Empirical and Analytical Modelling of System Dynamics.

Introduction to System Dynamics:

Engineering System Dynamics is a discipline that studies the dynamic behaviour of various systems, such as
mechanical, electrical, fluid, and thermal, either as isolated entities or in their interaction, the case where they
are coupled-field (or multiple-field) systems. One trait specific to this discipline consists in emphasizing that
systems belonging to different physical fields are described by similar mathematical models (expressed most
often as differential equations); therefore, the same mathematical apparatus can be utilized for analysis or
design. This similitude also enables migration between systems in the form of analogies as well as application
of a unitary approach to coupled-field problems.

System dynamics relies on previously studied subject matter, such as differential equations, matrix algebra,
and physics and the dynamics of systems (mechanical, electrical, and fluid or thermal). Engineering system
dynamics is concerned with physically and mathematically modelling dynamic systems, which means deriving
the differential equations that govern the behaviour (response) of these systems, as well as solving the
mathematical model and obtaining the system response. In addition to known modelling and solution
procedures, such as Newton’s second law of motion for mechanical systems or Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical
systems, learning or reinforcing new techniques is required, such as direct and inverse Laplace transforms and
the transfer function. Here, simplified physical models for real-world engineering applications are used to
design or analyse a dynamic system.

Once an approximate and sufficiently accurate mathematical model has been obtained, one can employ
MATLAB, a software program possessing numerous built-in functions that simplifies solving system
dynamics problems. Simulink®, a graphical user interface computing environment that is built atop
MATLAB® and which allows using blocks and signals to perform various mathematical operations, can also
be used to model and solve engineering system dynamics problems.

At the end of this course, it is expected that the student should feel more confident in approaching an
engineering design project from the model-based standpoint. This approach should enable selecting the key
physical parameters of an actual system, combining them into a relevant mathematical model and finding the
solution (either time response or frequency response).

✓ Engineering System Dynamics deals with the mathematical modelling and analysis of systems that are
made of a number of interconnected devices and processes for the purpose of understanding their time-
dependent behaviour. While other subjects, such as Newtonian dynamics and electrical circuit theory, also
deal with time-dependent behaviours, system dynamics emphasizes methods for handling applications
containing multiple types of components and processes such as electromechanical devices,
electrohydraulic devices, and fluid-thermal processes.

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✓ This discipline emphasizes that systems belonging to different fields are described by similar mathematical
models (expressed most often as differential equations), therefore, the same mathematical apparatus can
be utilized for analysis or design.
✓ The goal of system dynamics is to understand the time-dependent behaviour of a system of interconnected
devices and processes as a whole.
✓ The modelling and analysis methods used in system dynamics must be properly selected to reveal how the
connections between the system elements affect its overall behaviour. This is because systems of
interconnected elements often require a control system to work properly, hence control system design is a
major application area in system dynamics.
What is a System:
A system is a combination of various components, which together form an entity that can be studied in its
entirety. For example, a resistor, an inductor, a capacitor, and a voltage source, as shown in the figures below
(a): they are individual electrical components that can be combined in the series connection of (b) to form an
electrical system.

(a) Individual electrical components. (b) Electrical system formed of these components.

Similarly, mechanical components such as inertia (mass), stiffness, damping, and forcing can be combined in
various ways to generate mechanical systems as shown in the figure below. There are also fluid systems,
thermal systems, and systems that combine elements from at least two different fields (or domains) to generate
coupled-field (or multiple-field) systems, such as electro-mechanical or thermo-electro-mechanical, to
mention just two possibilities.

A Mechanical system

2
The response of a dynamical system is generated by external causes, such as forcing or initial conditions, and
it is customary to name the cause that generates the change in the system as input whereas the resulting
response is known as output. A system can have one input and one output, in which case it is a single-input,
single output system (SISO), or it can have several inputs or several outputs, consequently known as multiple-
input, multiple-output system (MIMO).

The input signals (or forcing functions, generally denoted by u) that are applied to dynamic systems can be
deterministic or random (arbitrary) in nature. Deterministic signals are known functions of time whereas
random signals show no pattern connecting the signal function to its time variable. Elementary input signals
that we are likely to make use of in simulation include the step and ramp.

❖ Other examples of systems are an automobile, a bike, a measuring instrument (voltmeter, ammeter, scale
balance, digital balance), hydraulic actuators, pneumatic actuators, etc.
❖ The concept of a system can be extended to abstract dynamic phenomena, such as those encountered in
economics, transportation, population growth, biology and many more.
Systems are either Static or Dynamic:

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In this course, we are concerned mostly with dynamic systems.
Empirical and Analytical Modelling:
❖ Empirical modelling is a generic term for activities that create models by observation and experiment.
An empirical model operates on a simple semantic principle: the maker observes a close correspondence
between the behaviour of the model and that of its referent. For example, take a ball rolling down an
incline. If you changed the height of the incline, used different sized balls, weighed them and measured
the velocity you could come up with the pattern of conservation of energy (ignoring friction).
❖ The other way you could do this is to use a fundamental law of physics (like conservation of energy) and
relate kinetic and potential energies using this law for various situations. This refers to Analytical
modelling and it relies on fundamental scientific laws. Clearly, this method is much more powerful than
the empirical model. Analytical models are mostly mathematical models that have a closed form solution,
i.e., the solution to the equations used to describe changes in a system can be expressed as a mathematical
analytic function.
❖ Analytical models are preferred over empirical models as they are much more general and broader in
application. However, analytical models are often impracticable. The real world is often pretty close to
these models that we enjoy, but sometimes these analytical models aren’t good enough. When designing
a roller coaster for example, you don’t ignore friction in the system. When modelling heat flow you don’t
assume the heat capacity of your heat sink is infinite. These assumptions when worked into your model
make it non-analytic, i.e., you can’t get “nice” mathematical relationships between different variables in
your system.
Generally, analytical models can be verified and validated by data from empirical models.
❖ Mathematical models are the set of equations that represent the physical or engineering system of
interest.
❖ The set of equations constituting the model are usually based on basic engineering principles that are
mixed with some empirical information.
❖ A number of different approaches are used in mathematical modelling, including setups involving
simple equations, ordinary differential equations, and partial differential equations.
❖ Setups involving ordinary differential equations include, mechanical translational mechanical
rotational systems, fluid flow systems, and electrical networks. In these models, components are
normally modelled using one lumped parameter.
❖ Setups including partial derivatives are commonly found when one is interested in the distribution of
a variable in space and time. Example, heat transfer – temperature distribution, fluid flow – velocity
distribution, stress – strain distribution, electrostatic potential distribution and electromagnetic
potential distribution.

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Modelling and Simulation in the Design Process:
The modelling process of engineering system dynamics starts by identifying the fundamental properties of an
actual system. The minimum set of variables necessary to fully define the system configuration is formed of
the degrees of freedom (DOF). Key to this selection is a schematic or diagram, which pictorially identifies the
parameters and the variables, such as the free-body diagram that corresponds to the dynamics of a point-like
body in mechanical systems with forces and moments shown and which plays the role of a physical model for
the actual system as depicted in the figure below. It is then necessary to utilize an appropriate modelling
procedure that will result in the mathematical model of the system.

Simplified free-body diagram of a quadrotor helicopter.

Generally, a mathematical model describing the dynamic behaviour of an engineering system consists of a
differential equation (or a system of differential equations) combining parameters with known functions,
unknown functions, and derivatives. The next step involves solving the mathematical model through adequate
mathematical procedures that deliver the solution, that is, expressions (equations) of variables as functions of
the system parameters and time (or frequency), and that reflect the system response or behaviour. Figure 2
gives a graphical depiction of this process. There are also situations when interrogation of the system response
results in information that is fed back to the actual system at the start of the chain to allow for corrections to
be applied, very similar to feedback control systems.
The following flowchart summarises the process:

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 Modelling process

Mathematical Modelling of Dynamic Systems:

❖ The evaluation phase of the design process for a system allows for predicting the performance of the
system before the system is built. Such prediction is based on a mathematical description of the system's
dynamic characteristics.
❖ This mathematical description is called a mathematical model. For many physical systems, useful
mathematical models are described in terms of differential equations with the time variable being the
independent parameter.

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Linear Systems and Nonlinear Systems:
❖ If the differential equations that constitute the model of a system is linear., the system is called a linear
system.
❖ The most important property of linear systems is that the principle of superposition is applicable. This
principle states that the response produced by simultaneous applications of two different excitations or
inputs is the sum of the two individual responses. Consequently, for linear systems, the response to several
inputs can be calculated by dealing with one input at a time and then adding the results.
❖ In an experimental investigation of a dynamic system, if cause and effect are proportional, thereby
implying that the principle of superposition holds, the system can be considered linear.
❖ The most important characteristic of nonlinear systems is that the principle of superposition is not
applicable. In general, procedures for finding the solutions of problems involving such systems are
extremely complicated.
❖ Because of the mathematical difficulty involved, it is frequently necessary to linearize a nonlinear system
near the operating condition, as will be done with the quad-rotor non-linear system of equations in
subsequent sections.

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Continuous-Time Systems and Discrete-Time systems:
❖ Continuous-time systems are systems in which the signals involved are continuous in time. These systems
may be described by differential equations.
❖ Discrete-time systems are systems in which one or more variables can change only at discrete instants of
time - these instants may specify the times at which some physical measurement is performed or the times
at which the memory of a digital computer is read out.
❖ Discrete-time systems that involve digital signals and possibly continuous-time signals as well may be
described by difference equations after the appropriate discretization of the continuous-time signals.

8
The non-linear dynamic system of equations of a quad-rotor UAV is given as follows:
•
𝑅𝐷𝛺2 𝑅𝐽𝛺
+ + 𝑘𝑒 𝛺
𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑚 = 0.65, 𝑙 = 0.19, 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 0.0075, 𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 0.013
2 𝐴 = 0.0804352, 𝑓 = 0.75, 𝐽 = 6.0𝑒 − 5, 𝑅 = 0.6
𝑉 2𝜌𝐴𝑙 𝑓𝜂𝑘𝑡 |
•• [ ] (𝑉2 2 − 𝑉4 2 ) 𝑘𝑒 = 0.0015, 𝑘𝑞 = 0.0056, 𝑘𝑡 = 0.01, 𝜂 = 0.75,
𝜙 𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑞
•• 2 𝑔 = 9.81, 𝐷 = 7.5𝑒 − 7, 𝜌 = 1.1
𝜃 = 2𝜌𝐴𝑙 𝑓𝜂𝑘𝑡 | • • • •• •• ••
•• [ ] (𝑉3 2 − 𝑉1 2 ) 𝜃=𝜙=𝜓=𝜃=𝜙=𝜓=𝜃=𝜙=𝜓=0
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑘𝑞
𝜓 𝛺 = 𝛺ℎ
𝐽 • • • • 𝐷
[ ••
𝑧] (𝛺 + 𝛺3 − 𝛺2 − 𝛺4 ) + (𝛺1 2 + 𝛺3 2 − 𝛺2 2 − 𝛺4 2 ) | • ••
𝐼𝑧𝑧 1 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝛺=𝛺=0
• •• • •• • ••
2𝜌𝐴 𝑓𝜂𝑘𝑡
2 { 𝑥=𝑥 =𝑦=𝑦=𝑧=𝑧 =0
[ ] (𝑉1 2 + 𝑉2 2 + 𝑉3 2 + 𝑉4 2 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙) − 𝑔
[ 𝑚 𝑘𝑞 ]
− −
We derive the linearized model, using the first order Taylor series approximation, written as 𝑓(𝑥) ≈ 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑓′(𝑥 )(𝑥 −
−
𝑥 )│n=1, with operating point at hover.
In the case of this quad-rotor UAV, the chosen operating point is at stable hover. This implies that the vehicle’s x-y
body plane is parallel to the x-y earth plane, equivalent to a situation when the vehicle’s roll, pitch and yaw angles are
all equal to or close to zero. The operating input voltage that corresponds to achieving the above conditions can be
calculated from the quad-rotor system of equations. Here, all operating points are represented with subscript ‘h’.

2
2 A  fkt 
( )
••
z=  V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 (cos cos ) − g
2 2 2 2

m  k q 
Substituting the values of all the constants and using the conditions given above in equation 5 of the quad-rotor system
of equations, the following is obtained.
 2  1.1  0.08042  0.5  0.75  0.01  2
( )
2

0=  V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 (cos 0 cos 0) − 9.81

2 2 2

 0 .65  0.0056 
(
0 = (0.27219)(0.44842) V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 − 9.81
2 2 2 2
)
(
0 = 0.12206  V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 − 9.81
2 2 2 2
)
Here, it is assumed that all the motors behave in exactly the same way and the design of the helicopter is symmetric;
hence their voltage inputs at operating point are thought to be equal.
Vh = V1 = V2 = V3 = V4
0 = 0.12206  4Vh − 9.81 ( ) 2

Vh = 20.09333
Vh = 4.48Volts
For this voltage, the speed with which the motors spin can be found at the operating point by substituting in equation 1
of the quad-rotor system of equations, which describes the relationship between the motor speed and voltage input.
•
JR  RD 2
V= + ke  +
kq kq
At the operating point voltage Vh , let the motor speed be h
 0.00006  0.6  •  0.60  0.00000075  2
Vh =   + 0.0015 +  
 0.0056   0.0056 
•
4.48 = 0.00643 + 0.0015 + 0.0000804  2
•
 = 696.73406 − 0.23328 − 0.01250 2
•
Since the motor speeds remain constant at hover,  =0 and on substituting, the following quadratic equation is obtained
696.73406 − 0.23328 − 0.01250 2 = 0
Using the almighty formula for solving quadratic equations,
− b  b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
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 − (−0.23328)  (−0.23328) 2 − [4  (−0.01250)  696.73406]
h =
2  (−0.01250)
0.23328  34.89112
h =
− 0.025
0.23328 + 34.89112 0.23328 − 34.89112
h = Or  h =
− 0.025 − 0.025
h = −245.61rad / s Or h = 226.94rad / s
By discarding the negative root of the quadratic equation, the speed at operating voltage is
h = 226.94rad / s
•
From the equation Vh = V = 0.00643 + 0.0015 + 0.00008042
Let A=0.00643, B=0.0015 and C=0.0000804
This leads to
•
V = A + B + C 2
•
Making  the subject of the formula gives
• V B C
= −  −  2 = f (,V )
A A A
First, the coefficients of the first order Taylor series have to be found.
~ f B 2Ch − B − 2Ch
L= =− − =
 h A A A
~ f 1
M= =
V h A
d ~ ~
() = L  + M V
dt
d − B − 2C h 1
() =  + V
dt A A
d
() = −5.909 + 155.521V = 155.521V − 5.909
dt
Where  = (t ) − h ; V = V (t ) − Vh
For the roll angular acceleration,
( )
••
 = 4.52245V2 2 − V4 2
Let A= 4.52245, then
( )
••
 = A V2 2 − V4 2 = f (V2 ,V4 )
• ••
At the operating point,  =  =  = 0
~ f
L= =0
 h
~ f
M= = 2 AV2 = 2 AVh
V2 h
~ f
N= = −2 AV4 = −2 AVh
V4 h
d • ~ ~ ~
(  ) = L  + M V2 + N V4
dt
d •
(  ) = 0 + 2 AVh V2 − 2 AVh V4 = 2 AVh (V2 − V4 )
dt
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d •
(  ) = 2052.6496(V2 − V4 )
dt
Similarly, for the pitch angular acceleration,
( )
••
 = 4.52245 V32 − V12
This results in
d •
( ) = 2 AVh V3 − 2 AVh V1 = 2 AVh (V3 − V1 )
dt
d •
(  ) = 2052.6496(V3 − V1 )
dt
For the yaw angular acceleration,
•• • • • •
 = 0.004615[1 − 2 + 3 − 4 ] + 0.0000577[12 − 2 2 + 32 − 4 2 ]
• ••
Let A=0.04615 and B=0.0000577. At the operating point,  =  =  = 0 , since all the motors are rotating at the same
speed. The Taylor series coefficients are,
~ f ~ f ~ f
L= = 0; M= = 2 B1 = 2 Bh ; N= = −2 B2 = −2 Bh ;
 h 1 h 2 h
~ f ~ f ~ f
O= = 2 B3 = 2 Bh ; P= = −2 B4 = −2 Bh ; Q= •
= A;
3 h 4 h  1 h
~ f ~ f ~ f
R= •
= −A ; S= •
= A; T= •
= −A
 2 h
 3 h
 4 h
Therefore,
d • ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ • ~ • ~ • ~ •
( ) = L  + M 1 + N  2 + O 3 + P  4 + Q  1 + R   2 + S  3 + T   4
dt
d • • • • •
( ) = 2 B h (1 −  2 + 3 −  4 ) + A( 1 −   2 +  3 −   4 )
dt
d • • • • •
( ) = 0.004615( 1 −   2 +  3 −   4 ) + 0.02619(1 −  2 + 3 −  4 )
dt
For the vertical acceleration,
( )
••
Z = 0.12206 V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 (cos cos ) − g
2 2 2 2

At operating point, it is assumed that all the angles are small or very close to 0 and so their cosines are approximately
1. Also, the vertical acceleration and velocity are 0, since the altitude of the vehicle is not changing.
Let A=0.12206
( )
••
Z = A V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 (cos cos  ) − g = f (V1 ,V2 ,V3 ,V4 )
2 2 2 2

The coefficients are

~ f ~ f ~ f
L= =0; M= = 2 AV1 = 2 BVh ; N= = 2 AV2 = 2 AVh ;
Z h V1 h V2 h
~ f ~ f
O= = 2 AV3 = 2 AVh ; P= = 2 AV4 = 2 AVh
V3 h V4 h
d • ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
( Z ) = L Z + M V1 + N V2 + O V3 + P V4
dt
d •
( Z ) = 2 AVh (V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 )
dt
d •
( Z ) = 1.0937(V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 )
dt
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The model that describes the linearized behaviour of the quad-rotor UAV is given as:
d
() = 155.521V − 5.909
dt
d •
(  ) = 2052.6496(V2 − V4 )
dt
d •
(  ) = 2052.6496(V3 − V1 )
dt
d • • • • •
( ) = 0.004615( 1 −   2 +  3 −   4 ) + 0.02619(1 −  2 + 3 −  4 )
dt
d •
( Z ) = 1.0937(V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 )
dt
The transfer function of the quad-rotor linearized system:
The Transfer function of any system presents the ratio of the output to the input. When the equations of motion are
linearized, the transfer function of quad-rotor plant can be easily obtained using Laplace transforms.
•
 = 155.521V − 5.909
Using the Laplace transform gives
s( s) + 5.909( s) = 155.521V ( s)
( s) 155.521
=
V ( s) ( s + 5.909)
Similarly, the rest of the transfer functions of the linearized quad-rotor model can be obtained
••
 = 2052.6496(V2 − V4 )
s 2 (s) = 2052.6496[V2 (s) − V4 (s)]
 ( s) 2052.6496
=
V2 ( s) − V4 ( s) s2
The same for the linearized pitch motion equation
 ( s) 2052.6496
=
V3 ( s) − V1 ( s) s2
For the yaw angular acceleration,
•• • • • •
 = 0.004615( 1 −  2 +  3 −  4 ) + 0.02619(1 − 2 + 3 − 4 )
s 2 (s) = 0.004615[s1 (s) − s2 (s) + s3 (s) − s4 (s)] + 0.02619[1 (s) − 2 (s) + 3 (s) − 4 (s)]
s 2 (s) = 0.004615s[1 (s) − 2 (s) + 3 (s) − 4 (s)] + 0.02619[1 (s) − 2 (s) + 3 (s) − 4 (s)]
s 2 (s) = (0.004615s + 0.02619)[1 (s) − 2 (s) + 3 (s) − 4 (s)]
 ( s) (0.004615 s + 0.02619)
=
[1 ( s) − 2 ( s) + 3 ( s) − 4 ( s)] s2
155.521
Since ( s) = V ( s) , then
( s + 5.909)
(0.718s + 4.073) (0.718s + 4.073) (0.718s + 4.073) (0.718s + 4.073)
 ( s) = 2 V1 ( s) − 2 V2 ( s) + 2 V3 ( s) − 2 V4 ( s)
s (s + 5.909) s ( s + 5.909) s ( s + 5.909) s ( s + 5.909)
••
Z = 1.0937(V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 )
s 2 Z (s) = 1.0937[V1 (s) + V2 (s) + V3 (s) + V4 (s)]
1.0937 1.0937 1.0937 1.0937
Z ( s) = 2
V1 ( s) + 2
V2 ( s) + 2
V3 ( s) + V4 ( s)
s s s s2
The transfer functions obtained can be implemented in Simulink and used to formulate any type of controller for any
quad-rotor helicopter.

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