especially for personality disorder (Widiger, Lives-
ley, & Clark, 2009). The concern centered around categorization versus a dimensional approach due
to the evidence to date indicating that psychopathology exists on a continuum with normal-range
functioning (Carragher et al., 2014; Haslam, Holland, & Kuppens, 2012; Markon & Krueger, 2005;
Walton, Ormel, & Krueger, 2011; Widiger & Samuel, 2005). Especially relevant for the recognition and
diagnosis, they cited research findings showing how the use of a categorical approach on naturally
occurring phenomena leads to a loss of important information and to diagnostic instability (Mac-
Callum, Zhang, Preacher, & Rucker, 2002; Markon, Chmielewski, & Miller, 2011; Morey et al., 2012).
A further challenge to the traditional taxonomy approach to personality related to the growing
view over the last few decades that traditional diagnostic criteria of personality disorders lent to a
sense that they were overwhelmingly pervasive, unchangeable, and thus untreatable. To muddy the
waters further, clinicians found clients often did not meet specific criteria for just one personality dis-
order. The increased use of personality disorder, not otherwise specified, was reflective of that, which
led to confusion and thus reduced perception of the relevance of personality factors.
The predominant thrust over the last two decades in mental health practice towards empirically
supported or evidence-based practice, and hence symptom amelioration, has had a substantial impact
on the move away from a focus on personality factors as well. This was related to a large extent to
mental health providers seeking parity with the medical community and hence increased assurance
of and availability of insurance reimbursement. This has allowed millions to receive valuable mental
health treatment over the years. Insurance companies require a sufficient degree of observable symp-
toms that interfere with daily functioning to meet the criteria for being able to bill for services. They
require “evidence” that symptoms are being reduced.
Resultant evidence-based care has led to treatment plans and goals requiring very specific types
of symptom reduction that directly affects daily functioning. Evidence-based practice emphasizes the
importance of providing a concise theoretical framework for treatment of a specific disorder, specific
descriptions of therapeutic techniques, session-by-session guidelines, and case examples of appropri-
ate applications. Not surprisingly, these practices have been highly appealing to graduate level train-
ing programs, internships, third-party payers, and service settings, such as community mental health
centers and the Veterans Administration.
What has occurred in the emphasis on evidence-based treatment is mental health care providers
have become more focused on symptom reduction and less concerned with the dynamics or etiology
and related patterns of coping which led to the “symptoms” in the first place. Unfortunately, if the
characteristic patterns or styles themselves are not sufficiently changed in some way, the underlying
conflicts and problems fueling the symptoms remain. Not addressing personality factors prevents
deeper level, healthy sustained change. Other concerns include the degree to which the individual
rather than the disorder is the focus of treatment, and the complexity of presenting problems such
that multiple problems are presented without the strict inclusion/exclusion criteria used in clinical
trials. In addition, the emergence of more salient problems as the treatment progresses is not uncom-
mon. Both over adherence (the degree to which some therapists are not flexible when working from a
manual) and under adherence to the manual (the degree to which some therapists modify procedures
in clinical practice) are disconcerting (Addis, 1997). Finally, serious questions have been raised that
most evidence-based practices tend to neglect relationship factors (Norcross, 2002), and do not lend
themselves to integrative approaches.
Compounding the factors leading to the shift away from personality factors has been the decision
by insurance companies to not reimburse for the treatment of personality disorders. This is despite
the fact that personality disorders have always been and are still listed in the APA’s Diagnostic and Sta-
tistical Manual and are still a part of the International Classification of Diseases. There are clear criteria
for the diagnoses. The diagnoses have to sufficiently meet the criteria for having a significant effect on
the individual’s functioning. However, the criteria do not meet the standard for insurance companies
deeming them to be reimbursement worthy.
Insurance companies not reimbursing for personality disorders has had an enormous impact on
what providers have chosen to focus on if they want to be paid for their services. An important exam-
ple of the shift away from personality factors can be seen in the growth of interest in trauma work,
where clinicians are preferring to use the diagnosis of complex post-traumatic stress disorder (Brewin
et al., 2017), over borderline personality disorder which has similar presenting symptomatology and
mostly appearing related to past traumatization.
The emphasis on empirically supported treatment leaves mental health without a set of unifying
principles. Empirically supported treatment has become the new eclectic perspective. Unfortunately,
there is no underlying unifying theory that bridges all of the therapeutic approaches. None of the
major models of psychotherapy offers a way of addressing both healthy and unhealthy behaviors.
There is no theoretical orientation, nor is there one that is flexible and inclusive and accounts for the
complexities of all the factors that affect human thoughts, mood, and behavior. Further, there is no
single theory that accounts for different contexts and for the development in how we function and
change. There is no approach that offers a conceptualization of how personality develops and how
that in turn affects virtually all aspects of our lives.
There needs to be a new perspective that is able to embrace the true complexity of the human
brain and its related systematic functioning. There has been a growing realization that there is no
singular therapeutic approach that can solve all mental health related problems. Hence, there has
been a shift from a simple, single therapeutic model perspective to the realization that one therapy
or therapeutic solution or tool does not necessarily apply to all clients. Mental health clinicians are
thus increasingly shifting to the implementation of more complex nonlinear conceptualizations and
related combinations of therapeutic approaches tailored to the specific needs of the individual recipi-
ent of mental health services.
COMPLEXITY
Research findings across diverse areas of science including mathematics, physics, biochemistry, and
computer technology have led to a fundamental paradigmatic shift in the psychological sciences.
What has emerged is an embrace of the extraordinary complexity of all living systems and the world
around within which we all exist. It is now clear mind/brain functioning is anything but linear or
determined by a singular set of causal variables.
The embrace of complexity by the psychological sciences has impacted views on personality and
related functioning as well. In recent years, many studies have shown that the brain is not immu-
table but rather a dynamic complex system. Personality can be described here as a global system
that emerges from smaller psychological subsystems. Systems at different levels interact in reciprocal
interactive processes all the way from the molecular to the macro level (Magnavita & Anchin, 2014).
We are now better understanding how personality is best described as a survival-based, adaptive pro-
cess. In essence, we are pre-wired to make continual context-based adjustments or changes in order
to meet the demand characteristics of each situation we find ourselves in. Personality development
begins when we are born and continues throughout our lifetime. Personality functioning is a result of
reciprocal interactions between multiple biologic processes within the individual and the complexi-
ties and demand characteristics of the world the individual is inextricably embedded within. How
others shape our personalities throughout our lifetime affects the very core of our being.
Personality is thus part of a complex system of adaptive interacting processes and related biologic,
nonorganic, interpersonal, and societal systems. Researchers and clinicians are thus realizing the
importance of nonlinearity, and instead focusing on multi-causality and in turn dynamic interacting
multi-systemic mental processes. Personality is comprised of a complex mix of characteristic percep-
tions, emotional reactions, and related behaviors. It is different for each individual, based on a com-
plex of factors. They are identifiable and quantifiable. These vary from person to person. Different
contexts typically evoke different reactions in some than others. They can be described as personality
patterns, styles, and traits. A personality pattern may be part of a personality style, which may be part
of a more pervasive or predominant personality trait for a given individual. As such, personality is in
a constant state of flux and change. It is a dynamic, ever changing process. Perhaps the most accurate
and descriptive definition of personality is to see it as a largely unconscious, automatic, instinctual,
survival-based, adaptive, multi-determined, and multiple dimensional process which is in a constant
and complex state of flux and revision.
Personality is thus not fixed. The belief that we have a personality that never changes can and
does lead to making decisions about people that are erroneous. Such statements as, “He’ll never
change” or “That’s who he really is” can drive us to make decisions about others and ourselves that
can be damaging to our mental health. Holding such an erroneous view of personality leads clinicians
to ignore major variables that affect the ability to make important life changes. Such assumptions can
and do discourage individuals from seeking out and attempting change. Why would someone even
try to change if change was not possible?
Viewing personality as an adaptive, coping-based systemic process enables us to better under-
stand how and why we do what we do. Such a view of personality helps underscore why the study of
this systemic process serves a centrally important function or purpose in our lives.
People come for mental health services for many reasons. They are generally dealing with some
kind of problem. They are feeling stuck. They do not exactly know why. They may think it is due to
something they have no control of. They do not often see their own contributions to the problem.
They may overly blame themselves, or they may blame others. They may be coping with the loss of
a loved one or a conflict they are having at work or their personal life. They may be struggling with
a chronic medical issue or a major life trauma. The reasons for seeking services are limitless. Focusing
on personality processes and functioning enables us to effectuate change in more effective and lasting
ways. Understanding how one came to adopt personality processes can help in changing maladaptive
personality processes. Understanding these processes enables us to in turn realize how we develop
maladaptive patterns of coping without realizing we are doing so. Such insight allows us the oppor-
tunity to get unstuck from styles of thinking, feeling, and behavior that no longer work for us. This
opens us to the opportunity for new, more effective ways of coping, otherwise described as improved
personality functioning.
Context is an important aspect of personality functioning. Some personality patterns or styles
may work better in some contexts than others. For example, being calm and thoughtful when deal-
ing with someone who is being rude and disrespectful is more likely to have a positive outcome than
reacting in an equally rude and disrespectful manner. There are degrees with which one may engage
in a given pattern or style. Staying with the same example, there are degrees with which one can be
either calm or rude. The degree manifested in given contexts determines the consequence or outcome
for the individual, which relates to whether it ends up being adaptive or maladaptive.
TRAIT CHANGE
Life circumstances constantly change; therefore we must all continually revise and update how we
characteristically handle day to day challenges. We cannot stay the same. We simply cannot and do
not react the same way to everything around us. We cannot rely on chance circumstances to make
alterations in how we automatically react to life circumstances. As our life circumstances change from
moment to moment, so too do we need to make ongoing shifts in how we deal with them. Through-
out the course of our lives we develop characteristic ways of handling changes in our lives. The behav-
ior we engage in to accommodate those changes may have been adopted due to a decision made long
ago that worked in a situation at a specific place and time. It was learned to be the response to that
type of situation. It became the tried and true. It automatically and unconsciously became wired in
as the automatic response. It worked well enough that it became what was learned to be the best way
to handle given life situations. That wiring is the outcome of many co-determining factors, both bio-
logically and environmentally mediated. Our ways of behaving become an ingrained set of rules that
come from our life experiences. These rules result in patterns of thinking and feeling about things in
our lives. These rules and patterns affect how we feel about the world around us and ourselves. We do
not necessarily reflect on that, but it is registered in our minds and acted on accordingly.
Our automatic characteristic ways of handling day to day challenges may or may not be as adap-
tive as they could be. They may actually be highly maladaptive. That can and often does have all sorts
of negative consequences for one’s life. Since it is a largely unconscious automatic response, for the
most part we are likely unaware of what we are thinking, feeling, or doing. Making needed sustained
life changes thus requires shifting out of limbic system-based automatic unconscious reactions by
consciously choosing a higher cortical override enabling a more mindful and reflective intentional
state. That requires awareness and insight. There needs to be the awareness of what needs to change.
That involves that there be that moment where the person needs to do something different. There
has to be that moment where the individual stops and considers better and more functional options.
There has to be the realization that one can change how they do things. That it is possible to change
long held habits of thinking, feeling, and behaving. There has to be that moment when the person
realizes they need to make the right decision, not the decision they have done while on automatic
mode as before. Such awareness affords the opportunity to have the insight that a change is needed.
The resultant change must then be intentional.
Research has repeatedly indicated we are capable of making changes in how we cope. It is the
basis for virtually all psychotherapeutic approaches. Although each therapeutic model has its own
explanation for the change that takes place, it is easily argued the person will need to change how
they are dealing with their problems. Any way of changing that way of coping represents a change
in how the person characteristically processes their thoughts and feelings and related behavior. Any
therapeutic intervention could be seen as being designed to change personality processes and func-
tioning. Efficacy data show most psychotherapeutic approaches work very well. They just all use
different ways to effectuate those changes. What is needed in applying any therapeutic approach is
the insight into why the changes are needed. How will a given change affect the whole system? The
whole system includes everything. Anything that matters. It all matters. The more inclusive one is in
the calculation, the more likely the change is to work.
THERAPEUTIC PERSONALITY TRAIT CHANGE STRATEGY
Figuring out what needs to be changed is a process. There needs to be a strategy for figuring that out.
A thorough initial assessment is paramount. As much as we would not like to believe it so, it is not
humanly possible to be omniscient and have the perfect step by step therapeutic plan at the outset of
therapy. Ongoing re-assessment given ongoing gathering of information and initial trials at making
life changes enables ongoing changes in ensuing treatment approaches. Just as we are asking our cli-
ents to be reflective and insightful into making changes, the clinician also has to exercise therapeutic
insight into not only the client’s internal and external world, but the internal and external world of
the clinician. Such insight is invariably necessary for maximum positive therapeutic benefit. Inten-
tional personality change thus requires insight into what needs to be changed all around.
Tailoring, otherwise known as individualization or customization, treatment for the individual
has long been touted by psychotherapists. The goal in doing so is to make the treatment more effec-
tive. To date, the tailoring has primarily focused on symptom reduction. For example, cognitive
behavior therapy being utilized for various anxiety disorders, exposure therapy used for symptoms
of obsessive-compulsive disorder, and prolonged exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder.
The most widely discussed and used means of adapting treatment has been to match a particular
treatment to the patient’s disorder. A patient presenting with, say, a specific anxiety disorder might be
matched with cognitive behavioral therapy, the most researched form of psychotherapy for anxiety.
This process has proven successful for many mental health disorders. However, it has been pointed
out this type of matching disorder to treatment is incomplete and not always effective (Wampold,
2001). Instead it can be argued that psychotherapeutic interventions need to be matched to the entire
person, not just the specific mental disorder.
Therapeutic trait change requires a strategic process. Change needs to occur internally as well as
externally. Internal change requires insight into underlying motivations as well as conflicts between
competing needs for different types of change. External change requires insight, motivation, and
willingness to change behaviors with the outside world. Insight as already noted is a fundamental
key. That can be considered part of what will be covered in this book under the process of what is
termed deconstruction. This process of change however involves deconstruction, as well as reprocess-
ing, reconstruction, construction, and commitment to change. Such change then requires practice,
patience, and persistence. Lasting healthy change requires all of these. This will be elaborated on in
Chapter 2.
All interventions employed in the psychotherapeutic process must be effectuated through the
recognition of how all facets of our mental functioning need to be strategically recruited to be opti-
mally effective. Further, context sensitive strategies for positive change must be flexibly employed
in the process of supporting the patient to practice and become accustomed to alternative healthier
emotional and behavioral styles or patterns. It is the sustenance of the changes over a long enough
period of time that leads to the creation of a new, healthier norm. The strategic selection and use
of a combination of approaches such as nutrition, psychopharmacology, exercise, and trans-cranial
electromagnetic nerve stimulation as well as mindfulness practices, trauma informed work along with
a seemingly unlimited research and evidence-based modalities are now considered the standard of
mental health care worldwide. These new strategically implemented techniques have actually fared
quite well and show the most promise in the future of mental health care service provision. How
much change is needed for positive therapeutic outcomes is ultimately determined by the complex
interplay of all relevant contributing factors.
THE PERSONALITY WHEEL
The Personality Wheel described in Chapter 5 can be used to illustrate how a preferred personality
pattern may be used excessively or to a greater extreme that results in increasingly maladaptive man-
ners. The Personality Wheel depicts how distress leads to increased, more extreme ways of coping.
Some people are more inclined to react strongly to certain contexts than others. This may lead to
increased levels of distress, which is likely to be responded to by even more extreme but characteristi-
cally similar ways of coping. Thus, the individual may end up engaging in the very behavior that is
causing psychological symptoms. The person may well believe they are trying harder to adapt or solve
their life problems while not realizing their solution may have actually become the problem.
The Personality Wheel can also be used to track changes in personality traits. Such changes
require flexibility. The healthy personality is one that is able to be flexible to shifting styles when
needed. Research evidence has shown how psychological flexibility is beneficial for individuals and
leads to healthier outcomes. Conversely, psychological inflexibility has been shown to be related to
psychopathology. Inflexibility has been found to be related to depression and anxiety (Kashdan &
Rottenberg, 2010).
Another important aspect of the Personality Wheel relates to balance of the four healthy zones
of the four Quadrants. Neither of the healthy zones within the four Quadrants are healthy or more
normal than the others. Further, too much of a good thing is not necessarily healthy. Different con-
texts we face require different styles of interaction. Whereas one situation with a work colleague
may require a more direct and assertive approach, another situation with a loved one that is in deep
emotional pain may require an altogether different style or approach. It is a matter of having insight
into what would be the most effective way to handle a given interpersonal context. Another aspect
pertaining to the Personality Wheel has to do with having balance in one’s life. Seligman (2015)
emphasizes focusing on building and maintaining character strengths. His research has generated the
identification of 24-character strengths including courage, wisdom, persistence temperance, amongst
others. Whereas it is important to build on these strengths, Seligman also cautions against what he
refers to as unbalanced levels. In fact, various definitions of psychopathology may be represented by
the opposite, absence or excess of one of the 24 character’s strengths (Seligman, 2015). An example of
an imbalance of personality traits could be depicted by someone working excessively. Even though
the person is being conscientious, may result in the person not having the time needed to relax, let
go and have fun. Being too willing to be kind and accommodating may give others the impression
you either have low self-esteem or a potential target for exploitation. Being kind and gentle may not
lead to a promotion where being more direct and assertive may be the best style.
The Personality Wheel is a tool for identifying and understanding adaptive and maladaptive
personality functioning in both in the interpersonal and intrapersonal realms. The interpersonal
realm relates to how one engages in the external world, especially as it pertains to relationships with
others. As will be described in detail in Chapter 7, the Personality Wheel can be used as a guide for
interpersonal interactions. The style of interaction most effective in dealing with another depends
on the interpersonal context. For example, if one attends an event where others are being fun loving
and upbeat, engaging in a measured, somber style would likely make one appear stiff or unfriendly.
Matching one’s interpersonal style to that of being upbeat and engaged will more likely be better
received.
Further, the Personality Wheel can be used to identify and reduce maladaptive interpersonal
behavior in self and others. For example, using the Personality Wheel one can recognize self-defeating
behavior. The Wheel can also then show what the alternatives would be to reduce such behavior.
Whereas self-defeating behavior includes being self critical and guilt motivated, use of the Personal-
ity Wheel would show the healthy alternative to be more determined and courageous. As another
example, using the Personality Wheel, one can recognize obsessive compulsive behavior. The Wheel
can also show what the alternatives would be to reduce this behavior. Whereas obsessive compulsive
behavior would be inflexible and controlling, use of the Personality Wheel would show the healthy
alternative, which would be to be more flexible and relaxed.
The Personality Wheel can be used in dealing with one’s intrapersonal realm. The concept of
internal dialogue or self-talk used by cognitive behavior therapists is based on our internal self-
representations. There is typically a sender and a receiver in such a dialogue. Being aware and being
willing to modify the dialogue using the same principles as the interpersonal realm can be used to
reduce internal conflicts that generate symptoms of psychological distress.
Further, neuropsychological research has shown that there is no one unconscious or conscious
central director in charge of how the self perceives and experiences the environment. There are ver-
sions or different parts that emerge automatically to meet the perceived demand characteristics of
any given context or situation. There are identifiable patterns with which these processes manifest
themselves. These patterns operate as coordinated systems that guide our thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors. Each of these systems serve as a self state. Some of the versions or self states we employ
are more pleasant than others we may employ. Some situations draw out our more caring and loving
self state. Other situations may draw out less pleasant versions of ourselves. The Personality Wheel
can be used by conceptualizing different self states as having their own unique personality style. The
Personality Wheel can then be brought into play using the same guiding principles as were used with
the interpersonal and intrapersonal realms.
Trait changes then require self-control. It can be undermined by behavioral triggers that occur
outside of awareness. Self-control can be mediated through choosing a version of oneself that best
matches the demand characteristics of a given situation. Behavioral self-control alters how actions are
expressed. The control of self-esteem can occur automatically through defense mechanisms that keep
painful ideas out of awareness. Behavioral self-regulation can help people meet such goals as studying
for a test or staying on a diet. Conscious control, however, may be a limited resource that requires
judicious application. Self-control can be better understood and taught so as to improve a person’s
well-being (Mayer, 2005). People often exert self-control in an effort to change their lives. To change
their outside worlds, people may move, divorce, and/or change jobs, among other possibilities. The
individual’s own personality may become identified as an issue if a person observes him or herself
reacting in a problematic fashion in job after job or with partner after partner. In these instances,
personality itself may become the focus of change (Mayer, 2005).
Effectuating healthy life management choices relates to the concept of self-regulation. This has
to do with the self-control one engages in when determining what one has to do to make healthy life
choices. There are many ways to self-regulate. Chapter 6 addresses these issues.
Finally, this book will address how the clinician’s own largely automatic personality factors affect
the therapeutic process. Inasmuch as clients manifest maladaptive personality patterns, styles, and
traits, so too do clinicians inadvertently engage in behaviors that subvert needed changes in the cli-
ents they treat. Insight into one’s own personality functioning is thus necessary for the clinician as
well as the client.
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CHAPTER 2
The Science, Theory, and
Therapeutic Principles of the
Personality-Informed
Treatment Perspective
The foundation of the Personality-Informed (PI) treatment perspective is rooted in the view that there
are numerous fundamental features of our world that have to be factored into any type of inclusive
and comprehensive approach to meaningful life change. PI therapy is multidisciplinary and draws
upon research from across scientific disciplines. The goal is to provide a strategic, flexible approach
for positive change that is tailored to the unique qualities of all individuals across contexts. This
chapter is intended to highlight the key features of the PI treatment approach to mental health care.
ADAPTATION AND SURVIVAL
Human survival is contingent on the ability to adapt. It is safe to say we have been highly successful at
it given the estimated total number of humans currently living at around 7.7 billion as of April 2019
(United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, & Population Division, 2019). Unlike
other less evolved species, we arrive in the world with only basic autonomic processes and instinctual
primitive reflexes, and thus highly dependent on initial caretakers to survive. Our adaptive capacities
are developed as necessary and serve as indispensable tools that ensure survival.
There is a range of functional environmental circumstances that we are thrust into throughout
our lives, some more stable and hospitable than others. We possess innate adaptive systems that have
evolved that enable us to bond psychologically to our initial caretakers. (Confer et al., 2010). The
infant takes in needed survival-based information that in turn leads to cognitions and behavioral
responses designed to solve the innumerable adaptation challenges engendered in the environmental
circumstances and related interpersonal contexts that we must contend with (Confer et al., 2010).
Adaptation can be seen as a primary motivating force throughout our lifetime. As we progress
from infancy into advancing stages of childhood, our bodies and minds develop at a rapid pace. We
develop increasing capacities for self-care. We become less and less dependent on our initial caretakers
for our basic needs. We start interacting more with the outside world. As we do so, we face increasingly
complex environmental circumstances and related life challenges. We become increasingly autono-
mous and take on greater responsibilities as we step forth into adolescence and early adulthood.
Adaptive problems are many in number. Some adaptive responses may prove to be more effective
in certain situations than others. Solutions to one problem may fail to successfully solve other prob-
lems (Confer et al., 2010; Barrett & Kurzban, 2006). Those that do not serve us well could be said to
lower our functional capacities. Those that are more effective in dealing with life challenges come to
serve as our functional strengths. The goal of the PI treatment perspective is to assist in the recogni-
tion of personality patterns that do not serve us well and to build on our strengths to better face our
continually changing life demands.
17
COMPLEXITY AND CONNECTEDNESS
Complexity is another foundational, unifying feature of the PI treatment perspective. Science has
increasingly come to embrace how we are inextricably part of and thereby connected to an extraor-
dinarily complex world. Changes of many sorts can and do affect us all. Changes in any and all parts
of our lives can and do have a complex interactive effect over time that leads to variable levels of
effect on many other systems that in turn affect other systems. This can be conceptualized as, “if this
then that.” But these are not linear relationships. Rather they are multi-dimensional and infinitely
complex. All systems have complex interactions with other systems at all levels. All systems have
some type of connection to other systems, so everything affects everything else. Because of this, we
must be as inclusive as possible in our quest for developing a deeper understanding of any unfolding
biologic process.
The ever advancing understanding and appreciation of complexity across scientific disciplines
has had an increasing impact on the mental health field. The roots of dynamical systems theory, also
known as complexity theory, lie in computer science, ecology, mathematics, and physics. Its implica-
tions have been explored in fields as diverse as economics, genetics, and social psychology (Lewin,
1993; Nowak & Vallacher, 1998). Generally, dynamical systems theory is concerned with the study of
complex interactions of systems ranging from the microscopic, including genes within the develop-
ing organism or networks of neurons within the brain, to the macroscopic, such as economic and
political systems (Kenrick, Li, & Butner, 2003). The dynamical approach focuses on changes over time
rather than temporally isolated system states (Nowak & Vallacher, 1998). It also emphasizes nonlin-
ear and bidirectional processes. Complexity theory points to the process of self-organization, which
relates to the observations that the emergence of new structures and patterns arise from interactions
between parts of an initially disordered system (Nowak & Vallacher, 1998).
SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES
Complexity theory assists in the understanding of how our bodies are comprised of extraordinarily
complex automatic processes. Complex adaptive systems have been characterized as systems made
up of interacting agents which use rules to maximize their potential of survival (Speelman, Kirsner, &
Halloy, 2012). These processes are within all levels of organismic functioning. They all have their
functional purpose and all work in concert to keep us alive and well. Many are related to sensing/per-
ception of the outside world, such as our olfactory, tactile, visual, and auditory senses. Others serve
to sense and regulate internal functioning, such as neuronal connections between the peripheral and
central nervous system. Then there are systems outside of our physical being that have direct effects
on our functioning. Temperature and availability of nutritional resources have an interactive effect
on organismic functioning. Systems theory as first conceptualized as early as the 1940s by Ludwig
von Bertalanffy observed how organisms are best seen as open systems. Bertalanffy differentiated
between closed and open systems. He maintained a system is closed if no material enters or leaves
it. A system is open if there is import and export and, therefore, change of the components. Living
systems are open systems, maintaining themselves in exchange of materials with environment, and
in continuous building up and breaking down of their components. This is different from a nonor-
ganic chemical compound that exists in nature but can be studied as such in a laboratory. It exists
independently of its environment and can be purified and does not lose its nature by that. On the
other hand, living objects would die if their constant relating with the environment was impeded
Science, Theory, Therapeutic Principles 19
or blocked. Open systems are systems that involve a constant exchange relation with their environ-
ments (Bertalanffy, 1950).
Understanding derived from complexity science and systems theory has led to a fundamen-
tal paradigmatic shift in how we view mind/brain function and dysfunction. What has emerged is
the increasing recognition that the process of improving emotional and behavioral functioning is
fundamentally contingent on dynamic complex multidimensional interactions between virtually
unlimited disparate yet related organic, biologic, and nonbiologic systems. Such elements include
the myriad of automatic biologic systems within each of us, as well as countless outside systems or
forces with which we are embedded in and thereby interact with. This complexity has direct impli-
cations for our daily sense of well-being and related personality functioning. Virtually anything in
the mix can have increasingly larger effects anywhere in the system at any time. So small changes
might have a detectable effect, but a large change may not have any observable effect, due to the
interactive effects of all the other factors related to functioning. This growing perspective has led to
understanding of the mind as not being separate from our bodies or our relationships to the outside
world. There is thus a growing realization that there are a myriad of features of our world that have to
be factored into any type of inclusive and comprehensive approach to understanding how we think,
feel, and behave.
BRAIN PHYSIOLOGY AND COMPLEX MENTAL PROCESSES
Complexity science has led to the view of the mind as a naturally occurring, emerging, and self-
organizing dynamic process with contents of the mind being a product of its interactions with the
world. The agents in this complex system receive, process, and transmit information. Depending on
the level of analysis, these agents may be individual neurons or even networks of neurons or even net-
works of networks. The degree of consideration of these agents as networks of neurons will assist in
understanding their function and will depend on the level of analysis (Speelman et al., 2012). At the
physiological level of analysis, the brain can be seen as being comprised of a self-organizing complex
interconnected, interacting set of brain structures that serve as the central operating system for all
thought, emotions, and behavior. Much of it is hidden and inaccessible, but it is reflected in virtually
all our emotional, cognitive, and behavioral enactment (Ginot, 2015). Brain structures operate as a
system functions as a whole in which the differentiated areas link their signals to one another in the
creation of the system’s overall functioning. The overall output of the brain is more like a spider web
of interconnected processes than a linear chain of events (Siegel, 2012). Unconscious processes are
ever-present and wide-spread and in essence the neuropsychological force behind most of our mental
and behavioral operations.
A central aspect of unconscious brain/mind processes is that much of what takes place within
the neural underpinning of all our mental functioning is out of our conscious control. We get to
consciously experience only a small sliver of such neural activity (Koziol, 2014). The automatic way
of functioning is driven by subcortical regions rather than by more cortical areas. The unconscious
realm is first and foremost a dynamic amalgam of processes that give rise to all of our conscious expe-
riences. Ginot (2015) refers to unconscious maps or models as unconscious self-systems. Such uncon-
scious self-systems are the ones that underpin and guide the more consciously experienced self states.
Ginot pointed to neurolopsychological findings linking the unconscious neural maps to various sub-
cortical regions. Deliberate control appears to be mediated by cortical-limbic connections, whereas
more automatic patterns and states of action readiness are underpinned by brain stem regions and the
hypothalamus (Frijda, 1986; Lewis & Todd, 2007).
Neuroscientific research has shown the cerebellum mediates autonomic sensory, motor, affective,
and cognitive functioning – in other words, a large part of our mental life (Koziol, 2014; Koziol &
Budding, 2010). The cerebellum seems to adjust our responses by regulating neural signals in most
regions. It thus plays an important role in regulating behavior, cognition, and affect. The cerebellum’s
function is embodied in its capacity to bypass the more deliberate brain/mind functions and allow
for fast, automated behaviors across contexts (Koziol, 2014). Based on past experiences it learns to
predict and anticipate the outcome of any behavior or response. The cerebellum essentially serves as
a predictor or anticipator of sensory and motor feedback, allowing us to unconsciously generate fast,
implicit, and automatic behaviors.
Inappropriate patterns repeat themselves when the cerebellum’s influence is imbalanced or com-
promised. In that case, its neural messages may bias the cortex to interpret perceptions in an inflexi-
ble way. Perceptions embedded within specific emotional exchanges will be rigidly linked only to past
associations and experiences, without being corrected or refined by the cerebellum (Ginot, 2015).
The basal ganglia are the building blocks of procedural learning. The basal ganglia are involved
in a wide range of learning functions: emotional, cognitive, or interpersonal responses are released or
inhibited. Once emotional, cognitive, and behavioral habits are established with the help of the basal
ganglia, they are best executed without conscious mediation. Such unconscious functioning answers
the need for efficient and repetitive modes of executing habits. The quick and automatic implementa-
tion of all habits, from the perceptual/emotional to complex social interactions, illustrates the adap-
tive strength of procedural learning or instrumental knowledge.
The amygdala is a part of the limbic system and is located in each hemisphere. It is the center for
information or association in the service of controlling emotional responses. It receives input from
all internal and external sensory modalities as well as from connections linked to higher order press-
ing structures such as the prefrontal cortex and hippocampal region. It has connections to brain stem
areas involved in controlling fight or flight reactions and physiological homeostasis. The amygdala
directs the perception of sensory information at the posterior cortex and affects self-monitoring in
the anterior cingulate cortex as well as attention. Amygdala activation has been seen in almost all the
imaging studies that have explored fear, anxiety, and negative feelings (Hamann, 2009; LeDoux &
Schiller, 2009; Phelps, 2007, 2009). Fear conditioning is explained solely in terms of associations
created and stored via cellular, synaptic, and molecular plasticity mechanisms in amygdala circuits
(LeDoux, 2014). The amygdala does not just detect and encode emotionally relevant experiences; it is
also involved in the regulation or modulation of a wide range of cognitive functions. Unless mindful
efforts are exerted, the quick automatic activation of subcortical areas overrides the slower, reflective
function (Lane, 2000; Lane, Ryan, Nadel, & Greenberg, 2014; LeDoux & Doyere, 2011; Ochsner &
Gross, 2005). Functions of the prefrontal cortex can be depicted as the conductor of the orchestra.
When building mindfulness, focused attention, patience, and empathy, we are building neural con-
nections and integrating with lower brain regions. This is referred to as the process of vertical integra-
tion. This process leads to enhanced cognitive, and affective and behavioral adaptation (Siegel, 2011).
PERSONALITY AS AN OVERARCHING SYSTEMIC PROCESS
Recent neuroscientific evidence has shown there are unconscious automatic neurobiology processes
that are continually and differentially elicited by various daily life contexts (Ginot, 2015; Siegel,
2012). These processes dynamically operate within all levels of organismic functioning. These uncon-
scious systems monitor, control, and guide the way we pursue goals and desires as well as our adaptive
approaches to changes in the environment (Bargh, 2007, 2014; Churchland, 2013; Glaser & Kihlstrom,
2007). These systems combine and interact with the outside world to regulate what is needed to adapt
and survive (Bargh, 2007, 2014; Ginot, 2015; Hassin, Uleman, & Bargh, 2007; Koziol & Budding,
2010; Wegner, 2007). They all have their functional purpose and all work in concert to keep us alive
and well. These experiences coalesce into emotional, cognitive, and behavioral learning that do not
demand conscious attention when a certain reaction is called for. As development continues, new
experiences are fitted into existing representations and neural maps. Such complex patterns can pur-
sue goals with apparent motivation and determination, but without conscious will or plan (Bargh,
2007, 2014).
Personality can be described here as an overarching systemic process that emerges from smaller
psychological subsystems. Systems operate in a bi-direction causal loop of interactive processes all
the way from the molecular to the macro level (Mayer, 1998). These processes operate within the per-
son as well as outside. At the lowest level of analysis there are smaller physical, chemical, and living
things. The next level up are the person’s internal brain processes and the outer elements of the situ-
ation – locations, possessions, and other objects and places. Up another level within the person, per-
sonality itself is formed out of motives, emotions, knowledge, and other psychological subsystems.
On the outside is the external situation faced by the person. That is, as the individual acts within
a real and objective environment, those acts typically are understood by the individual and by any
other observers and actors according to their psychological significance (Hewitt, 2003). Emotional
and behavioral processing are the results of these interacting systems and processes.
PERSONALITY REGULATION VERSUS DYSREGULATION
Personality regulation relates to the process of regulating all relevant variables and their related con-
tributing processes to adapt to one’s given life contexts. To the extent one is successful in doing so
results in healthy adaptive personality functioning. To the extent that adaptive processes do not
meet the demand characteristics, such functioning would constitute personality dysregulation. The
complex coordination within and between adaptive processes is an ongoing, ever changing process.
Changes in adaptive processes are related to the demand characteristics of a given situation. Variable
levels of distress may trigger more extreme changes in adaptive processes, which may have deleterious
consequences in other areas of functioning. Changes in adaptive processes may lead to, or culminate
in, positive outcomes in a number of environmental contexts. Changes in processes may also lead to
negative outcomes in others. What may improve personality in one context may cause dysregulation
in other parts of the system. For example, an atypical antipsychotic used to assist in mood regulation
may lead to an increased appetite, triggering old patterns of overeating, which in turn could lead to
feelings of guilt and futility.
PERSONALITY STYLES/TRAITS VERSUS

PERSONALITY DISORDERS
As a result of physiologic and environmental interactions over time, an individual develops charac-
teristic personality styles or patterns. Some patterns are more adaptive than others. There are styles
and traits that generally contribute to psychological well-being. Traits that function most effectively
are flexibly enacted in specific situations and make it more likely for there to be stability of thought,
mood, behavior, and relationships. There is a range of functionality of styles and traits, from those
that are more functional to those that are not. The less functional traits may not lead to a mental
health diagnosis. Less functional traits make it more likely one will have struggles in daily function-
ing and hence more prone to develop diagnosable mental health disorders. Problematic patterns
rigidly applied can lead to personality disorders, which are defined as an enduring pattern of inner
experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture, is
pervasive and inflexible, and has its onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and
leads to distress or impairment. The presence of symptoms meeting the diagnostic threshold indi-
cates the person is significantly prone to developing other mental health disorders such as anxiety
or depression. Environment factors and related distress have been noted to affect personality func-
tioning. More extreme life challenges exacerbate more extreme and rigid personality patterns that, if
maintained for a sufficient period of time, become entrenched and more resistant to change.
BRAIN FUNCTIONING AND PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Problems with brain functioning and emotion regulation have direct implications on personality
functioning. Research suggests polymorphisms within the serotonergic system might contribute to
dysfunction in emotional processing (Piel et al., 2018). More specifically, research has shown abnormal
patterns of brain functioning in those with personality disorders. Those diagnosed with borderline
personality disorder (BPD) showed abnormal patterns of activation, habituation, and connectiv-
ity in regions linked to emotion regulation. Amygdala deactivation may be mediated by abnormal
top-down regulatory control from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Aberrant emotion processing
may play a unique role in the pathophysiology of BPD. Initial reports appeared consistent with the
hypothesis of amygdala hyper-responsiveness to unpleasant stimuli (Herpertz et al., 2001).
Subsequent studies implicated a more dispersed complex of regions across the prefrontal cortex
and limbic system together with a dual frontalimbic pathology model (Elst et al., 2003) suggesting
a “failure of top down control” (Dudas et al., 2017; Silbersweig et al., 2007). Another study showed
elevated amygdala activity during reappraisal anticipation predicting anxiety in avoidant personality
disorder (Denny et al., 2015). This study demonstrated that women with a BPD diagnosis showed an
enhanced volume of the laterobasal amygdala (LBA), whereas other subregions did not differ from
findings in healthy controls. In addition, the LBA volume correlated positively with syndrome sever-
ity. This study demonstrated the role of the amygdala subdivisions in symptom severity and disgust-
related traits in borderline personality disorder (Schienle, Leutgeb, & Wabnegger, 2015).
EMBEDDEDNESS
We are born embedded within a specific environmental circumstance, which has variable levels of
available, needed resources. There are constraints on these resources. These include physical systems
such as physical factors such as the climate and habitat. Some habitats entail various adaptive chal-
lenges involving temperature and available natural resources. There may be limitations in access to
nutritional and medical resources that affect childcare and related sense of well-being. An individual
may be born and thus embedded within a functional or dysfunctional family system that may or may
not be emotionally hospitable. The individual may be subjected to family members who are chemically
dependent and unstable or be embedded within a situation where there is significant discord between
family members. He or she may be subject to an abusive family situation, one that may involve being
subjected to emotional, physical, and sexual abuse. The individual has no choice but to remain in that
situation, embedded within unbelievable levels of negativity, derision, and dangerousness.
Locality also affects what political, economic, and religious influences are extant, which can have
both positive and negative effects on the person. Sustained exposure to such variable factors directly
impacts the sense of safety and emotional and physical development of the individual, all of which
can lead one to become more or less resilient to life stressors one is later faced with.
What we are embedded within is not fixed. It changes throughout our lifetime. We may go from
one set or system of environmental circumstances to another. Our general sense of well-being is
related to both. We may endure great hardship, and then survive and end up in a far safer and sup-
portive situation. We may not feel safe in the new circumstance because of what we had to contend
with in the past. The impact of what we were faced with also impacts the environments we choose
over time. The individual may develop expectations or preferences for what they choose to be embed-
ded within. The person may develop beliefs that they deserve circumstances that may not be as safe
or as supportive as they could be. If the circumstances or related systems are predominantly negative,
the individual may maintain a sense of low expectation and general negativity about themselves and
the world. The person may find themselves in a very supportive and stable set of circumstances that
has a positive impact on the individual, leading them to feel more positive about themselves and
their life prospects. It is usually a mix of positive and negative factors that influences how the person
ends up feeling and functioning. Suffice to say, the more positive and supportive the environment
we are in, the more it is conducive to feeling more positive about oneself and the world. The more
one can choose and thereby be embedded within a positive emotional and physical environment, the
more likely and better able the person is to function on a daily basis.
CONTEXT AND PERSONALITY
Context refers to the situation or circumstances in which an event occurs. It is important to look at
the circumstances present at the time of a given behavior to understand why the event occurred. The
context that surrounds a certain event affects how it will be received and recalled. One cannot only
look at the current context one is embedded in at the moment to understand why someone is think-
ing, feeling, or behaving as they are. Context is relevant from the moment one is born. The context
includes multiple elements of the environment one is born in, such as physical location, the manner
in which the newborn is responded to emotionally and physically, availability and sharing of nutri-
tional resources, as well as all other significant aspects the individual is born into.
Contexts swiftly change and become increasingly complex as the child grows and develops. The
child’s environment grows as they venture out into the community and are exposed to an increas-
ing number of situations, places, and people. Over time the child becomes increasingly able to make
efforts to choose where they go in the community. The experiences of the child in those various
environmental contexts, especially with the most emotionally significant ones, affect the child’s per-
ception of the world and their ability to deal with various life situations. These life lessons lead to cog-
nitive, emotional, and behavioral processes that eventually do not require conscious attention when
triggered by a specific situation. As the individual develops, new experiences are fitted into existing
representations and neural maps, which then strengthen various adaptive processes and patterns.
Understanding the historical context and not just the immediate context one is in helps in bet-
ter understanding why an individual may react much differently than another faced with the same
current situation. One who may have dealt with significant past emotional and physical trauma may
have a whole different emotional and behavioral reaction than someone who did not have the same
trauma background. The individual who experienced substantial past trauma may have stronger reac-
tions to some aspects of the environment and lesser of a response to some other aspect of the situation
than someone without the trauma background. Reactions to an environmental circumstance are thus
related to combinations of current and past contexts.
PERSONALITY SELF STATES
The assumption that there is a self-agency that unconsciously determines what is allowed to stay
conscious or what is not acceptable to one’s sense of self has proven problematic (Horga & Maia,
2012; Lewis & Todd, 2007; Wegner, 2007). It is not a single central agency, conscious or unconscious,
that intervenes or controls defensive activity. Ingrained defensive reactions are the result of a con-
certed synchronized automatic reaction to environmental interactions that threaten adaption. Such
unconscious self-systems are the ones that underpin and guide the more consciously experienced self
states. Self states coexist within one psyche with various degrees of familiarity among them and is an
important guiding principle in further understanding how unconscious self-systems come to be and
function. When unconscious self-systems reach levels of consciousness through neural activity, they
are experienced as self states (Baars, 1989; Bromberg, 1998, 2006; Churchland, 2013).
A self state may be best conceptualized as a mindset that automatically emerges based on the
demand characteristics of a given environmental circumstance. They are normal and universal. The
mindset may have originally developed in relation to a past emotionally significant event, or series
of events. For example, a person may have had to deal with a highly abusive parent as a young child.
The child may have learned that being passive and placating was the only way to avoid further abuse.
The child may have thus developed a pattern of coping when faced with this type of situation. That
way of coping thus became a way of being, or a separate personality state with a schema or way of
dealing with that specific situation. If there was a great deal of abuse by others in the early environ-
ment, this pattern or self state became the way to deal with others similar to her father. The child may
have also developed a different self state for other people, or for other kinds of abuse.
Self states develop as needed, are normal, and are developed throughout our lifetimes. The style
or pattern or self states we develop are based on demand characteristics we encounter at various times
of our lives. The self state developed helped where that style of interaction was most adaptive. Self
states are automatically formed to cope with life circumstances. We all grow to have many of them.
Some emerge more often than others. Some are more complex than others. Some stay present longer
than others. Self states are related to personality styles and traits. Each self state can be seen as having
its own unique style. Some self states are more functional than others. This depends on the context.
Some situations are better suited for a self state that is calm and relaxed. Another situation may be
best met with being lighthearted and playful. Some self states are not suited for a host of contexts. For
example, a self state that is passive and placating would not be adaptive in other contexts, where the
situation would call for being more direct and assertive. Habitually employing the wrong self state
in wrong contexts can be conceived as unhealthy. Awareness and insight are required to recognize it
as such. One needs to intentionally shift to self states that would be more functional. More than one
self state can be brought to bear on a given situation. Two or more self states may be brought together
to form a new self state. This can be conceptualized as a blend. It may be a new self state needs to be
developed or constructed to handle the context of the moment.
SELF-NARRATIVES AND PERSONALITY SELF STATES
Self-narratives pertain to the notion that we structure our experience along the lines of a story
(White & Epston, 1990). We do this in a selective way. The concept of dominant story lines refers
to the way in which we attend selectively to certain aspects of our experience while subjugating or
minimizing others. The ways in which autobiographical narratives are constructed can constrain our
sense of self (McTighe, 2018). There is not just one self-narrative. Various life experiences lead to the
development of differing self states, which in turn leads to a host of self-narratives. Specific self states
and their related narratives shift from one situation to the next. These narratives may or may not be
accurate depictions of one’s actual past. Memories are vulnerable to a wide range of distortions, which
heavily influence narratives linked to unconscious emotional memories. When remembering events
or emotional experiences, the gist of the experience or the processed and distilled mental narrative is
usually more important than the accuracy of the details. The emotional impact determines how influ-
ential a memory becomes in terms of its effects on narratives of the self. Personality styles and traits
and related self states reflect as well as affect self-narratives. For example, someone whose character
preference is self-defeating and depressive is likely to process a given life event in a negative manner
as opposed to someone whose style is upbeat and positive.
FLEXIBILITY, RIGIDITY, AND DECISION MAKING
Certain life experiences can lead one to be more comfortable in some situations more than others,
and hence more willing to make needed life changes. Someone who experienced more extreme and
negative earlier life experiences may be less willing to engage with others, including the therapist.
They may have expectations that involve a sense of hopelessness, helplessness, and worthlessness
that drive their decision-making processes. They thus may have a more rigid, limited set of poten-
tial responses to a given opportunity or situation. They may be more likely to have more deeply
entrenched and negative views of the world and their chances to overcome their problems when they
do not succeed as they would like. Tenacity in dealing with a difficult life situation as a child may
result in entrenchment in the very coping style that allowed the child to adapt and survive. What
worked then, if now free of that circumstance, may now be preventing the person to accommodate
situations that no longer call for the same coping style(s). The same tenacity that worked so well may
now be what is causing the person to be stuck and frustrated. It may be about digging in one’s heels
and being unwilling to do what is needed to make needed changes. It may be causing the person a
sense of stagnation and unfulfillment.
Making needed changes generally requires flexibility. One must be willing to be flexible enough
to do something different. It requires cognitive flexibility, thinking differently about the problem and
willingness to consider envisioning different alternatives. Allowing oneself to be more flexible natu-
rally involves a willingness to take risks, that is, to see what one needs to do and then be willing and
able to change. Whatever one does involves risk. Many have the mistaken notion that doing noth-
ing at all does not involve risk; however, we can risk losing our relationships and other important
aspects of our lives by choosing to do nothing. As with virtually all other aspects of life, rigidity and
flexibility are part of a complex process. There may be current life situations that require one to hold
fast and not bend. There may be aspects of one’s life which require deep unwavering commitment,
persistence, and patience. Change in such circumstances could prove disastrous. This is often the case
when someone is seeking an advanced degree or undergoing intensive training of some sort. There
may come a time, however, when one would be able to put on the brakes and ease up and change
course when the current life situation changes.
Further, reality often dictates there may be areas to be more flexible in at times, and other areas we
need to be less flexible with. Current contexts or demand characteristics may require an interchange
from one to the other. Deciding when and with what aspect of one’s life it is best to hunker down and
commit to one pattern of managing life challenges and when it is better to make changes that would
be best for all is more likely carried out with awareness, insight, and an overall strategy for continual
restoration of homeostasis and emotional well-being (Ginot, 2015).
SELF-REGULATION
Self-regulation is a core feature of the mind. It pertains to how all systems and processes are regu-
lated, both internally and externally. It relates to the self’s capacity for altering its behavior. There are
countless ways in which we engage in self-regulation. Self-regulation involves being able to change
and adapt at multiple levels simultaneously. It involves the identification of what needs to change as
well as how to effectuate such changes. This is determined by context and how one characteristically
responds to distress. Chapter 6 will further elaborate on this core feature.
THERAPEUTIC CHANGE
Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change its structure in response to experience. Experi-
ence activates neurons, which then can turn on genes that enable structural changes to be made
that strengthen the connections among activated neurons. Even the focus of attention is a form of
experience that activates neurons, turns on genes, and makes structural changes to the connections
among neurons. In this way the mental process of focusing attention can change the physical struc-
ture of the brain (Siegel, 2012). When we remember, the firing of neurons occurs in a pattern that is
being shaped by a past experience. This way that the past influences present functioning is how we
learn, how we remember, and it is created by changes in neural connections. There is some empirical
evidence showing personality traits can change from common life events including military experi-
ence, transition from school to adult life, and marriage and divorce. How much change, and in what
direction, either adaptive or maladaptive, depends on the type of event and the trait that is affected
by (Bleidorn, Hopwood, & Lucas, 2016; Jackson, Thoemmes, Jonkmann, Lüdtke, & Trautwein, 2012).
Mental health clinicians generally aim to help patients achieve greater affect regulation, a sense of
personal fulfillment and well-being. Personality change is an indelible aspect in the therapeutic pro-
cess. The question arises, however, as to whether personality traits can be changed as a result of psy-
chotherapeutic intervention. A meta-analysis about the efficacy of psychotherapies, Smith, Glass, and
Miller (1980), found that therapy can change personality traits in addition to the primary outcomes
(e.g., psychological functioning, well-being). More recent research demonstrates that psychotherapy
and counseling interventions, sometimes in combination with medication, can modify or change per-
sonality traits (Tang et al., 2009). Research has shown that psychotherapy interventions can change
problematic personality traits (Kivlighan et al., 2015). A recent meta-analysis investigated the extent
to which personality traits change as a result of clinical interventions (Roberts et al., 2017). The find-
ings demonstrated that clinical interventions were associated with marked changes in personality
traits (e.g., decreases in neuroticism, increases in extraversion) over an average time of 24 weeks.
How is it then that psychotherapeutic interventions effectuate personality traits change? Psy-
chotherapy may affect how the individual client may perceive and interpret a given event or life
circumstance. They may come upon an important realization that serves as a catalyst for positive
change that can be conceptualized as a turning point for the individual. The change or changes may
be related to how the person views themselves and their lives and learns new things about themselves
and others. Another way to learn is from successful and failed experiences. Successes and failures may
provide opportunities that trigger reflective processes and activities. Evidence suggests that perceiving
stressful life events as turning points is related to changes in some personality traits (Allemand &
Fluckiger, 2017). In sum, personality trait change may occur in reaction to the occurrence and inter-
pretation of life experiences and events.
POSITIVE CHANGE
Contrary to most traditional therapeutic approaches, the therapeutic focus of PI therapy is not on the
erasure or amelioration of negative psychological states. Focusing on the negative results in increas-
ing unstable and unhealthy behaviors, emotions, and relationships. Examples of negativity include
anticipating and worrying about dire consequences, focusing on one’s own or others’ personal defi-
ciencies, being fear-based or mean. Engaging in such thinking or behavior makes a negative outcome
more likely. On the other hand, positive change is considered to be a centrally important aspect of
creating constructive change. The work of Martin Seligman and his colleagues in the area of Positive
Psychology has resulted in research that clearly shows its importance in meaningful, lasting change.
Positive Psychology is a scientific approach to studying human thoughts, feelings, and behavior with
a focus on strengths instead of weakness, building the good in life instead of repairing the bad, and
taking the lives of average people up to “great” instead of focusing solely on moving those who are
struggling up to “normal” (Peterson, Park, Pole, Dandrea, & Seligman, 2008). Research in Positive Psy-
chology has shown the importance of positive outlook, optimism and experiences, gratitude, positive
connections to others, positive states and traits (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005).
Changes in overall life management must therefore be based on constructive, positive life change.
There must be a willingness to effectuate this kind of change. One needs to be willing to be positive. It
is strategically building positive connections throughout our lives. There needs to be the instillation
of an increased sense of optimism. It needs to be based on constructive change. Change needs to be
framed from the perspective of being strength-based as opposed to being fear-based. Being fear-based
means basing life choices on avoidance of engagement in healthy life patterns.
MULTIPLE CHANGE MECHANISMS AND PERSONALITY

TRAIT CHANGE
Enduring therapeutic change seems to be based on many disparate elements. Personality trait change
also appears related to multiple change mechanisms/processes (Allemand & Flückiger, 2017). Thera-
peutic change can be accomplished through many paths, all inevitably intersecting and affecting each
other. All facets of our mental functioning should be equally recruited in therapy: affect, thoughts,
the quality of the therapeutic relationship, and the implementation of new behaviors. Explicit and
implicit, interpersonal and intrapersonal learning processes need to take place for such changes to
happen. Change can be intentional or volitional when it is motivated by the desire to be, act, and feel
different; such as change that comes about as a result of a deliberate intervention, usually initiated
by a troubled individual. In some cases, however, there are those willing and motivated to change at
least some aspects of their personality without necessarily suffering from psychological and/or social
problems associated with their personality. Intentional change can also be the result of self-change
efforts independent of therapy, counseling, or coaching. Such efforts can be attained by self-help or
self-improvement by means of self-help groups (Allemand & Flückiger, 2017). Self-help often utilizes
publicly available information (e.g., on the Internet) or support groups (e.g., people in similar situa-
tions and/or with similar goals joining together).
Psychotherapeutic change is not necessarily a direct, intentional process. As previously noted,

we react to contextual stimuli without any awareness of doing so. Unconscious employment of
emotional and behavioral patterns tends to override conscious intentions. Even the execution of
consciously articulated drives, goals, and desires are often derailed by unconscious self-systems. Per-
sonality change requires structural aspects of functioning manifested through changes in uncon-
scious neural maps and self-systems that dictate enacted patterns (Ginot, 2015). A structural change
may mean a change in the way one feels about oneself in general and even in the midst of distress,
including the regulation of negative self-narratives; it may indicate significant change in one’s rela-
tional patterns and the ability to see the other not just through one’s needs; it may involve actual
changes in how one approaches conscious life goals and pursuits.
Psychotherapeutic change requires taking both automatic and conscious processes into account
(Price & Drevets, 2010). A deep change also entails the development of the ability to live with and
automatically regulate recurrent patterns until they no longer have an effect. A patient develops reflec-
tive awareness to regulate thoughts and affect. We also have to acknowledge a great deal of learning
takes place out of awareness, subject to intra- and interpersonal unconscious processes. Research also
suggests that there exist endophenotypes analogous to individual differences. These categories under-
lie the importance of designing individual therapeutic approaches, not only for different diagnoses,
but for different people. Other implications concern psychotherapy based on manuals or therapeutic
approaches with clear preferences toward affective or cognitive aspects in the treatment of psycho-
logical disorders. For example, literature derived from cognitive neuroscience clearly indicates that
symptoms associated with major depressive disorder (MDD) cannot be understood by focusing on
emotion or cognition separately ( Jonassen & Landrø, 2014). There may even be situations where the
same constellations of symptoms should be treated with different therapies for different individuals.
If this is true, general approaches for the treatment of a particular syndrome, such as a general guid-
ance for the treatment of MDD, may be misdirected.
Further, pharmacogenetics may lead to treatment individualization. Up to 60% of depressed
patients do not respond completely to antidepressants and about 30% do not respond at all ( Jonas-
sen & Landrø, 2014). Knowledge of the pathogenetic mechanisms underlying major depression is
therefore essential for developing new antidepressant drugs with better efficiency.
There is evidence supporting the notion that focusing personality trait change and building on
healthy aspects of the client’s abilities and strengths instead of the client’s problems and deficits
helps in positive trait change. The focus on strengths is felt to help with the therapeutic relationship
as well as help in the process of building and maintaining self-efficacy (Allemand & Flückiger, 2017).
The change processes include the client’s willingness and efforts to engage in new experiences and
behaviors, the development of more positive views of the self and others, or the adoption of healthier
ways of relating to others (Castonguay & Hill, 2012). The Stages of Change literature is thus relevant
to personality trait change. Research has shown preconditions should be taken into consideration
with respect to intended personality change (Hennecke, Bleidorn, Denissen, & Wood, 2014). A desire
to change given personality traits is an important variable for personality change, and research has
shown people both young and old have shown a desire to change personality traits (Hudson & Rob-
erts, 2014; Hudson & Fraley, 2015, 2016). Second, people must also believe they can effectuate per-
sonality change. When people desire to make the change and believe they are capable of making
the change, research shows change is more likely to occur (Chapman, Hampson, & Clarkin, 2014;
Magidson, Roberts, Collado-Rodriguez, & Lejuez, 2014).
Further, change appears to be effectuated through learning oriented change processes facilitated
through improved insight into the impact of maladaptive views of one’s self, others, and the world.
It has also been found that action oriented change processes foster active work on the problem, a need,
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Annikki häntä lähtövalmistuksissa: lämmittää veljelleen mainion
kylvyn ja kantaa hänelle päälle pantaviksi parhaat juhlavaatteet, jotta
Ilmarinen ainakin »ulkonaisen ihmisen» puolesta voisi menestyksellä
kosijana esiintyä. Vireää Annikki-siskoaan sai siis Ilmarinen
pääasiassa kiittää siitä, että tosiaan joutui tielle ja voitti Pohjan
neidon. Hänessä on Kalevala luonut perin herttaisen kuvan veljensä
onnea valvovasta sisaresta.
Annikin virkkua sukua on »Pohjan piika pikkarainen, joka jo aikoja

ennen auringon nousua, »kukonki kurahtamatta» ennättää toimitella
paljon talousaskareita. Hänpä se keksii aamulla varhain
Väinämöisenkin Pohjolan rannalla itkeä juorottamassa ja toimittaa
siitä heti tiedon Louhelle. Hän se myös ketteränä ja nopsana
toimittaa Louhen lukemattomat hääkutsut perille. Samanlainen nöyrä
ja vikkelä tyttö on kainon Marjatan »pienin piika» Piltti, joka »utuna
ulos menevi, savuna pihalle saapi» etsimään Marjatta raukalle
kylältä kylpyä, kun ankara äiti ja isä, luullen tyttärensä joutuneen
huonoille jäljille, sen häneltä kotona kiroten kieltävät.
Kalevalan hienoin ja naisellisin naiskuva on epäilemättä

Joukahaisen nuori sisar Aino, joka tietämättään, tahtomattaan
luvataan vanhalle Väinämöiselle. Oman kainon naissydämen nuori
iemmenkaipuu ja valintavapaus joutuu siten ankaraan ristiriitaan
äidin tahdon ja lapsellisen kuuliaisuustunteen kanssa, ja siihen
ristiriitaan hentoinen Aino sortuu. Kuten Kullervossa miehen kuvaa
Kalevala Ainossa naisen, neitosen, traagillista kohtaloa. Elämän ja
kohtalon myrskyt musertavat Kullervon, miehen ja sankarin; Ainon
tuhoavat oman sydämen herkkätuntoiset ristiriidat.
Kun Aino saa tietää että veli on luvannut hänet »Väinämöiselle

varaksi» ja näkee äitinsä siitä riemastuvan, koskee se kipeästi hänen
herkkään mieleensä. Lapsen velvollisuus vaatisi tottelemaan äitiä,
mutta toisella puolella on oman sydämen epäävä ääni, joka ei voi
sallia, että neitoa vain kauppatavarana pidetään, neidon itsensä
mieltä kysymättä. Siitä johtuu Ainon ajatuksiin auttamaton ristiriita,
joka ne lopulta vallan samentaa. Kun sitten Väinämöinen lehdossa
tapaa hänet ja kohtelee häntä kuin varmaa omaisuuttaan, heittää
hän heti maahan Väinämöisen ihailemat korunsa, pitäen niitä siten
juurikuin saastutettuina, ja rientää itkien kotiin. Muille hän ei tahdo
ilmaista korujensa katoamisen todellista syytä; vasta äidille, ainoalle
uskotulle näin arassa asiassa, hän kertoo Wäinämöisen rohkeat
kosiskelut. Hyvää tarkoittava, mutta lyhytnäköinen äiti lohduttelee
Ainoa parhaansa mukaan ja käskee hänen kadotettujen sijaan
pukemaan ylleen äidin säästämät kalliit korut, luullen Ainon niistä
lohtua saavan. Mutta turhaan! Ainon neitseellisen sydämen
sopusointu on särkynyt; itku ja valitus vain on hänen lohduttajansa.
»Mieli ei tervoa parempi, syän ei syttä valkeampi», hän sanoo
itsestään. Kun äiti vihdoin tarkemmin tiedustelee tuon jatkuvan itkun
syytä, silloin Aino vasta suoraan sanoo katkeran surunsa johtuvan
siitä, että äiti oli luvannut ja käskenyt hänet, hänen mieltään
kuulematta, »vanhalle varaksi, ikäpuolelle iloksi». Parempi muka olisi
ollut käskeä hänet suorastaan »alle aaltojen syvien sisareksi
Siikasille». Näin Ainon mieli aivankuin vaistomaisesti vetää häntä
veteen — rauhaan ja vapauteen.
Tuska ja suru vie häneltä mielen tasapainon ja itsensä

määräämisvallan. Hän toimii nyt aivan koneellisesti, vaistomaisesti.
Hän menee aittaan, pukee yllensä äidin tarjoamat korut ja lähtee
sitten, juurikuin kuololle vihittynä ja koristettuna, harhailemaan
tarkoituksettomasti pitkin saloja. Kuoleman vapauttava ajatus täyttää
hänen sumenneen mielensä; veden väljät ja vapaat tilat
houkuttelevat Ainoa sinne suruansa unhottamaan. Ja niin
vastustamattomaksi käy tämä houkutus, että Aino, nähdessään
vedenneitojen vapaina ja iloisina kisailevan läikkyvillä laineilla,
rientää suoraan heidän huolettomaan joukkoonsa veden viileään
syliin mieltään viihdyttämään ja sinne hukkuu. Se ei ollut pelkkä
tapaturma; se oli johdonmukainen tulos Aino raukan hennon ja
tunteellisen sydämen ristiriidoista. Rauhaton, maailman kanssa
epäsointuun joutunut sydän löytää levon kuolon viileässä sylissä,
joka hänelle aivankuin itsestään suurena ja sovittavana avautuu.
Näin olemmekin tarkastelleet Kalevalan kaikki huomattavammat

naiskuvat. Näihin voitaisiin lisätä vielä esim. rehevä Osmotar, »oluen
seppä», tuo taitava ja toimekas emännöitsijä ja oivallisen oluen
valmistaja, joka myöskin Pohjan neitiä perinpohjin neuvoo ja
opastaa, kuinka hänen tulee miehelässä käyttäytyä; »ruma
Ruotuksen emäntä», joka ylpeänä kädet puuskassa »liehoi sillan
liitoksella, laahoi keskilattialla» ja ynseästi tiuskuu avunanojalle;
lopuksi onneton Kullervon sisar, joka sukunsa surkean kohtalon
vainoamana ensin eksyy metsään, kotiin osaamatta, sitten Kullervon
korujen ja kultien sokaisemana tietämättään yhtyy veljeensä ja
vihdoin, saatuaan tietää asian oikean laidan, sovittaa kauhean
rikoksensa hyppäämällä kuohuvaan koskeen, jossa »löyti turvan
Tuonelassa, armon aaltojen seassa».
Mutta näiden ihmisellisten naiskuvien lisäksi tuo Kalevala vielä

eteemme lukemattoman joukon yliluonnollisia naisolentoja, jotka
monella eri tavalla joutuvat kosketuksiin ihmisten kanssa. Meillä on
Kalevalassa määrättömästi luonnottaria, ilmattaria, sotkottaria,
vedenneitoja, tuulettaria, puuttaria, metsänneitoja ja sinipiikoja,
manattaria j.n.e. On siellä Vellamo, »veden emäntä», on Mielikki,
»Tapiolan tarkka vaimo», on Tellervo, Tuulikki ja muut »utupaidat,
hienohelmat» metsänjumalan Tapion kepeät tyttäret — niin, koko
luonto on täynnä kaikenlaisia hengettäriä ja haltiattaria sitä
elävöittämässä ja somistamassa.
Lopuksi emme saa unhottaa Kalevalan ihania häärunoja, joissa

naisilla on niin tärkeä sija. Ne tosin eivät vie Kalevalan varsinaista
toimintaa eteenpäin, mutta niiden puhtaasti lyyrillinen, idyllinen
kauneus on verraton. Kaikki perhe- ja avioelämän suhteet tuodaan
niissä havainnollisesti esiin. Aluksi Pohjolan emäntä itse kuvailee
tyttärelleen, kuinka tällä oli ollut huolettomat päivät kotona kuin
perhosella ja kedon kukkasella, mutta kuinka miehelässä kaikki on
toisin; »toisin siellä torvet soivat, toisin ukset ulvaisevat, et osaa
ovissa käy'ä», hän sanoo morsiamelle, joka siitä tulee ensin kovin
alakuloiseksi ja valittaa mielensä olevan »kuin syksyinen yö pimeä».
Toiset vaimot vielä lisäävät morsiamen huolta ja pelkoa, kuvailemalla
appelan oloja vieläkin mustemmin värein, kun näet miniän niskoille
siellä muka talon kaikki työt lykätään ja vain moitteita ja toria
kiitokseksi annetaan. Miniä saa alkaa seuraavan päivän toimet jo
edellisenä iltana pitämällä huolta siitä, ettei hiilos liedessä yöllä
pääse sammumaan, jotta siitä aamulla helposti saa tulen. Kukon
ensi kerran laulaessa hänen tulee nousta ja alkaa päivän työt, joita
sitten jatkuu yhtä mittaa hetkisenkään levotta myöhään iltaan. Ensin
on tehtävä tuli, sitten hoidettava karja, sitten siivottava tupa j.n.e.
loppumattomiin. Miniän huolena on käsikivellä jauhaminen, veden
kanto, puiden tuonti tupaan, taikinan teko, astiain peso, uunin
lämmitys, leipominen, saunan lämmitys ja saunoittaminen, kehruu,
kudonta, oluen pano j.n.e. Hän raataa kuin orja ja saa sittenkin
palkakseen »apen luista leukaluuta, anopin kivistä kieltä, ky'yn
kylmiä sanoja, na'on niskan nakkeloita». — Näin kuvataan miniän
asema vaikeaksi, ja todellakin monissa tapauksissa se sellaista
lienee ollutkin. Mutta toiselta puolelta morsianta myös lohdutellaan ja
kehutaan, kuinka hän oivallisen sulhon hoivissa vasta tuntee itsensä
täysarvoiseksi ja onnelliseksi ja kuinka hän itse on tämän onnen
ansainnut kauneudellaan, hyvillä tavoillaan, ahkeruudellaan ja
taloustaidoillaan, joista maine on kauas kuulunut. — Erittäin kauniit
ovat myös ne jäähyväiset, jotka morsian lähtiessään lausuu
vanhemmilleen, kiittäen heitä kaikesta hyvästä, sisaruksilleen ja
koko kodilleen elukoineen, puineen, tanhuoineen. Niissä ilmenee
hienosti rakkaus vanhempia ja lapsuudenkotaa kohtaan.
Paljon voisi häärunoista samoinkuin muualtakin Kalevalasta

poimia hienoja, sattuvia piirteitä, jotka elävästi kuvailevat naista
neitona, sisarena, morsiamena, vaimona ja äitinä, mutta tila ei salli
meidän laveammalta niihin syventyä. Ja vaillinaiseksi tällainen
poiminta aina jäisi; vasta Kalevalasta itsestään niiden kauneuden ja
runsauden oppii täysin tajuamaan.
SUOMEN LUONTO KALEVALASSA
Esittänyt V. Tarkiainen
Todellisuus ja satu kilpailevat keskenään Kalevalassa. Väliin on

todellisuus voitolla, mutta useammin satu. Tuskin lienee toista
eeposta, ainakaan ei länsimaissa syntynyttä, jossa mielikuvitus löisi
leikkiään niin esteettömän vapaasti runouden pitkillä pihoilla kuin
Kalevalan lauluissa ja loitsuissa. Tämä seikka antaa koko
»kansalliseepoksellemme» omituisen lapsellisen viehätyksen, mutta
samalla riistää siltä sen mielenkiinnon, minkä todellisempien olojen
ja todellisempien tekojen kuvaukset voivat synnyttää lukijassa. Ettei
Kalevala kuitenkaan ole aivan vailla miehekästä ryhtiä ja elävästi
havaittuja luonteita, sen todistavat esim. Kullervo-runot.
Todellisuuspiirteet ovat ainakin kuteena, ellei loimena, tässä sadun
monikirjavassa kankaassa. — Siitä saamme käsityksen
katsellessamme esim. Kalevalan luonnonkuvausta.
Vaikka suomalainen runotar antaa Kalevalan suurten sankarien

usein matkustella ilmojen teitä »tuulen purressa, ahavan venosessa»
semmoisella helppoudella ja nopeudella, että se saattaa herättää
kateutta yksinpä meidän aikamme ilmapurjehtijoissa, ja vaikka sadun
kultakuut ja valheauringot kumottavat välistä sen kuusten latvoissa
niin lumoavalla loisteella, että suurkaupunkiemme sähkövalot niiden
rinnalla himmenevät säteettömiksi tuohuksiksi, tuntuu todellisuuden
maaperä sentään useimmissa paikoissa jalkain alla ja todelliset
taivaankappaleet valaisevat tavallisesti henkilöiden liikkeitä. Eikä
lukijan tarvitse kovinkaan pinnistää tarkkaavaisuuttaan, jotta hänen
silmäänsä piirtyisi Kalevalan runoista Suomenmaan kuva
suhteellisesti oikeassa muodossaan.
Johtaahan heti ensimäinen runo mielemme luontevasti »näille

raukoille rajoille, poloisille pohjanmaille», missä naapurit harvoin
tapaavat toinen toisensa ja missä ilmanalan ankaruus on värittänyt
soiton sekä laulun surunsoivaksi. Tämän harvaan asutun, kylmän ja
köyhän maan rannoilla loiskii meri aukeine ulapoineen ja korkeine
kuohuineen, joiden harjalla aikojen alussa keinui tarumainen Ilman
impi ja myöhemmin moni retkeilevä laiva tai vene. Meri ei ole
kuitenkaan antanut runoudellemme aiheita ja kuvia niin paljon kuin
esim. kreikkalaisten Odysseialle. Siitä on huomattu vain
pääominaisuudet: rannaton avaruus, sininen väri ja lakkapäiset
laineet, keskellä joku luoto ja saari. Kalevalan runous on etupäässä
sisämaan runoutta. Se heijastaa sisämaisia piirteitä, etenkin Suomen
tuhatjärvisyyttä. Kaikkialla soudetaan järvien soiluvia selkiä,
kaikkialla nähdään taloja lahdenpoukamissa, kaikkialla
pyykinpesijöitä »nenässä utuisen niemen, päässä saaren
terhenisen», kaikkialla kalastajoita nuotalla, verkolla tai ongella.
Järvestä järveen virtailee jokia, jotka kelpaavat liikeväyliksi, vaikka
niitä usein haittaavat »tuliset kosket» salakareineen ja muine
vaaroineen. Runo tietää mainita nimeltäkin eräitä kuuluisimpia
koskia:
»Kolme on koskea kovoa: Hämehess' on Hälläpyörä,
Kaatrakoski Karjalassa, ei ole Vuoksen voittanutta, ylikäynyttä
Imatran.»
Mutta kaikista julmin on kuitenkin ankara Rutjan koski, jonka

nieluun
»puut päin putoovat, perin vierivät petäjät, tyvin syösten

suuret hongat, latvoin lakkapäät petäjät.»
Pohjolan kuuluisan talon luona näyttää myös olevan virta tai laaja
salmi. Ja Tuonelan synkkää saarta ympäröi mustavetinen
kammottava joki, jossa pitkäkaulaiset joutsenet joluvat ja suuret
suomuhauit uiskentelevat, ja jonka yli ei ole hyvä inehmon elävänä
kulkea. Näiden jokien lisäksi tekaisee runo jonkun vielä
ihmeellisemmän satuvirran esim. Vipusen vatsaan tai — äidin
kyyneleistä. Ainon äiti se 4:essä runossa itkee niin suunnattomasti,
että hänen kyyneleistään kasvaa kolme virtaa saarineen ja
suvantoineen, ja niiden vieremiltä kaikuu käen kukunta, näin luoden
oikean suomalaisen kevättunnelman.
Sisämaiset näköalat kuvastuvat läpi runoelman sangen

vaihtelevina »kuusikkokumpuineen», »kanervikkokankaineen»,
»auhtoine ahoineen», »marjaisine mäkineen»,
»vesakkonotkoineen», »synkkine saloineen», ja suunnattomine
soineen, joiden keskellä kohoaa siellä täällä vain »märkä mätäs»,
karpaloiden koto. Kevätaurinko saa näillä Pohjan pimeillä perillä
aikaan suuremmat ihmeet kuin konsanaan etelän ikuisen kesän
mailla.
Sen säteiden hellittäessä nousee

»lehti puuhun, ruoho maahan, linnut puuhun laulamahan,
rastahat iloitsemahan, käki päälle kukkumahan.»
Paimen ajaa silloin karjansa laitumelle, ilon raikuessa:
»Lampahat meni mäkeä, vuonat vuoren kukkujata, paimen

asteli ahoa, lepikköä leyhytteli, käen kullan kukkuessa,
hopeaisen hoilatessa.»
Ja keskikesän aikana seisoo koko metsä jonkun hetken

ihanimmassa kullassaan, säteilevänä ja tuoksua täynnä:
»Kuuna paistoi kuusen oksat, päivänä petäjän latvat, metsä

haiskahti me'elle, simalle salo sininen, ahovieret viertehelle,
suovieret sulalle voille.»
Kesäisenä näkynä kangastaa Kalevalassa monet

lapsuudenaikaiset »marjamäet» ja paimenkukkulat sekä esim. se
laaja, nurmikenttäinen Saari, johon Lemminkäinen nuoruutensa
päivinä purjehtii kuuluisaa Kyllikkiä, »saaren kukkaa», kosimaan.
Sen salot kaikuvat kesäisin — niin melkein näyttää — aamusta iltaan
nuorten karkeloista; työnteosta ei ole puhettakaan. Siellä vain
leikitään ja karkeloidaan erityisellä kisakedolla:
»Neitoset kisaelevi, kaunokaiset karkelevi mannerpuolella

saloa, kaunihilla kankahalla.»
Kaukana pohjoisessa häämöttävät tämän kesäisen maiseman

vastakohtana Pohjan pitkät pimeät perukat, »kylmät kylät»
kivimäkineen, »vaskisine vaaroineen», »kuumottavine portteineen»,
aittoineen ja pihalla haukkuvina koirineen. Siellä
hyyss' on virrat, jäässä järvet, ilmat kaikki iljenessä, hyiset
hyppivät jänikset, jäiset karhut karkelevat keskellä lumimäkeä,
lumivaaran liepehellä, hyiset joutsenet joluvat, jäiset sorsat
soutelevat keskellä lumijokea, jäisen kosken korvaksella.»
Näille maille pakenee Lemminkäisen edellä Hiiden hirvi. Näitä

lumitunturien rinteitä, »kuss'ei kuuta, aurinkoa, eikä päiveä iässä»,
matkailee Lemminkäinen kerran ruskealla Hiiden ruunalla:
»Veti virkkua vitsalla, paiskasi pajun vesalla, ajoi matkoa

vähäisen, tuuritteli tunturia, pohjoispuolella mäkeä,
lumivaaran kukkuloa.»
Kuinka säät vaihtelevat Kalevalan kankahilla, siitä antavat runot

usein eläviä kuvauksia. Talvella ovat järvet ja merenlahdet jäässä, ja
on niin kova pakkanen, että Lemminkäinen uhkaa jäätyä
matkatoverinsa Tieran kanssa (runossa 30 säkeet 143—180) ihan
kuoliaaksi. Välistä sataa lunta leppeästi:
»Laskip' Ukko uutta lunta, viskoi hienoista vitiä, se katti

kanervan varret, peitti maalta marjan varret.»
Välistä taas kauheita rakeita:
»Satoi hyytä, satoi jäätä, satoi rauaista raetta, pienemmät

hevosen päätä, päätä ihmisen isommat.»
Välistä sakeaa sumua:
»Ututyttö, neiti terhen, u'un huokuvi merelle, sumun

ilmahan sukesi» j.n.e.
Välistä raivoaa kauhea myrsky:

»Kovin läikkyi länsituuli, luoetuuli tuikutteli, enemmän
etelätuuli, itä inkui ilkeästi, kauheasti kaakko karjui, pohjonen
kovin porasi. Tuuli puut lehettömäksi, havupuut havuttomaksi,
kanervat kukattomaksi heinät helpehettömäksi; nosti mustia
muria päälle selvien vesien.»
Toisin ajoin taas on ilma tyyni ja selkeä, etenkin auringonnousun

tai -laskun tienoissa:
»Päivänäpä kolmantena aletessa aurinkoisen jo sepon koti

näkyvi, luvat ilman tuulottavi, noki nousi nuoraisena, savu
paksuna pakeni, tuprusi savu tuvasta, ylös pilvihin kohosi.»
Jos semmoisena päivänä nousee korkealle mäelle, aukenevat

pitkät näköalat selvinä kulkijan eteen. Esim. kun Lemminkäinen on
Hiiden hirven hiihdännässä, niin hän
»hiihti päivän, hiihti toisen, jo päivänä kolmantena meni

suurelle mäelle, nousi suurelle kivelle, loi silmänsä
luotehesen, poikki soien pohjoisehen; Tapion talot näkyivät,
ukset kulta kuumottivat poikki suosta, pohjoisesta, alta
vaaran, varvikosta.»
Tai kun rannalla pyykinpesussa, oleva Annikki silmäilee ulapalle:
»Katselevi, kääntelevi ympäri ihalat ilmat, päänsä päälle

taivahalle, rannatse meriä myöten; ylähällä päivä paistoi,
alahalla aallot välkkyi.»
Tämän tapaiset laajat maisemakuvat, jotka taiderunouteemme

koteutti Aleksis Kivi »Seitsemässä veljeksessään», eivät ole
harvinaisia Kalevalassa. Ihanimpana esiintyy kuitenkin suomalainen
maisemasävy semmoisissa kohdissa, joissa luonto on vain sisäisten
mielialojen kuvastimena. Esim. seuraavissa lyyrillisissä säkeissä,
jotka ovat Kalevalan kauneimpia:
»Niin on mieli miekkoisien, autuaallisten ajatus, kuin

keväinen päivännousu, kevät-aamun aurinkoinen; mitenkä
minunki mieli, minun synkeä sisuni? On kuin laaka lammin
ranta, kuin pimeä pilven ranta, kuin syksyinen yö pimeä,
talvinen on päivä musta, viel' on mustempi sitäki, synkeämpi
syksy-yötä.»
*****
Millainen on sitten eläinkunta, joka kansoittaa näitä Kalevalaisia

maisemia? Millainen kasvisto, joka antaa niille värin ja sävyn? Tuiki
tuttua ja kotoista, jommoisena se on piirtynyt luonnonlapsen
tarkkaan silmään.
Jalan neljän liikkuvista metsien asukkaista on Kalevalassa

etumaisimpana karhu. Salojen kansa seurustelee sen kanssa
samalla tuttavallisesti sekä arvonantavasti, sillä se tietää otsolla
olevan »yhdeksän miehen voiman ja yhden miehen mielen». Se
tuntee sen ulkomuodon ja merkitsee sen tärkeimmät piirteet
täsmällisesti:
»lyhyt jalka, lysmä polvi, tasakärsä talleroinen, pää levyt,

nenä nykerä, karva kaunis röyhetyinen.»
Se nimittää sitä »koverakouraksi», »karvalallukseksi»,

»karvaturvaksi» ja kuvailee sen elämäntapoja todenmukaisesti:
kuinka se makailee talvet havumajassaan
»kengällä korean kuusen, katajikon kainalossa»,
kuinka se kesillä liikkuu ylt'ympäri metsiä »villakuontalona» taikka

»pellavaskupona», syöpi sieniä, murtaa muurahaiskekoja, etsii
»juuria punaisen putken, Metsolan mesipaloja» — ellei ole tottunut
liharuokaan ja ruvennut rumille töille, jolloin se välistä ärsytettynä ja
ähmissään kaatelee koivunpökkelöitä, vääntelee vesihakoja, määhkii
marjamättähiä. Kansa on tuhlannut tälle jalolle otukselle, jonka vihaa
se on aina peljännyt, mitä kauneimpia hyväilynimiä ja mainesanoja:
»mesikämmen», »mesikki», »metsän omena», »metsän kaunis»,
»salon kulta», »salon armas», »aika poika», »pyylypoika» (=
pesässä asuva poika), »vanha mies», »verkanuttu», »verkahousu»,
»mustasukka», »käpeä-kenkä», »rahakarva», »rahasaari» j.n.e. Sitä
lepytellään erityisillä luvuilla keväällä karjaa laitumelle laskettaessa
ja varoitellaan elämään sovinnossa. Ja jos se on taistelussa
talvisaikaan saatu kaadetuksi, kohdellaan sitä yhä kunnioittaen ja
hellävaroen. Metsästä tuotaessa se otetaan vastaan juhlallisilla
menoilla, valituin lauluin ja lauseparsin, kannetaan juhlasaatossa
pirttiin, jossa sitten komeat peijaiset sen kunniaksi pidetään ja
vainajan korkeita sukujuuria muistellaan, ennenkuin ryhdytään
karkeampiin toimiin: nylkemiseen ja lihan paloittelemiseen. Näissä
peijaismenoissa, jotka häidenvieton ohella ovat Kalevalan suurin
juhlatilaisuus, ilmenee karjalaisen heimon keskuudessa vallinnut,
miltei uskonnollinen karhunpalvelus, samalla kuin niiden sekä
häärunojen perinnäisissä vuorolauluissa ja toiminnoissa piilee
suomalaisen draaman ensi itu. Tämmöiseen maineeseen on karhu
voinut kohota vain semmoisilla seuduilla, missä ihmisen on ollut
vaikea huonoilla aseillaan puolustaa asemaansa tätä pelättyä
vihollista vastaan.
Muut metsänpedot, kuten susi, ilves ja kettu, ovat Kalevalassa
karhuun verraton aivan syrjäasemassa. Sutta (eli hukkaa) pelkäävät
vain naiset talviöinä pihamailla liikkuessaan. Repo on huomattu
vaaralliseksi vain hanhilaumalle. Nämä eläimet ovat kaikki haluttua
riistaa kalliin nahkansa vuoksi, niinkuin myös »näätä kultarinta»,
»talvinen jänis» sekä oksilla hyppelevä orava. Näädästä ja oravasta
on sitäpaitsi pantu merkille liikkeiden sukkeluus, jäniksestä juoksun
nopeus, jonka vuoksi tämä »ristisuu», »pitkäkorva», »kehräsilmä»,
»vääräsääri» kelpaa m.m. sanansaattajaksi Ainon kuoltua. Vikkelin
eläimistä on kuitenkin kärppä (l. portimo), jonka liikkeisiin usein
verrataan sukkulan sujahtelemista taitavan kutojan käsissä:
»niin sen suihki sukkulainen kuin on portimo pinossa (kuin

kärppä kiven kolossa)».
Vesissä asustava saukko ja hylje, joka »luotansa lohia syöpi,

sivultansa Siikasia», Kalevalan laulajille kuten pienimmät maan
matoset, tai myyrät, hiiret, kusiaiset (mauriaiset). Onpa joukkoon
sentään päässyt joku eläin, joka osoittaa laajempaa
luonnontuntemusta kuin Suomenmaan rajojen sisällä välittömästi on
mahdollista. Semmoisia on eteläisempiin seutuihin viittava
»kamelivarsa» ja siili sekä Jäämeren läheisyyttä todistavat mursut ja
valaat, joista viimemainittu on Suomen kansan kuvituksessa (kuten
niin monen muunkin) kasvanut miehiä nieleväksi hirviöksi. —
Lapinmaan peura sekä usein sen toisintona esiintyvä hirvi ei ole
Kalevalassa saanut kovin suurta huomiota osakseen. Tosin
kerrotaan (13—14 runoissa) laajasti, kuinka Lemminkäinen
ansiotöikseen hiihtää Hiiden hirven »silosorkan» »Hiien peltojen
periltä, Lapin lasten tanterilta», mutta tästä eläimestä ei saa muuta
todellista kuvaa kuin sen, että se juoksee nopeasti ja on kovin äksy
potkimaan. Tämä onkin luonnollista, sillä se ei ole tavallinen
metsänotus, vaan mielikuvituksen luoma outo kuvatus, kyhätty
kokoon mitä erilaisimmista aineksista:
»Hiiet hirveä rakenti, juuttahat poroa laati, pään panevi

pökkelöstä, sarvet raian haarukasta, jalat rannan raippasista,
sääret suolta seipähistä, selän aian aiaksesta, suonet kuivista
kuloista. silmät lammin pulpukoista, korvat lammin
lumpehista, ketun kuusen koskuesta, muun lihan lahosta
puusta.»
Samanlaisen mahdottoman kummitusmuodon on saanut myöskin

se kokko, joksi Pohjan akka muuttaiksen Sammon ryöstäjiä takaa
ajaessaan:
»Jopa muuksi muutaltihe, tohti toisiksi ruveta: otti viisi

viikatetta, kuusi kuokan kuolioa, nepä kynsiksi kyhäsi,
kohenteli kouriksensa; puolen purtta särkynyttä, senpä
allensa asetti, laiat siiviksi sivalti, peräpuikon purstuksensa,
sata miestä siiven alle, tuhat, purston tutkamehen.»
Ja tästä kuten muista Kalevalan kokoista, vaakalinnuista ja

lokeista käytetään runoissa niin suunnattomia mittasuhteita, että
ajatus aivan tyrmistyy:
»Ei ole kokko suuren suuri, eikä kokko pienen pieni: yksi
siipi vettä viisti, toinen taivasta lakasi, pursto merta pyyhätteli,
nokka luotoja lotasi.»
tai:
»Suu sen on satoa syltä, kita kuusi koskellista, kieli kuutta

keihäsvartta, kynnet viittä viikatetta.»
Muut linnut sensijaan ovat pysyneet luonnollisuuden rajoissa: pyyt,
teeret, korpit, kuret, kajavat, tikat, kiurut, pääskyt, pulmuset, sotkat,
joutsenet, allit, kyntörastaat, käet j.n.e. Ovatpa niistä monet kuvatut
erinomaisen tarkasti ja havainnollisesti. Joutsenesta, »pyhästä
linnusta», esim. mainitaan, että se uiskentelee joluen jokivesissä ja
pesii ylhäällä pohjoisessa »suurimmalla suon selällä, tuiman tunturin
laella». Hanhi on merkitty »kirjasiiveksi» ja »punasuuksi», sotka
»siniseksi» linnuksi, tikka puussa kapuavaksi, kiuru pilviin
katoavaksi, korppi keikkuvaksi ja varis vaakkuvaksi. Eloisin on kuva
lokista, joksi Ilmarinen loihtii ryöstämänsä morsiamen, nuoremman
Pohjan neitosista:
»Lauloi naisensa lokiksi luo'olle lokottamahan, veen karille

kaikkumahan, nenät nienten niukumahan, vastatuulet
vaapumahan. Nyt se lokkina lojuvi, kajavana kaakahtavi,
kiljuvi vesikivillä, kartioilla kaljahuvi.»
Kauneimman sijan lintujen joukossa on kuitenkin saanut käki. Se

on Suomen kansan varsinainen lempilintu, kevään lintu ja nuoruuden
lintu: »kultarinta», »hopearinta», »tinarinta», »hietarinta». Sen
yksitoikkoinen sointuva kukunta herättää vastakaikua kaikkien
sydämissä. Sille uskovat nuoret toiveensa ja vanhat huolensa. Siltä
odottavat neitoset tietoa sulhon saapumisesta ja muutkin onnea ja
rikkautta. Senvuoksi sitä suojellaan ja suositaan. Sille jätetään
kaskesmailla erityisiä kukuntapuita, joissa sen toivotaan kukkuvan
illoin, aamuin sekä keskipäivälläkin. Sen kukunnan kullasta taotaan
naulat kanteleeseen ja sen säveltahtiin sykähtelee sekä onnellisen
että onnettoman sydän. Käen kukunnan vaikutus on kuvattu 4:en
runon lopussa, jossa Ainon äiti tulkitsee kovaa kokeneen sydämensä
tunteet kauniilla sanoilla:
»Elköhön emo poloinen kauan kuunnelko käkeä; kun käki
kukahtelevi, niin syän sykähtelevi, itku silmähän tulevi, ve'et
poskelle valuvi, kyynärän ikä kuluvi, vaaksan varsi vanhenevi,
koko ruumis runnahtavi kuultua kevätkäkösen.»
Selvää on, että suomalaiset, joille lukemattomat järvet ja joet

tarjosivat mainion tilaisuuden kalastukseen, myös tunsivat hyvästi eri
kalalajit: »haleat» hauit, »sinervät» siiat, »kuleat» kuujat (järvilohet),
»kyrmyniskat» ahvenet, »kinaiset» kiiskit, »nuljaskaiset» mateet
sekä säret, säynäät, kuoreet, mujeet ja lohet. Tunsivatpa he niiden
elintavat ja kutuajatkin: »hauki hallalla kutevi, ahven arka,
kyrmyniska, sykysyt syvillä uipi, kesät kuivilla kutevi, rantasilla
rapsehtivi». Mutta taaskin on runossa tapahtunut, että yksi kala,
Tuonelan joen »suomuhauki», on kasvanut niin suureksi, ettei se
mahdu mihinkään todellisuuden kaavoihin:
»Ei ole hauki pienen pieni, eikä hauki suuren suuri: kieli
kahta kirvesvartta, hampahat haravan varren, kita kolmen
kosken verta, selkä seitsemän venehen.»
Eikä paljon pienempi liene ollut sekään jättiläishauki, jonka

selkään juuttuu koskessa samporetkeläisten vene ja jonka
leukaluusta Väinämöinen laittaa itselleen maankuulun kanteleen.
Vielä suurempi hirmu kuin Tuonelan suomuhauki on Pohjolan

porttia vartioiva käärme, arvatenkin samaa yhteistä alkujuurta kuin
ne jättiliskot ja käärmeet, joiden kanssa kaikkien maiden tarulliset
sankarit saavat voimiansa koetella. Se on kuvattu seuraavin sanoin:
»Käärme tiellä käänteleikse eessä portin poikkipuolin,

pitelämpi pirtin hirttä, paksumpi patsasta portin, sata silmeä
maolla, tuhat kieltä käärmehellä, silmät seulan suuruhiset,
kielet pitkät keihovartta, hampahat haravan varren, selkä
seitsemän venettä.»
Tarvitaan tietää synnyt syvät, ennenkuin tämmöinen hirviö

saadaan siirtymään tieltä syrjään. Niissä sanoissa, joilla
Lemminkäinen manaa sen matkoihinsa, kuvastuu kansan kauhu ja
inho käärmettä kohtaan. Helposti ymmärrettävä on myös, että
Tuonela, kaiken inhuuden ja onnettomuuden tyyssija, on täynnä
kyitä, käärmeinä; niin hyvin makuusijoilla kuin oluttuopeissa niitä
siellä matelee. Kansan usko on tehnyt kyykäärmeestä yksinpä
myrkyllisen nuolenkin, jolla sokea paimen ampuu Tuonelan joella
Lemminkäisen läpi maksan, kautta kainalon vasemman. Käärmeiden
paljoutta vähän viljellyillä seuduilla muuten todistaa »kyisen pellon»
kyntäminen, joka esiintyy Kalevalassa pari kertaa.
Niinkin pieniin eläimiin kuin ampiaisiin (»herhiläisiin»), mehiläisiin

ja »mustiin» muurahaisiin ulottuu kansanrunoilijain huomio
Kalevalassa. Varsinkin mehiläinen on tarkkaan kuvattu ja esiintyy
usein. Se näyttää olleen oikea lempilintu sekin, koska sille annetaan
semmoisia hyväilynimiä kuin »mehiläinen, meiän lintu,
metsänkukkien kuningas», »simasiipi», »sinisiipi». Ja se tekee
useampaan kertaan kauniita palveluksia ihmiselle: hakee
Lemminkäisen äidille voiteita taivaasta, mettä Osmottaren oluviin ja
Ilmarisen raudankarkaisu veteen.
Kotieläimistä on koira, hevonen ja lehmä tavallisimpia

Kalevalassa. Koira esiintyy niin hyvin talonvartijana (esim.
Pohjolassa) kuin metsänkävijän (Väinämöisen) ja matkamiehen
(Kullervon) toverina. Sen tuntomerkit »villahäntä», »rauankarva» ja
»pikkusilmäinen» viittaavat luultavasti sen lappalaisrotuisuuteen.
Samaan päätelmään johtaa myös humoristinen kuvaus haukkuvasta
Pohjolan koirasta:
»Aina haukkui linnan rakki, saaren vartio valitti, linnan lukki

luksutteli, perän peltohon sysäten, peni julma juhmutteli,
hännän kääten käppyrähän.»
Koira näyttää hyödyllisyydestään huolimatta olleen pikemmin

halveksittu kuin arvossa pidetty eläin (»lihan syöjä, luunpurija, veren
unelta vetäjä»), niinkuin osoittaa »koira» ja »rakki» nimien
käyttäminen haukkumasanoina. Hevonen (hepo, uve, ori) sensijaan
oli suuressa arvossa, varsinkin jos sattui olemaan »tulinen» juoksija.
Väriltään se oli »ruskea» tai »tulipunainen», kuten suomalaisrotuinen
tavallisesti on, toisinaan »liinaharja», »sukkajalka», »kuloharja» tai
»laukki». Sen raisua juoksua kuvataan usein eloisasti:
»Senpä tukka tulta tuiski,

harja suihkivi savua.»
Senvuoksi kelpasivat sen liikkeet vertauskohdaksi muullekin

nopealle vauhdille, esim. Vipusen laululle:
»Suu se syyteli sanoja, kieli laski lausehia, kuin on sälkö

sääriänsä, ratsu jalkoja jaloja.»
Joskus on hevonenkin saanut tarumaisen muodon, esim. se

ruskea Hiiden ori, jonka Lemminkäinen ottaa kiinni (14 runossa),
hevonen, jonka hengityksen lämpimässä Marjatta synnyttää
poikansa Tapiomäellä (50 runossa), sekä se kultavarsa, joka
tungeiksen Ilmarisen ahjosta (37 runossa). Kaikista merkillisin on
kuitenkin se »musta ruuna», jonka Lemminkäinen kerran
murheistaan laatii ja jonka selässä hän ratsastaa kotiin
onnistumattomalta sotaretkeltä. Lehmistä, joita lihan, voin ja maidon
antinsa vuoksi pidettiin paljon kalevalaisissa kodeissa, mainitaan
monet nimeltä (»Muurikki», »Mansikki», Puolukka», »Omena» j.n.e.)
sekä kuvaillaan niiden laitumelle laskemismenot, maidonsaaliin
rukoileminen, paimentaminen, lypsäminen sekä navetassa talvella
ruokkiminen. Ilmarisen ahjossa syntyvä »kultalehmä» on ainoa
epätodellinen ilmestys lehmien joukossa. Härkä sensijaan on
kasvanut joskus aivan mitattomaksi, mahdottomaksi. Sillä härällä,
jolla Sammon juuret maasta irti kynnetään, oli »syltä sarvet pitkät,
puolentoista turpa paksu». Ja vielä suurempi on se sonni, joka
teurastetaan Pohjolan hääruuiksi, sen kun
»Hämehessä häntä häilyi, pää keikkui Kemijoella, sata syltä

sarvet pitkät, puolta toista turpa paksu» j.n.e.
Muut kotieläimet: kissa, sika, lammas, vuohi, uuhi, kana ja kukko,

ovat säilyttäneet Kalevalan lauluissa luonnollisen kokonsa ja
muotonsa.
*****
Jos sitten siirrymme tarkastamaan Kalevalan kasvikuntaa, niin

huomaamme samanlaisen, miltei luonnontieteellisesti tarkan
käsityksen siinä ilmenevän. Ja tässäkin kohden pyrkii suomalaisten
runollinen mietiskely tunkeutumaan olioiden syntyyn ja historialliseen
alkuperään. Toisessa runossa esitetään Sampsa Pellervoinen
»maita kylvämässä, toukoja tikittämässä» ja annetaan yleiskuva
Suomen tavallisimmista puulajeista ja niiden kasvupaikoista.
»Mäet kylvi männiköiksi, kummut kylvi kuusikoiksi,

Noromaille koivut kylvi, lepät maille leyhkeille, tuomet kylvi
tuorehille, raiat maille raikkahille, kankahat kanervikoiksi

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Applying Personality Informed Treatment Strategies To Clinical Practice A Theoretical and Practical Guide 1st Edition Bradley G Nevins

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Applying Personality Informed

Treatment Strategies to Clinical

Chemical Peels in Clinical Practice A Practical Guide

Dermatology for Advanced Practice Clinicians A

Clinical Melioidosis: A Practical Guide to Diagnosis

Clinical Cardiac Electrophysiology: A Practical Guide

A Guide to Field Philosophy Case Studies and Practical

Diversity in Clinical Practice A Practical and Shame

Applying Lean Six Sigma in Health Care A Practical

Clinical Psychology for Trainees: Foundations of

Illustrations and Tables xi

1 The Importance of Personality 3

2 The Science, Theory, and Therapeutic Principles of the

3 Personality: Processes and Functioning 37

4 Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Relationship Processes 49

5 Personality-Informed (PI) Therapy Personality Wheel 59

6 Self-Regulation and Complex Change 65

7 Personality Trait Regulation 81

8 Personality Self State Regulation 95

9 Guide for Personality-Informed Complex Assessment and Treatment 107

10 Personality-Informed Phase Oriented Treatment Planning Guide 121

11 The Client-Therapist Relationship Process 129

12 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Format and Rationale 141

13 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant I 145

14 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant II 163

15 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant III 179

16 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant IV 195

17 Conclusion and Future Directions 211

Bradley G. Nevins, PhD

Theoretical Foundations and

The Importance of Personality

THERAPEUTIC PERSONALITY TRAIT CHANGE STRATEGY

THE PERSONALITY WHEEL

ADAPTATION AND SURVIVAL

COMPLEXITY AND CONNECTEDNESS

SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES

BRAIN PHYSIOLOGY AND COMPLEX MENTAL PROCESSES

PERSONALITY AS AN OVERARCHING SYSTEMIC PROCESS

PERSONALITY REGULATION VERSUS DYSREGULATION

PERSONALITY STYLES/TRAITS VERSUS

BRAIN FUNCTIONING AND PERSONALITY DISORDERS

CONTEXT AND PERSONALITY

PERSONALITY SELF STATES

SELF-NARRATIVES AND PERSONALITY SELF STATES

FLEXIBILITY, RIGIDITY, AND DECISION MAKING

MULTIPLE CHANGE MECHANISMS AND PERSONALITY

Psychotherapeutic change is not necessarily a direct, intentional process. As previously noted,

Annikin virkkua sukua on »Pohjan piika pikkarainen, joka jo aikoja

Kalevalan hienoin ja naisellisin naiskuva on epäilemättä

Kun Aino saa tietää että veli on luvannut hänet »Väinämöiselle

Tuska ja suru vie häneltä mielen tasapainon ja itsensä

Näin olemmekin tarkastelleet Kalevalan kaikki huomattavammat

Mutta näiden ihmisellisten naiskuvien lisäksi tuo Kalevala vielä

Lopuksi emme saa unhottaa Kalevalan ihania häärunoja, joissa

Paljon voisi häärunoista samoinkuin muualtakin Kalevalasta

Todellisuus ja satu kilpailevat keskenään Kalevalassa. Väliin on

Vaikka suomalainen runotar antaa Kalevalan suurten sankarien

Johtaahan heti ensimäinen runo mielemme luontevasti »näille

Illustrations and Tables xi

1 The Importance of Personality 3

3 Personality: Processes and Functioning 37

4 Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Relationship Processes 49

5 Personality-Informed (PI) Therapy Personality Wheel 59

6 Self-Regulation and Complex Change 65

7 Personality Trait Regulation 81

8 Personality Self State Regulation 95

9 Guide for Personality-Informed Complex Assessment and Treatment 107

10 Personality-Informed Phase Oriented Treatment Planning Guide 121

11 The Client-Therapist Relationship Process 129

12 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Format and Rationale 141

13 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant I 145

14 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant II 163

15 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant III 179

16 Personality Trait Regulation Guide: Quadrant IV 195

17 Conclusion and Future Directions 211