A Review of The Interfacial Transition Zones in Concrete-Identification Physical Characteristics and Mechanical Properties

Engineering Fracture Mechanics 300 (2024) 109979
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Engineering Fracture Mechanics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfracmech
A review of the interfacial transition zones in concrete:

Identification, physical characteristics, and mechanical properties
Qingqing Chen a, b, Jie Zhang a, b, c, *, Zhiyong Wang a, b, Tingting Zhao a, b,
Zhihua Wang a, b, *
a
Institute of Applied Mechanics, College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, PR China
b
Shanxi Key Lab. of Material Strength & structural Impact, College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Taiyuan 030024, PR China
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, 117576, Singapore
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Interfacial Transition Zones (ITZ) with high porosity are easier pathways for damage initiation
Interfacial transition zone (ITZ) and propagation. However, their mechanical performance has hardly been examined owing to the
Mechanical properties length scale of the microregions, as well as the heterogeneous and opaque constituent properties,
Affecting factors
which have been increasingly studied in recent years. This study presents a comprehensive review
Damage evolution
Physical characteristics
of the ITZ, determining strategies at the meso-micro level, quantitative characterization, and
physical features. It focuses on the effects of various casting and material composition factors on
the microstructural and mechanical properties of the ITZ, including porosity, thickness, volume,
and elastic modulus. The correlations between the microstructures and the essential mechanical
properties are discussed in detail. The weak bonding properties of the ITZ can be tailored by the
material composition, which changes its internal microstructure, enhances the adhesion of the
paste to aggregates, and fills micropores in cement. Several approaches can be employed to
achieve this, such as adding minerals, increasing the curing age, and adjusting the water-cement
ratio and sand fineness. The content of the weak ITZ can be reduced by optimizing the size
distribution and volume fraction of the aggregates. Furthermore, modelling the gradient distri
bution of the ITZ thickness and elastic modulus is crucial in numerical simulations to enable an
accurate investigation of the damage accumulation process in concrete. This study also identifies
the challenges in the mechanical behavior of ITZ and serves as an engineering design guide for
more advanced fracture-resistant concrete structures.
1. Introduction
Owing to its low density, high porosity, and reduced stiffness and strength [1,2], the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) is often
considered the weakest region in concrete, the primary location for crack initiation and propagation, and the region prone to stress
concentrations. The damage induced by the propagated microcracks compromises the mechanical properties of concrete, potentially
leading to structural failure [3,4]. To understand the mechanisms of damage initiation and evolution in concrete, researchers have
focused on the determination and quantification of the physical and mechanical properties of the ITZ [1,5–7], as well as the
* Corresponding authors at: Institute of Applied Mechanics, College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology,
Taiyuan 030024, PR China.
E-mail addresses: zhangjie04@tyut.edu.cn (J. Zhang), wangzh077@163.com (Z. Wang).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2024.109979
Received 30 October 2023; Received in revised form 28 January 2024; Accepted 20 February 2024
Available online 24 February 2024
0013-7944/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Q. Chen et al. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 300 (2024) 109979
examination of various factors influencing these properties.

Farran first reported that the microstructures of the ITZ were significantly different from those of the cement matrix in concrete [8].
During the mixing and casting process of concrete, cement particles react with water to form various hydration products, and the
discontinuous pores of the cement particles are gradually filled with smaller crystals [9–11]. In contrast, owing to their water-
absorbing properties, the rough surfaces of the aggregates create a water-rich environment, leading to the formation of larger crys
tals in the proximity of these aggregate particles [12,13]. Accordingly, the transition region between the cement and aggregates is
defined as the ITZ, reflecting the gradually changing distribution of voids, hydration products, and unreacted cement particles
[14–18]. The pronounced compositional differences between the ITZ and cement paste illustrate that the ITZ is a rather heterogeneous
and complex region with a thickness of a few tens of micrometers thick [19–22]. Distinguish the ITZ from aggregates and bulk paste is
challenging because of its unclear and irregular boundaries and difficulty in determining its physical and mechanical properties
[12,13,23]. Many scholars have conducted similar studies to identify and measure the ITZ in concrete using various testing methods
[9,14,24–28]. Recent advancements in imaging techniques have enabled researchers to investigate the nano- and microstructures of
the ITZ in more detail, providing visualization and characterization of its morphology, various physical features, and chemical
composition [23,25,29–31]. The coupled use of various techniques has allowed for quantitative descriptions of the physical charac
teristics of the ITZ, and the establishment of correlations between micro- and mesoscopic structures and the macro-mechanical
behavior of concrete [12,16,25,29,31–35].
Despite the notable advancements in experimental studies on the ITZ, these methods are often restricted to a limited region of the
structure, making it challenging to capture the full range of ITZ properties and the internal damage process in the ITZ. Consequently,
numerical approaches have emerged as important and effective alternatives for exploring the effects of various factors on the me
chanical properties of the ITZ in a comprehensive and detailed manner [36–38]. These models primarily focus on constructing the ITZ
microstructure and adopting appropriate modelling methods for the ITZ in mesoscopic numerical models. To overcome the limited
resolution of 3D imaging techniques, various numerical studies have focused on reconstructing complete 3D microstructures of ITZ
that exhibit porosity gradients [5,39–41]. These models provide a precise characterization of the degree of hydration within the ITZ to
accurately simulate its formation and evolution. Notably, codes including HYMOSTRUCT3D [27], µic [40], and CEMHYD3D [41] have
Fig. 1. The factors affecting the microstructure and mechanical properties of ITZ.
2
implemented these models and accurately simulated critical microstructural features of ITZ. In addition, numerical meso-structural
models offer a practical way to study the damage and fracture of concrete with an explicit representation of microcrack initiation and
propagation [4,16,18]. There are various approaches to modelling the ITZ using finite and discrete element modelling. One such
approach involves ignoring the ITZ thickness and assuming an ideal bond between the aggregates and mortar matrix, which attributes
all inelastic and damage performance to mortar matrix [42,43]. Another method involves placing a zero-thickness cohesive element at
the interface between the cement and aggregate solids, which allows for the attribution of separate damage and failure behaviors to the
weak ITZ [34,44,45]. Additionally, ITZ can be represented using solid or finite-thickness elements that vary from 0.1 to 2 mm
[32,46,47], which are generally greater than the actual thickness to reduce meshing and computing costs. Furthermore, the discrete
element method allows for a more accurate representation of the heterogeneity of the ITZ [33,48,49] and is suitable for simulating the
post-peak behavior of concrete structures, particularly for modelling concrete under dynamic loading conditions. Compared with
experimental approaches, numerical simulations can provide real-time monitoring of the stress and strain distribution within the ITZ,
as well as the evolution of cracks and other damages, which is crucial for predicting the long-term mechanical performance of concrete
structures.
Various theoretical approaches have also been developed to describe the physical and chemical processes within the ITZ and
predict its behavior and properties [15,44,50–53]. These analytical expressions, which are derived from continuum [54], micro
mechanical [55] and multi-scale models [50], mainly focus on the elastic modulus [15,19,44,56] and volume fraction of the ITZ
[51,56–58]. Although several formulas have been proposed to observe the volumes of the ITZ around 3D aggregates with various
geometrical morphologies [59–61], most neglect the overlaps between the ITZs without fully considering the interaction between the
three-phase constituents, which can be further addressed analytically based on the void exclusion probability [51,62]. In terms of the
elastic modulus of the ITZ, the current theoretical research can be summarized into three types. The first-generation models assumed
the ITZ to be a shell of constant thickness with a uniform elastic modulus throughout its region, neglecting the gradual transition of the
properties within the ITZ [15,17,56]. The second generation considers the ITZ region as a gradient material with varying properties
and approximates the elastic modulus of the ITZ as a function of its distance from the aggregate surface [55]. However, they can be
computationally intensive and require large amounts of data, and the initial cement gradient in the ITZ cannot be properly accounted.
The third generation utilized a multi-scale model to determine the elastic moduli, considering the local water-to-cement (w/c) ratio
within the ITZ [50,63]. An innovative n-layered spherical inclusion model was proposed to consider the porosity variation with the w/
c ratio and hydration degree within the ITZ, as well as the distance from the aggregate surface [58]. This model divided an inho
mogeneous ITZ into a series of homogeneous and isotropic concentric shell elements, thereby providing a more accurate and detailed
representation of the ITZ. Despite these efforts, it remains challenging to develop a comprehensive model that accurately captures all
the physical and chemical features of the ITZ and incorporates the effects of various factors, owing to its variability and heterogeneity.
Previous research has demonstrated that the geometrical and mechanical properties of the ITZ can be affected by many factors,
including the grain size distribution of the cement [5,43,64–66], water/cement ratio [29,64,67–69], aggregate content [5,70–73],
aggregate roughness [26,74–76], aggregate size distribution [70–72,77], type of aggregate, and curing age [5,67,78–80], as presented
in Fig. 1. Recent research has focused on determining the influencing mechanism of each factor on the ITZ to improve the micro
structure and enhance its bonding properties. Based on their impact on various features of the ITZ, the influencing factors can be
classified into direct and indirect factors: (1). Direct factors such as the w/c ratio, mineral addition, and curing age have a remarkable
impact on the microstructure formed in the ITZ [9,81–83]. These factors can significantly influence the hydration process in concrete
by increasing the amount of cement that participates in chemical reactions. This leads to stronger bonds with the aggregates and
reduces the shrinkage and drying shrinkage of the cement paste, resulting in a denser microstructure in the ITZ. (2). Indirect factors,
such as the size distribution, roughness, and maximum diameter of the aggregates, play a crucial role in determining the total volume
of the ITZ through their effects on the coating area and thickness, although they have a slight influence on the formed ITZ micro
structure [67,70–72]. Based on the influencing mechanisms on the physical and mechanical properties of the ITZ, various achievable
measures have been taken to improve the microstructures and optimize its properties by adjusting these factors.
In this study, a comprehensive review of the ITZ in concrete is conducted at the micro- and mesoscopic levels based on extensive
experimental, numerical, and theoretical analysis, focusing on the determination of the physical features using various techniques,
characterization of the ITZ mechanical properties, and the evaluation of various influencing factors. The objective of this study is to
establish a deeper understanding of the correlation between the microstructural features and the physical and mechanical properties of
the ITZ and provide insights into the evaluation of the deformation and cracking behavior of the ITZ.
2. Physical and mechanical features of ITZ
Many investigations have found that the root causes of weakness in the ITZ are the presence of microcracks, excessive porosity, and
a high concentration of calcium hydroxide crystals [29,84]. This leads to extreme heterogeneity and poor bonding strength at the
aggregate-cement interfaces [5]. As a weak link in the concrete, the ITZ provides an easier path for micro-crack development
[33,77,85,86]. Initiated microcracks originated from the pores within the ITZ propagate into clear cracks and ultimately lead to the
final fracture of the concrete, thereby significantly affecting the global mechanical performance of concrete structures [7,25].
Consequently, quantitative descriptions of the physical characteristics of the ITZ are critical for examining the mechanical properties of
concrete. Presently, micro-mechanical experiments on the ITZ are performed by observing the changing tendency of the mechanical
properties in the ITZ region to determine its physical features, such as porosity, thickness, and elastic modulus [87]. Numerous re
searchers have used electron microscopy and nanoindentation techniques combined with in-situ scanning probe microscopy imaging
to quantify the micro-structural gradients throughout the ITZ, providing crucial insights into its morphology and microstructure
3
[10,77,88].
2.1. Methodologies for identifying and measuring ITZ
Over the years, numerous methods have been employed to quantitatively determine the morphological features of the ITZ,
including the volume fraction, thickness, and porosity. This section provides a comprehensive review of the methodologies employed
in identifying and quantifying the micromechanical, microstructural, and chemical characteristics of the ITZ [24,25,33,34], clarifying
the technical characteristics, advantages, and limitations of each technique.
The application of various identification techniques has greatly contributed to the evaluation of pore structures and the deter
mination of microscopic features and mineral phase content within ITZ, through the processing of different physical signals. The
commonly used identification techniques include X-ray computational tomography (XCT) [2,34,89–92], nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) [93–95], alternating current impedance spectroscopy (ACIS) [78,79], mercury intrusion porosimeter (MIP) [18,96,97], and
scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) [98,99]. Although these techniques offer a broader spatial range for analyzing the three-
dimensional microstructure of the ITZ, but their limited resolution and accuracy may prevent the capture of small-scale features
such as individual mineral phases or components. Detailed descriptions of these techniques are provided below.
(1) X-ray computed tomography (XCT)
The XCT scanning technique enables rapid capture of the three-dimensional microstructural features of the ITZ, which can be
distinguished from the cement paste according to its porosity gradients along the distance from the aggregate. In addition, XCT is
useful for observing hydration processes [7] and determining the type and content of each physical phase in the ITZ [2,34,89–92].
However, the limited spatial resolution of XCT makes it challenging to fully distinguish the compositional information of interfacial
microstructures in concrete, and the signal-to-noise ratio and observation scope require further improvement. Mazzucco et al. [2]
proposed a robust geometric meso-scale reconstruction method for concrete materials using XCT, which enabled the acquisition of the
overall inner geometry and distribution of aggregates and voids through differences in the material density of the components.
(2) Alternating current impedance spectroscopy (ACIS)
The ACIS technique indirectly obtains the concrete microstructure by measuring the complex impedance of the concrete samples at
different AC frequencies. Although the dynamic measurement of cracks and pores in the ITZ can be achieved through ACIS, the
required equipment is relatively expensive, and the testing procedures are more complicated because impedance spectroscopy is
dependent on the size of the concrete specimens. Nevertheless, some researchers have effectively applied ACIS to examine the ITZ
microstructures of concrete samples with different types and sizes of coarse aggregates at different curing ages [83,84]. Findings
demonstrate that this technique is a powerful tool for evaluating the ITZ microstructure.
(3) Mercury intrusion porosimeter (MIP)
The MIP technique is commonly used to measure and evaluate the pore characteristics within the ITZ regions [18,96,97]. The size
distribution of the pores could be indirectly obtained by testing the pressures. However, the testing process can damage pore structures
inside the concrete, and detailed information on the pores, including their shapes and positions, cannot be provided.
(4) Scanning acoustic microscope (SAM)
Ultrasonic waves undergo alterations in their phase characteristics and energy as they travel through various physical mediums.
The resulting data is acquired and evaluated to generate gray-scale images that reveal the internal structural characteristics of the
concrete samples. The SAM can accurately locate defects, especially in the ITZ, by imaging the surface or interior of concrete [98,99].
Despite the high-resolution and nondestructive detection capabilities of SAM, the technology has strict requirements for specimens.
With the development of digital image processing technology, numerous measuring techniques have been efficiently employed to
determine the variation of mechanical properties of ITZ [10,100–105]. These methods mainly rely on the analysis of 2D digital images
obtained from scanning electron microscopy with a backscattered electron detector (SEM-BSE) [23,25,29,30,88,101,106–111],
including tests such as nanoindentation [112,113], microhardness [114]. Depending on the specific requirements of the study, it may
be necessary to employ multi-scale identification and measuring techniques to accurately identify the microstructure characteristics
and measure the mechanical properties of the ITZ [24,25,33,34,90,115]. These studies have made significant contributions to the
understanding of the ITZ in concrete and provided more realistic inputs for micromechanical models.
(1) Backscattered electron (BSE)
SEM is an extensive technology for qualitatively describing the morphological features of the ITZ and has greatly contributed to the
rapid development of the study of the microstructure and constituent phases over the past decades [23,25,29,30,101]. SEM, equipped
with energy spectrum detection, can determine the element type and distribution of the hydration products in the ITZ. Various physical
signals sent by the SEM are used to present the surface microstructure of the concrete specimens, which are selectively examined in
representative regions and then magnified successively to obtain the microstructure of the tested areas. Many SEM-based studies have
been conducted to characterize the microstructure of the ITZ in concrete [7,22], including the analysis of lateral variation in the ITZ
surrounding aggregates and the variation in mean composition with distance from aggregate edges by Diamond [88], as well as the
examination of the characteristics of pores and hydration products in ITZ regions conducted by Liao et al. [106]. To analyze the ITZ
microstructure using SEM-BSE images, one useful method involves cutting narrow strips in the SEM-BSE image starting from the
aggregate surface and evaluating the porosity variation along each strip [67]. Gao et al. [5] applied BSE image analysis at two
magnifications (100 × and 500 × ) to analyze porosity profiles. A 100-pixel image provided a global view of the ITZ, and a typical
porous region of the ITZ can be detected near the aggregates. A 500-pixel image was used for the quantitative analysis of the unhy
drated grains and hydration products, stacked irregularly with intersecting pores of various sizes and random shapes. With the
extensive application of SEM technology, the morphology and pore distribution of the ITZ have been observed [10,107–111].
4
However, the limited size of the examined micro area may hinder an accurate representation of the entire microstructure, and the
mechanical properties of the ITZ are almost unavailable owing to the loadings of the SEM device at the microscopic level.
(2) Nanoindentation
Nanoindentation is a valuable tool for quantifying the local mechanical properties of cementitious materials, including the elastic
modulus, hardness, and fracture toughness at both the micro- and nanoscales [112,113,116]. A significant benefit of nanoindentation
over micro-indentation is its ability to analyze smaller indentation sizes, which enables the characterization of the intrinsic properties
of the microstructural gradients in the ITZ. Moreover, it allows a comparison of the mechanical characteristics of the cement matrix,
ITZ, and aggregates. The distributions of indentation modulus and hardness obtained using this method can also be used to determine
the thickness of the ITZ. This technique enables quantitative assessment of the nanomechanical properties of different phases
[21,107,117], and has been used in conjunction with SEM to characterize the microstructure of the ITZ [5,107]. For instance, Gao et al.
[118] employed a coupled nanoindentation and SEM approach to investigate the microstructures and elastic properties of the ITZ,
whereas Khedmati et al. [107] adopted nanoindentation coupled with SEM-EDX and laser scanning to examine the weakest zone in
concrete. By coupling nano-mechanical testing with a transmission electron microscope, it is possible to establish a one-to-one rela
tionship between the load-depth characteristics and stress-induced microstructure evolution, allowing real-time monitoring of the
microstructure during testing [24]. This technique was developed to analyze the mechanical properties of the microstructural gra
dients at the ITZ in concrete [119,120], although its application is restricted by the size of the nano-indent in comparison with the
thickness of the ITZ. Moreover, the preparation of the samples can be challenging and may involve various steps, including slicing the
Fig. 2. (a) SEM micrograph of ITZ in concrete [31]. (b) Backscattering image of the concrete sample and the element content distribution along the
line scan path [32,129]. (c) Schematic of porosity distribution in ITZ [39].
5
samples into tiny cuboids, impregnating them with epoxy resin under vacuum conditions, polishing them with diamond particles, and
cleaning them in an ethanol ultrasonic bath. The elastic modulus measured via nanoindentation may be affected by the presence of
pores in the sample, the area filled with epoxy resin, and the spacing between the indentation test points [29].
(3) Digital image correlation (DIC)
Digital image correlation (DIC) is a rapidly evolving technique for accurate full-filed deformation measurements that has been
widely employed in the analysis of concrete materials [121]. For instance, Chen et al. [122] employed DIC to examine the distribution
of shrinkage displacement and strain in concrete. DIC has been confirmed as a highly precise method for the damage identification and
failure measurement of concrete, as reported in numerous studies [123–126]. In addition, the coupling of DIC with SEM has been
utilized to quantitatively evaluate the mechanical properties and thickness of the ITZ, enabling precise determination of deformation
within the ITZ regions [29].
2.2. Porosity
The ITZ exhibits a significantly higher porosity, which is typically two to three times greater than that of the hardened cement
matrix away from the aggregate surfaces. This is evident in the SEM microstructure image of the concrete, which shows large
concentrated voids and cracks within the ITZ regions. The ITZ surrounding the aggregates can be defined as a region with excessive
porosity, which can be further divided into three layers based on the physical factors that influence its pore structure [20]. The first
Fig. 3. (a)The determination of ITZ thickness based on the porosity profiles [26,130,131]. (b) The variation of the porosity of different specimens at
various ratio of w/c [64,68]. (c) Measured porosity profiles based on the BSE image analysis of 0-50μ m and 0-15μ m for the mortars with different
casting factors [5].
6
layer, a thin region of 0 μm–10 μm surrounding the aggregates, is primarily affected by the water film, resulting in a remarkably high
degree of porosity [107]. In the second layer, located 10 μm–30 μm away from the aggregate surface, the ITZ properties are more
influenced by the surface roughness of aggregates and the relative distance from the aggregate-cement boundary [23]. The third layer,
situated more than 40 μm from the aggregate surface, is determined by the surface morphology of aggregates, where the ITZ
microstructure is relaxed to the pore structure of cement.
A comprehensive understanding of the gradient performance of the porosity in the ITZ region is essential for studying its me
chanical properties. Some models have been developed to introduce a gradient in the ITZ to characterize its microstructure
[50,55,127]. The gradient in the ITZ microstructure was determined by analyzing the BSE images of concrete, which are widely
adopted in models. To further quantify the ITZ porosity gradient, a quantitative relationship between the porosity and grey value of
BSE images was established [128]. While the maximum porosity of the ITZ is commonly reported to be approximately two to three
times that of cement paste [5,96,127], the exact value is difficult to determine, because it is affected by several factors, such as the
shape, type of aggregates, and w/c ratios. Although various investigations have provided a reasonable range for ITZ porosity,
determining its appropriate values remains the primary focus for the initiation and evolution of damage in the ITZ.
To evaluate the porosity of ITZ in concrete, some researchers have employed SEM-EDS and conventional optical microscopy
techniques [31]. Based on the grey-level analysis of the BSE images, it was observed in Fig. 2(a) that the porosity of the ITZ was higher
than that of cement, which is consistent with previous studies [67]. High resolution BSE images clearly reveal the distribution of
various physical phases, including mainly CH and ettringite crystals and a small quantity of C-S-H on the concrete surface, and provide
a clear representation of the microstructure of concrete [32,129]. Through the analysis of the BSE images using a grey-level approach,
the physical phases of sand, aggregates, pores, and reacted and unreacted cement were clearly determined, as shown in Fig. 2(b). Along
the scan path, the Ca and Si content distributions can be classified into various parts. The gradual increase in the Si content at the
aggregate boundary suggests the deposition of hydration products. Furthermore, a significant increase in the Ca content in the ITZ
region demonstrates that calcium hydroxide is the primary contributor to the formation of hydration products. Compared to the
cement paste, there were significant fluctuations in the levels of Ca and Si within the ITZ, revealing the existence of micropores in this
region. These findings provide supplementary evidence supporting the notion that the ITZ exhibits a higher degree of porosity than
other concrete components.
Considering the nonuniform distribution of pores within the ITZ, virtual 3D ITZ microstructures have been developed as an
alternative to the real microstructure of the ITZ [39], which reproduces the probabilistic descriptions of micropore microstructures and
the porosity distribution along the ITZ. The porosity distribution in the ITZ region obtained from the 2D SEM images is shown in Fig. 2
(c). Whereas the porosity along the bulk cement paste fluctuated around the mean value, the value increased as it approached the
aggregate surface.
Because the ITZ is a statistical concept, the average porosity distribution curves can be used to identify its regions. Many researchers
[9,26,130,131] have determined the ITZ thickness by examining the porosity profiles perpendicular to the interface within the
designated region of interest, as illustrated in Fig. 3(a)(b). A steep porosity gradient can be observed within a small distance (up to 10
μm) from the aggregate boundary, which is attributed to the formation of a thick water film surrounding the aggregates [106]. As the
position moved away from the aggregate boundary, the ITZ thickness was determined at the point where the porosity finally became
uniform.
To quantitatively evaluate the porosity, some researchers have conducted SEM-BSE image analysis to study the effects of different
casting factors on the porosity as a function of the distance from the aggregate-cement interface [68,132]. Many investigations have
shown that the w/c ratio is a critical factor that affects the quality of the ITZ and cement [6,23,67,88]. Laboratory experiments further
demonstrated that a decrease in w/c led to a significant reduction in the porosity of both the ITZ and cement (Fig. 3(b)) [64,68]. This
can be attributed to the densification of the microstructure and the filling of the pores by various hydration products [5,69]. A lower w/
c ratio in concrete enables more cement particles to be closely distributed around the aggregates, resulting in a reduction in the
porosity and thickness of the ITZ [31]. Based on the BSE image analysis and the Hymostruc3D model developed by Gao et al. [5], the
effects of the curing age, w/c ratio, and volume fraction of sand on the thickness and porosity of the ITZ are discussed, as presented in
Fig. 3(c). It is worth noting that the microstructure becomes denser with the increased curing age (28–90 days) and volume fraction of
sand particles (10–30 %), whereas it becomes looser with the increasing w/c ratio (0.3–0.5), especially within the 15–50 μm zones. A
longer curing age promoted a higher degree of hydration, and the filling action of the hydration products caused a significant reduction
in porosity within the ITZ [80]. These findings are consistent with previous studies on the effects of the w/c ratio on the porosity and
microstructure of ITZ. The porosity decreases consistently with the increase in volume fraction of sand particles, while the mortar
specimen (D3) with 30 % sand grain content shows a slight increase in porosity around 45 μm from the particle boundaries, indicating
that some variations in the homogeneity of the paste occur with the increasing sand grain content, as elaborated in Ref. [73]. To
investigate the influence of various casting factors on the porosity of the ITZ, researchers have employed an equivalent circuit model to
measure the resistance of the connected pores and the MIP technique to examine the ITZ microstructure [79]. The findings revealed
that incorporating aggregates into cement leads to a more porous ITZ, as evidenced by the smaller resistance of the connected pores in
concrete specimens with aggregates than in those without aggregates. Furthermore, the ITZ porosity index increased with increasing
aggregate size owing to the accumulation of a thicker water film around the larger aggregates, which caused a more porous micro
structure. However, some studies found that the influence of aggregate size on the ITZ porosity was negligible, likely due to the small
differences between the aggregate sizes tested (500 μm, 1000 μm, and 2000 μm) [40]. By testing cement specimens with various mix
designs, researchers have also investigated the influence of cement fineness on the ITZ properties and specimen strength [64,133].
Increasing cement fineness reduces the porosity of concrete, resulting in a denser and more homogeneous microstructure with refined
pore structures.
7
To date, few studies have focused on the influence of aggregate surface roughness on the formation and development of porosity
within the ITZ. The surface texture of the aggregates significantly influenced the variation in the ITZ characteristics. Based on the
quantitative analysis of SEM-BSE images and a K-means clustering algorithm, the uneven distribution of physical properties and in
fluence of the aggregate surface texture on the ITZ microstructure have been investigated in some studies [134], as presented in Fig. 4.
The thickness and porosity of the ITZ can vary considerably around a single aggregate, depending on its location relative to the
aggregate boundary [135]. As shown in Fig. 4(a), the interfacial porosity above the upper surface of the aggregates was smaller than
that on the side and lower surfaces of the aggregates, indicating an uneven distribution of interfacial porosity around the same
aggregate. More porous ITZ microstructures can be examined below the aggregates because of the density differences of various
physical phases, which results in the formation of water-rich pockets below the aggregates, whose size depends on the size of the
aggregates [136–138]. The results presented in Fig. 4(b) indicate that the ITZ porosity gradients around rough surfaces were larger
than those around smooth surfaces, primarily because of the greater impact of rough surfaces on the packing of cement particles
compared to smooth surfaces. Furthermore, the ITZ microstructure surrounding the smoother aggregates was more compact.
In general, the porosity of the ITZ is affected by a range of factors, including the w/c ratio, curing age, cement fineness, aggregate
content, aggregate surface roughness, and aggregate size [5]. Specifically, the porosity of the ITZ decreased significantly with
increasing curing age and cement fineness, as well as with decreasing w/c ratios. Although the w/c ratio and aggregate content
influenced only the porosity of the ITZ, the curing age affected both the thickness and porosity of the ITZ.
2.3. Thickness
One widely accepted viewpoint is that the ITZ is most likely caused by a size discrepancy between the aggregate particles and
cement grains [9,41]. As cement grains are mixed with aggregates, the normal packing of cement particles can be disrupted because of
wall effects, with smaller cement particles are being packed near aggregates. Previous studies have suggested that the ITZ thickness
should be comparable to the median particle size of the cement in concrete; however, these studies only considered the cement phase
without accounting for the influence of aggregates [9]. Some researchers consider the ITZ to be as a slip layer without thickness
[115,139], whereas others believe that it has actual mechanical behavior and determine its thickness using backscattered electron
(BSE) techniques [140].
2.3.1. Thickness measurement

Measuring the thickness of the ITZ is challenging because of its small length and opaque properties. Several methods have been
proposed to determine the ITZ thickness [6,9,141]. One approach introduced by Hu et al. [142] defined the ITZ thickness as the
Fig. 4. The influences on the porosity distribution within ITZ of (a) three analyzed relative locations around aggregates and (b) surface roughness at
different locations around the aggregate [26].
8
distance from the aggregate surface to the point at which the bulk porosity was obtained. In another criterion proposed by Bentz et al.
[143], the ITZ thickness is calculated as the distance from the aggregate boundary at which the initial pore volume is greater than 10 %
of the pore volume in the cement. However, this criterion is inaccurate because of the arbitrary 10 % choice. In addition, a different
criterion characterizes the ITZ thickness as the distance from the aggregate surface where the porosity reaches the average porosity of
the entire cement. Moreover, some studies have utilized the Ca/Si ratio to determine the ITZ thickness, which is defined as the distance
from the aggregate boundary where the Ca/Si values are stable [12].
Numerous studies have reported various estimates of the ITZ thickness range, which depend on the measuring techniques and
analysis models employed. Typically, a polished cross-section of concrete specimens imaged by BSE is utilized to obtain the
morphological features of concrete at the microscopic level [5,6,10]. Using the SEM-BSE images, different physical phases present in
the cement matrix, such as sand, pores, and hydration products, were identified according to their brightness order. Subsequently, the
ITZ thickness around the aggregates was determined using successive strips based on a concentric expansion technique [6,8,106,141].
As illustrated in Fig. 5, some studies have used the inflection points of the porosity profiles to define the boundaries between the
cement and ITZ regions and then calculated the ITZ thickness [26,29,31,89,144].
Table 1 lists ITZ thicknesses obtained using different measurement techniques in various studies. Basheer et al. [145] provided a
general evaluation of the ITZ thickness varying from 0 to 100 μm, while SEM-based [11] investigations suggested that the thickness
was more precise between 10 and 50 μm. In studies using large single aggregates, such as cylindrical cores or tubes, the measured ITZ
thickness was greater than 50 μm [106]. According to scanning electron microscope images, Scrivener et al. [9] discovered that the
variations of mechanical properties in ITZ were progressive and most noticeable in the initial 15 μm to 20 μm around aggregates. The
thickness and mechanical properties of the ITZ were also analyzed experimentally using a coupling strategy of SEM and the DIC
method [29]. The electron probe technique was used to determine the ITZ thickness around aggregates of varying sizes [32], and the
statistical analysis indicated that the thickness typically followed a normal distribution. Some studies have also indicated that the ITZ
thickness differs slightly for various sizes of aggregates and for different areas around the same aggregate [26].
According to experimental and numerical studies, the thickness and properties of the ITZ can be affected by different variables,
including the volume fraction of the aggregates, curing age, w/c, and sand grain size [5,31,63,65,114,131,148,152,153]. Although the
ITZ thickness has been found to depend on the w/c ratio and maximum size of cement particles in conventional concrete [66], it
appears to be independent of the aggregate diameter [154]. Consequently, earlier research on ITZ formation focused on the cement
matrix [42,155], paying less attention to the influence of aggregates. It has been shown that the ITZ thickness varies between several
micrometres and the mean size of cement grains [43] and is a function of paste thickness, w/c ratio, sand fineness, and curing age [65].
2.3.2. Thickness in numerical modellings

In numerical simulations, there are various approaches to characterizing the ITZ during the modelling process, as shown in Fig. 6.
The easiest approach is to ignore the ITZ thickness [42,43] and assume an ideal bond between the aggregates and mortar matrix.
Although these models attribute all inelastic and damage performance to mortar matrix [156–158] and are unable to predict the post-
peak softening stage of stress–strain curves, they are often used in some studies because of the ease of establishing the models. In
particular, for the dynamic behavior of large concrete structures subjected to high-intensity loads, such as penetration, high-speed
impacts, or explosions [159–161], it is necessary to compromise between the ITZ thickness and computational effort. The second
method characterizes the ITZ by placing a zero-thickness cohesive element at the interface between the cement and aggregate solids
Fig. 5. Determination of ITZ thickness around aggregates based on the BSE image of concrete [26,29,31,89,144].
9
Table 1
The determination of ITZ thickness based on various techniques.
Reference Years Thickness of ITZ Measurement method
Asbridge et al. [146] 2002 20μ m-100μ m Microhardness testing

Yang et al. [147] 2003 Around 20μ m (10 % silica fume) Accelerated chloride migration test (ACMT)
Scrivener et al. [9,10] 2004 15μ m-50μ m Backscattered electron images
Rossignolo [12] 2009 55μ m SEM connected to an energy dispersion X-ray analyzer (EDX)
Xiao et al. [16] 2013 0.01 mm-0.05 mm Nanoindentation technique
Gao et al. [5,13] 2013;2014 15μ m BSE imaging
Skarżyński et al. [89] 2016 30μ m-50μ m Scanning electron microscope
Xu et al. [148] 2017 35μ m-40μ m Grid nanoindentation,
Branch et al. [149] 2018 10μ m-40μ m BSE (FEI Quanta 650 Scanning Electron Microscope)
Tian et al. [32] 2018 39.5μ m-42μ m Electron probe technique
Gao et al. [68] 2018 15μ m-30μ m SEM-BSE image analysis
Nežerka et al. [101] 2019 7.3μ m-23.46μ m (mineral admixtures) Electron microscopy (SEM) with a FEG-SEM Merlin Zeiss microscope
Li et al. [150] 2021 29.62μ m; 20.79μ m (10 % silica fume) Grid nanoindentation test
Li et al. [151] 2022 Around 50μ m SEM-BSE test
Fig. 6. Typical ITZ modelling methods in numerical simulations [32,36,37,49,167].
[34,44,45,162–164]. This allows for the attribution of inelastic and damage behavior to cement and damage and failure behavior to
the weak ITZ [45,165–167]. To reduce the meshing and computing costs, a third option is to adopt solid or finite-thickness elements to
model the ITZ [46,47], but with a thickness greater than the physical thickness. One example is the finite element model developed by
Tian et al. [32] which accurately represents the distribution of aggregates, cement, and the ITZ. In this model, ITZ is represented by
elements surrounding the aggregates with a thickness of 40.7 μm, and the elements near the aggregate-cement interface region are
gradually refined to reflect the geometrical characteristics of ITZ. Table 2 presents the various modelling methods for the ITZ and the
corresponding thicknesses of the ITZ obtained by different researchers. Some investigators employ a constant ITZ thickness sur
rounding all aggregates [33,90,165,168–172], with values ranging from 0.2 to 2 mm [157,170,173,174], whereas others believe that
the ITZ thickness varies with aggregates size [175]. Some models also employ the discrete element method (DEM) with ITZ, repre
sented by contact elements, connecting beams or springs, to study the mechanical performance of concrete [33,48,49]. Because of the
enormous computational burden, the values of the ITZ thickness adopted in the models presented above were greater than the actual
thickness of the ITZ. To account for the actual thickness of ITZ while reducing the computational cost, an aggregate expansion method
(AEM) is proposed [176], where ITZ is represented as a 50 μm thick layer of wedge elements surrounding the aggregate. This method
10
Table 2
The modelling methods of ITZ in numerical simulations.
References Years ITZ thickness Modelling method Specimens size
Zheng et al. 2007 0.05 mm 3D mesoscopic concrete model by simulation algorithm with 25 × 25 × 25 mm3
[177] periodic boundary conditions
Sun et al. 2007 10μ m-50μ m The Virtual Cement and Concrete Testing Laboratory 50 × 75 × 230 mm3
[178] (VCCTL) module
Zhou et al. 2008 0.2 mm-0.8 mm Using the commercial software AUTODYN to develop two- ∅ 50 mm
[165,169] dimensional models of concrete
Kim et al. 2011 200μ m Random 2D circular shape aggregates model; 3D meso-scale 100 × 100 mm2 (2D);
[179] RVE (representative volume element) of concrete 50 × 50 × 50 mm3
(3D)
Song et al. 2012 0.5 mm The pseudo 3D mesoscale model with random polygon- 50 × 50 × 50 mm3
[170] shaped coarse aggregates
Pedersen et al. 2013 0.5 mm Two-dimensional mesoscopic finite element model with 100 × 74 mm2 (2D)
[174] random aggregate
Huang et al. 2015; 0.1 mm-0.4 mm Based on high-resolution micro-scale XCT images to 37.2 × 37.2 × 37.2
[90,171] 2016 construct the 3D model mm3
Keinde et al. 2015 50μ m; 100μ m 3D three-phase model with spherical aggregates using finite 33 × 33 × 33 mm3
[180] element methods
Skarżyński et al. 2016 0.025 mm X-ray micro-computed tomography to develop 2D 50 × 80 mm2
mesoscopic numerical model
[89]
Zhou et al. 2017 0.5 mm-1 mm Classical “take-and-place” procedure to generate the 3D 50 × 50 × 50 mm3
[181] meso-structure
Lv et al. [182] 2018 Determined by the element size (0.8 mm) Using the grid mapping method to construct the 3D meso- ∅ 120 × 100 mm
scale model
Zhang et al. 2018 Defined by the contact between cement Random discrete-element aggregate model using PFC2D 150 × 150 mm2(2D);
[38] and aggregate elements, without solid ∅ 150 mm(2D)
particles
Yu et al. [172] 2018 Equating the size of each element (0.5 mm) X-ray computerized tomography to construct 3D numerical 45 × 47.5 × 45.5
model; Digital image processing (DIP) techniques (edge mm3
detection)
Zhang et al. 2019 1.0 mm Based on Voronoi technology to generate 3D models by 25 × 25 × 25 mm3
[183] shrinking and extending processes
Wu et al. [184] 2020 35μ m-55μ m Based on COMSOL Multiphysics programs to construct 3D 100 × 100 × 100
the concrete finite element models with sphere aggregates mm3
Maleki et al. 2020 0.02 mm-1 mm Adopting take and place method to generated 3D meso- 25 × 25 × 25 mm3
[37] structure of concrete
Sharma et al. 2020 2μ m layer consisted by consecutive four Using a vector based modelling platform (μic) ____
[40] 0.5 mm thick layers
Nitka et al. 2020 0.75 mm, composed of 3 rows of spheres Two-dimensional mesoscopic models based on the micro-CT 80 × 50 × 40 mm3
[36] images
has only been validated for image-based models [162].
2.4. Volume
Determining the volume fraction of ITZ is essential for investigating the quantitative relationship between the microstructure and
macroscopic properties of concrete [15]. However, experimental measurement of the ITZ volume fraction is challenging due to the
overlapping of the neighboring ITZ layers with a high degree. Over the past decades, researchers have made theoretical and numerical
efforts to assess the ITZ volume fraction in concrete. In theoretical aspects, Garboczi and Bentz [51] proposed a theoretical formula to
observe the ITZ volume fraction around spherical aggregates in normal concrete, which has been extended to predict the elastic
modulus of concrete as a three-phase composite containing spherical aggregates, ITZs, and cement paste [59,60]. Researchers have
also developed a formula to calculate the ITZ volume fraction [57] with the aid of computer simulation technology to quantify the
influences of ITZ on the macro-properties of concrete. In numerical simulation, to simplify the modeling of ITZ, it is considered as a
uniform-thickness shell surrounding the aggregate [185]. In the study conducted by Aouissi et al. [186], the ITZ volume of VITZ was
regarded as a fraction of the volume of aggregates of Vagg . For Vagg below to 60 %, VITZ = 0.3Vagg ; and for Vagg higher than 60 %, VITZ =
0.5Vagg . Some researchers [56,177,178,187] have adopted an approximate method to calculate the ITZ volume fraction by multiplying
the surface area of aggregates by a uniform thickness of ITZ layers, where the ITZ thickness is primarily dependent on the median size
of the cement grains instead of the aggregate size. This method provides relatively accurate results, but it is time-consuming. Based on
the statistical geometry of composites, the nearest surface distribution function in physics presented by Lu and Torquato [62] has been
used to predict the ITZ volume fraction in concrete [57,151,188], as expressed in Eq. (1). The direct analytical solution for calculating
the ITZ volume fraction significantly contributes to the study of the macro mechanical behavior of concrete.
2
VITZ = 1 − Vagg − (1 − Vagg )exp(− πNv (etITZ + dtITZ 3
+ gtITZ )) (1)
11
where
〈〉
4 R2
e= (2)
1 − Vagg
〈〉2
4〈R〉 8πNv R2
d= + (3)
1 − Vagg (1 − Vagg )2
〈〉〈〉3
4〈R〉 16πNv R2 〈R〉 64Aπ2 Nv2 R2
g= + 2
+ (4)
3(1 − Vagg ) 3(1 − Vagg ) 27(1 − Vagg )3
where Vagg is the aggregate volume content; tITZ is the assumed ITZ thickness extend from the aggregate surface; Nv is the total number
of aggregate particles per unit volume; the parameters e, d, g are the mean number over the particle size distribution, which are
determined by sieve analysis. 〈R〉 is the average aggregate radius, and 〈R2 〉 is the average square aggregate radius over the entire size
distribution; A can be assigned with different values (0, 2, or 3) in relation to the analytical approximation [62].
To calculate the ITZ volume fraction, a multi-scale model [70] was proposed by investigators, which disregarded the effects of
aggregate size and mineralogical properties and neglected the overlap between ITZs during the assessment of the cement volume
fraction. Moreover, an n-layered spherical inclusion model was proposed by Zheng et al. [58] to predict the elastic moduli of concrete
with an inhomogeneous ITZ and to derive an analytical solution for its volume fraction for general aggregate gradation.
Many researchers have quantitatively analyzed the effects of various factors on ITZ volumes, including the aggregate volume
fraction, maximum aggregate diameter for Fuller gradation, and thickness. Some studies have indicated that an increase in aggregate
volume fraction corresponds to an increase in surface area, leading to a larger ITZ volume fraction [189]. Considering that the elastic
modulus of the matrix is much lower than that of the aggregates, an increase in the aggregate volume fraction indicates a decrease in
the matrix volume fraction. This results in an increase in the overall elastic modulus, which is the combined effect of the ITZ and the
aggregate volume fraction. The investigation conducted by Chen et al. [190] also obtained similar results, observing that with
increasing aggregate volume fraction, the ITZ volume fraction initially increased, peaked at a certain value of aggregate volume, and
then decreased with further addition of aggregate. Moreover, a general theoretical framework for the fraction of ITZs around 3D
arbitrary convex particles was developed by Xu et al. [61] by adopting the contraction factor (CF) as the shape descriptor of an
arbitrary nonconvex particle. The results indicated that the ITZ volume fraction first increased and then decreased with an increasing
aggregate volume fraction for a given CF. These findings suggest that the negative impact of the ITZ on the macro-properties of
concrete can be compensated by additional aggregates. These studies also indicated that, with a determined aggregate fraction, the ITZ
volume fraction monotonically increased as the maximum aggregate diameter decreased. This exploration is in line with the case of 3D
spheroidal particles introduced in the literature [70]. This is because the aggregate surface area per unit volume of concrete decreases
as the maximum aggregate diameter increases. Therefore, the size distribution of the aggregates has a pronounced impact on the ITZ
fraction. From the viewpoint of this interfacial property, a more suitable uniform distribution can be selected to replace the four-
gradation, three-gradation, or two-gradation to design an optimal fully-graded concrete.
However, assuming a uniform ITZ thickness around the aggregate leads to an overestimation the ITZ volume fraction and, sub
sequently, its influence on the mechanical behavior of concrete. Samal et al. [191] developed an analytical approach to predict and
assign differential ITZ thickness around each aggregate based on Voronoi tessellation in the model. Furthermore, a theoretical
framework was introduced to estimate the ITZ volume fraction, which incorporates the concept of differential ITZ thickness, and
variations in response to different parameters, such as maximum and minimum aggregate sizes, aggregate volume fraction, and w/c
ratio, were systematically analyzed. The elastic modulus of concrete was calculated using a four-phase generalized self-consistent
scheme to validate the proposed approach with the experimental results. It was demonstrated that the estimates of the elastic
modulus of concrete with the assumption of differential ITZ thickness are substantially better than the estimates assuming uniform ITZ
thickness for low modulus values of the ITZ and the midrange of aggregate fractions.
As mentioned previously, the total volume of the ITZ was determined based on the influence of multiple factors on the coating area
and thickness. The coating regions of the ITZ were predominantly dependent on the volume fraction and size distribution of the
aggregates, while exhibiting a modest correlation with the maximum diameter and surface roughness of the aggregates.
2.5. Mechanical properties
2.5.1. Elastic modulus

The elastic modulus of the ITZ plays a significant role in studying the mechanical properties of the ITZ, which helps to better
develop the relationship between the microscale mechanical behavior and the structural response of concrete [14–17]. However,
estimating the real elastic modulus of the ITZ presents significant challenges because of its opaque and inhomogeneous components.
Recent studies have conducted expensive and time-consuming microscale experiments to investigate the elastic modulus of ITZ
[14,20,116,192,193].
The mechanical parameters of the ITZ can be determined based on the performance of the cement in concrete. Revilla et al. [194]
presented a novel method for estimating the elastic stiffness of aggregate-ITZ systems in concrete, focusing on the porosity and volume
of the components, and validated it with the limestone-ITZ and electric arc furnace slag-ITZ systems. In previous works [17,56], the
12
elastic modulus of the ITZ was found to be uniformly distributed and smaller than that of bulk paste by a constant factor represented by
Eq. (5). Lee et al. [195] conducted a comparative study of the elastic modulus of concrete with experimental results, assuming a
difference of 30 %–70 % between the elastic moduli of the ITZ and cement. Various theoretical models have been proposed to predict
the elastic modulus of concrete with an inhomogeneous ITZ, as described below. The three-phase model [196] was extended to a four-
phase model by Ramesh et al. [15], where ITZ was regarded as a homogeneous phase in concrete. The results indicated that EEITZ CP
= 0.5
was appropriate for predicting the experimental results with an ITZ volume of approximately 10 %. Using a four-phase model, some
studies concluded that the bulk modulus of the ITZ was 0.7 times that of cement, and the shear and elastic moduli of the ITZ were
nearly half those of the cement phase [44]. In a developed double-inclusion model [56], it was reported that the value of EEITZ
cp
varied
from 0.2 to 0.4 for 20 μm thick of ITZ and 0.5 to 0.7 for 40 μm thick of ITZ, where spherical aggregates coated with a homogeneous ITZ
layer were considered as a double inclusion incorporated in the cement [197]. Based on the developed n-layered spherical inclusion
model, the effects of maximum aggregate diameter, aggregate gradation, and ITZ thickness on the elastic modulus of concrete were
evaluated quantitatively [74]. Moreover, differential effective medium theory (D-EMT) could also be adopted to compute the elastic
properties of concrete by assigning elastic moduli to the corresponding bulk paste matrix, ITZ, and aggregates [178,198].
Eitz = αEcp (5)
where α is a constant with a proposed value between 0.2 and 0.8 [19,56,150], and Eitz and Ecp are the elastic moduli of the ITZ and
cement paste, respectively.
To investigate the variation in the elastic modulus of the ITZ, a coupled strategy between SEM and DIC techniques has been
proposed [29], which not only simplifies the sample preparation but also overcomes the challenge of measuring the nominal
compressive elastic modulus (ENC ) of the ITZ. The results indicated that the ENC of the ITZ area was less than that of the aggregate and
mortar. As the areas in the ITZ gradually approached those of the aggregate and mortar, the ENC values of these areas approximated the
values of the two materials. The ENC of the ITZ area and the distance from the aggregate-mortar boundary are related by a quadratic
function, as shown in Fig. 7. With increasing distance from the aggregate-mortar boundary, the ENC of the ITZ area first decreased and
then increased, and the average ENC of the ITZ area was approximately 33 % that of the mortar. These findings are consistent with those
of Rao et al. [74] and Gu et al. [199], who reported the ITZ strength to be approximately one-third to half that of the mortar. To account
for the inhomogeneity of the ITZ, some studies have assumed a power-law distribution gradient of porosity in the ITZ [56]. The same
power-law function can be used to predict the elastic modulus variation in the ITZ because the elastic modulus is considered to depend
only on porosity.
Previous studies evaluated the distribution of the elastic modulus within the ITZ and reached varying conclusions through different
theoretical models and experimental means, as illustrated in Fig. 8. The simplest and most commonly adopted assumption is the
uniform distribution of the elastic modulus throughout the ITZ (see Fig. 8(a)). Some researchers have suggested that the elastic
modulus of the ITZ is the weakest in the region close to the aggregate and increases with the distance from the aggregate until it reaches
the elastic modulus of the cement paste (see Fig. 8(b)). However, experimental studies have shown that the elastic modulus of the ITZ
follows a quadratic gradient distribution with distance from the aggregates (see Fig. 8(c)). At present, determining the elastic modulus
of the ITZ in numerical models has become a topic of great interest to researchers.
2.5.2. Macroscopic strengths

Over the past few decades, various experimental methods have been proposed to measure the ITZ properties. Malachanne et al.
[200] conducted a numerical study on the paste-aggregate composite, using a cohesive zone model with adhesion, friction, and
unilateral contact in a finite element model to test the experimental interface response, and demonstrated that this method effectively
Fig. 7. The quadratic function relation between the average ENC and the distance from the aggregate boundary [29].
13
Fig. 8. Different distribution of elastic modulus of ITZ in concrete.
describes the mechanical behavior of the ITZ up to rupture. Subsequently, Nesrine et al. [201] performed numerical modelling of a
local shear test on a cement paste-aggregate composite, employing a cohesive zone model and 3D finite element analysis to identify the
behavior of the interface, with the damage characterized by the cohesive law at this interface. The results revealed that the most fragile
region in concrete is the ITZ, characterized by its thinness and higher porosity, which significantly influenced the mechanical behavior,
particularly in the initiation and propagation of cracks within the less resistant zones. Some researchers have conducted tensile, shear
and bending tests to construct a strength relationship between the bulk paste and ITZ. Mielniczuk et al. [202] performed direct tensile
tests on samples comprising two grains bound by cement paste, which were analyzed experimentally at a local scale (cement-grain
interface) during mechanical testing. This research characterized the behavior and fracture process of the cement interface at a local
scale, focusing on the evolution of force and stiffness during mechanical testing and the progression of cracking and rupture in
cemented grains. Such local characteristics provide strong support for the numerical modelling of concrete at the macroscopic scale.
According to the research findings of Rao et al. [74], the tensile or shear bonding strength of the interface depends on the roughness of
the aggregates when using the same mortar and aggregate type. The tensile bond strength was approximately 50 % of the tensile
strength of the mortar, and this bond strength decreased as the w/c ratio increased, although not as fast as the compressive strength of
the mortar. Under Mode I failure, the tensile bond strength at the interface with the rough concrete surface was approximately one-
fourth to one-half of the tensile strength of the cement mortar. On average, the tensile bond strength of the interface was approximately
one-third that of the mortar. To conduct the numerical simulation of the Brazilian splitting test and the uniaxial compression test,
Zhang et al. [38] regarded the ITZ strength as 0.4 times the strength of cement mortar, which yielded simulation results closest to those
of the experiments [74,106]. Additionally, the mesoscopic numerical model of the uniaxial compressive and tensile tests revealed that
concrete could be regarded as a two-phase medium comprising aggregate and cement mortar when the strength of the ITZ was at least
70 % that of the cement mortar [38], and the ITZ could no longer be considered the weakest region.
Testing the fracture properties of the ITZ is significantly more challenging than testing aggregates and cement mortar. Various
approaches have been proposed for measuring the strength properties of ITZ. Some researchers [75] designed notched rock-mortar
specimens by casting fresh mortar on the rock surface and found that the tensile strength of the interface between the rock and
mortar was in the range of 1/16–1/3.5 times that of the mortar. Jebli et al. [203] presented a numerical identification strategy for the
tangential cohesive response (in mode II). Experimental tests on parallelepipedic samples at the classical aggregate scale were con
ducted at various stages of hydration using specific devices for direct tensile and shear testing of the composites. The results indicated
that the tensile strength at the cement-aggregate interface was approximately 30 % lower than that of the cement paste; similarly, the
shear strength of the interface was lower than that of the cement paste. Similarly, many bonding strength tests on the ITZ were
conducted in previous investigations [76,199], and it was found that the bonding strength of the ITZ was approximately 50 % of the
tensile strength of the mortar. In addition, artificial neural networks (ANN) can be utilized [189] to predict the ITZ tensile strength and
fracture energy. The results showed that the ratio of ITZ tensile strength to mortar tensile strength was about 0.46, and the fracture
energy of ITZ was about 0.4 times that of the mortar.
3. Factors affecting on the physical and mechanical properties of ITZ
The mechanical properties and microstructure of the ITZ can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as the type, surface
roughness, size distribution of aggregates, size of sand particles, cement fineness, mineral additions, curing conditions, and w/c ratio
[9,11,19,31,67,114,204,205]. Understanding the variations in the ITZ properties resulting from these factors is crucial for investi
gating the mechanical behavior of concrete. This section systematically summarises and analyses various factors that affect the
physical features and properties of the ITZ and identifies the influencing mechanisms. These findings are helpful for identifying
methods for reducing the formation of the ITZ and compacting the ITZ structure, which is essential for improving the mechanical
properties of concrete structures.
3.1. Mineral addition
The efficacy of cement in concrete has been found to be limited, with only 60–70 % of the cement effectively utilized in engineering
14
Fig. 9. The nominal compressive elastic modulus (ENC ) and the morphology of samples of ITZ with limestone and granite aggregates with water-
cement of 0.23, 0.35 and 0.53 [29].
15
experiments. The remaining cement acts as a filler and does not contribute to the strength of concrete, resulting in the wastage of raw
materials. The addition of active mineral admixtures is a practical and effective method to improve the mechanical properties of
concrete and achieve greater economic efficiency. These admixtures can also reduce the friction resistance between the mixing ma
terials, resulting in more uniform concrete components. The presence of mineral additives in concrete reduces its overall porosity and
improves its structural density and strength. The microstructure of the ITZ can be strengthened by optimizing the particle size dis
tribution of cementitious materials, resulting in reduced porosity and a lower w/c ratio. This is typically achieved through the use of
mineral additions such as natural pulverized limestone and metakaolin, as well as industrial materials such as granulated blaster
furnace slag, fly ash, and silica fume. These particles are much finer than cement particles and contribute to particle compaction,
leading to the densification of the ITZ [18,206–208]. This approach is commonly employed for high-strength concrete [9,81].
According to published researches, the addition of silica fume is an effective method for enhancing the strength of concrete by
improving the ITZ [12,209]. Some previous studies have shown that adding 10 % silica fume reduces the ITZ thickness from 50 μm to
10 μm in comparison to concrete without mineral addition, which leads to a 100 % increase in interfacial bond strength and fracture
energy [12]. Moreover, pozzolan is widely accepted as a partial replacement for Portland cement in mortar and concrete production
[210]. The experimental results showed that the addition of mineral admixtures resulted in a denser ITZ and an optimized pore
structure, especially at later curing stages. Some workers [211] employed digital image analysis to investigate the fracture behavior of
concrete with fly ash as an admixture under shear conditions and concluded that the addition of fly ash significantly enhanced the
crack resistance of the concrete.
3.2. Aggregates
Many studies have suggested that aggregates play a significant role in ITZ formation. Physical interactions between the aggregate
grains and mortar can have a pronounced effect on the development of the ITZ microstructure. For instance, the thickness of the water
films that form surrounding coarse aggregates can be reduced owing to their higher water absorption, leading to an improved ITZ
microstructure.
3.2.1. Type of aggregates

The strength of concrete at the macroscopic level mainly depends on the quality of the cement mortar and the surface charac
teristics of the aggregates. However, as the quality of the cement mortar improves, the influence of the type and surface texture of the
aggregates on the concrete strength becomes more prominent. Previous studies have examined the effects of the aggregate type on the
macroscopic mechanical properties of concrete, indicating that the elastic modulus of concrete increased with the aggregate stiffness
and strength [15]. Studies have also demonstrated that the bonding strength of the ITZ is closely related to the type and surface
roughness of the aggregates [19,212], and that the ITZ properties are significantly influenced by both the size and surface topography
of the aggregates [14,67].
Extensive research has been conducted to determine the effects of aggregates with varying shapes and surface textures on the
physical features of the ITZ [11,19,26,213]. The physical interactions between mortar and aggregates are primarily determined by the
surface texture and water absorption of the aggregates. Irregular and rough aggregates tend to impede crack initiation and propagation
more strongly than smooth and rounded aggregates [19]. The influence of the aggregate surface texture on the ITZ properties is similar
to that of the wall effects, where anhydrous cement particles cannot pack as tightly near the smooth areas of aggregates with convex
and concave surfaces, leading to a higher porosity of the ITZ microstructure. As described in Section 2.2, the most significant variation
in porosity is observed at a distance of 10–40 μm from the aggregate surface, and the surface texture obviously influences the ITZ
properties at distances greater than 10 μm. Furthermore, research has suggested that the mineral composition and surface texture of
aggregates influence the nucleation and growth of hydration products, resulting in variations in the mechanical properties of the ITZ
[57].
The effect of aggregate features on the formation and properties of the ITZ was investigated using the AC impedance technique with
three types of coarse aggregates: limestone, granite, and basalt [79]. This research reveals that the surface texture and water ab
sorption of aggregates play crucial roles in the formation of ITZ microstructure. Specifically, the ITZ microstructure around the
limestone aggregates at an early age was denser, owing to its rougher surface and higher water absorption. By contrast, the ITZ
microstructure around the granite and basalt aggregates became denser because of the higher chemical activity between the aggregates
and mortar.
Several studies have investigated the mechanical properties and morphology of the ITZ by analyzing the effects of two different
types of aggregates (limestone and granite) and three w/c ratios [29]. As shown in Fig. 9, the rougher surface of the limestone ag
gregates enhanced the bonding strength between the aggregates and the mortar. Conversely, the smoother and flatter surface of the
granite aggregates reduced the constraint on mortar shrinkage deformation, resulting in a higher probability of crack generation.
Additionally, at various w/c ratios, the ITZ thickness around the limestone aggregates was found to be relatively greater, and the
nominal compressive elastic modulus was lower than that around the granite aggregates. It can be concluded that the ITZ formed by
limestone aggregates exhibited a greater tendency towards deformation than that formed by granite aggregates. Moreover, some
scholars have investigated the effects of the ITZ mechanical properties on the macro-mechanical behavior and impact response of
concrete using gravel aggregates and copper slag [63]. The authors observed significant differences in the surface roughness and
stiffness between the two types of aggregates, resulting in distinct local stress concentrations within the ITZ and varying impact re
sponses, as shown in Fig. 10. Specifically, the ITZ with rougher aggregates exhibited greater energy dissipation inside the mixture,
leading to a higher bearing capacity of the concrete and stronger impact resistance at the macro level. These findings demonstrate the
16
important role of the ITZ properties in determining the impact response of concrete, which suggests that the mechanical characteristics
of the ITZ can be optimized to enhance the overall performance of concrete under impact loading.
By improving the physical interactions between the close contact points, the increased surface roughness of the aggregates can
improve the interfacial strength against frictional resistance and increase the required area at fracture within the ITZ regions.
Consequently, concrete with rougher aggregates has a greater load-bearing capacity and requires more energy for the final failure.
3.2.2. Diameter and size distribution of aggregates

The influence of the aggregate size on the ITZ thickness is illustrated in Section 2.3.1. Earlier studies [70,71] suggested that the ITZ
thickness is primarily dominated by the median diameter of the cement particles rather than by the aggregate size [134]. Through
experimental examination using the electron probe technique, a statistical analysis indicated that the ITZ thickness around aggregates
of varying sizes typically followed a normal distribution. In addition, thicker ITZ layers surrounded larger aggregates, and thinner ITZ
surrounded smaller aggregates. Some studies have also indicated that the ITZ thickness differs slightly for different areas around the
same aggregate [26].
The influence of the maximum size of the aggregate on the ITZ fraction has also been explored in previous studies [72], which was
evaluated using the maximum equivalent diameter of the aggregates. Fig. 11(a) illustrates that the ITZ volumes decrease mono
tonically with an increase in the maximum equivalent diameter of the aggregates for a given aggregates volume. This finding is also
consistent with the findings of previous studies on spheroidal particles presented in the reference [70]. This can be explained by the
fact that an increase in the maximum equivalent diameter of the aggregates decreased the fineness of the particles with a certain
aggregate content, resulting in a reduction in the aggregate surface area per unit volume in concrete.
Additionally, Fig. 11(b) shows the influence of the aggregate gradation on the ITZ volume fractions. For a certain aggregate
content, the ITZ volumes increase in the following order: uniform gradation < four-gradation < three-gradation < two-gradation <
one-gradation, where the uniform gradation is characterized by the Fuller distribution. The ITZ volumes are significantly influenced by
the aggregate gradation, and some studies have obtained similar conclusions through a sensitivity analysis of various affecting factors
[70,71]. Fig. 11(c) presents the influence of the aggregate volume fraction of on the ITZ volumes with varying maximum equivalent
diameters of aggregates Dmax for the Fuller gradation and equal volume fraction (EVF) gradation from references [70,71], where the
ITZ thickness of tITZ and the minimum aggregate size of Dmin are assumed as tITZ = 30mm, Dmin = 0.15mm[71] and tITZ = 0.03mm,
Dmin = 0.15mm[70], respectively. The findings suggest that the ITZ volumes of VITZ increase within a specific range as the aggregate
fraction of fagg increases, but decrease when fagg exceeds a critical value, as demonstrated in [71]. This can be attributed to the dense
stacking of aggregates caused by the excessive addition, which squeezes the space between the aggregates and leads to a high overlap
of the ITZ regions of adjacent aggregates. For the Fuller gradation, VITZ decreased significantly with increasing Dmax for a certain ITZ
Fig. 10. Load-time histories of the specimens with two types of aggregates during the first drop of impact [63].
17
Fig. 11. The fraction of ITZs versus (a) the maximum size [72], (b) the gradation of aggregates [72] and (c) the fraction of aggregates [70,71].
thickness [71]. Because of the large number of small aggregates contained in the EVF gradation, the ITZ volumes for the EVF gradation
were always greater than those for the Fuller gradation with Vagg , Dmax , and tITZ in concrete. This conclusion is consistent with previous
research [71]. This highlights the significant influence of aggregate gradation on ITZ volumes. Therefore, optimizing the gradation of
aggregates in engineering structures to approximate the Fuller distribution should be prioritized to ensure an ideal distribution of
aggregates.
Comparing different studies [70,71], it is also noted that the VITZ of Sun et al. [71] is higher than that of Zheng et al. [70] for
concrete with an approximate aggregate size for a given Vagg . This could be attributed to the different values of the ITZ thickness, and
tITZ was set to 30μ m and 0.03 mm in Refs. [70,71], which directly causes a gap of the ITZ volume. According to the analysis presented
above, the ITZ thickness is the most important factor influencing the fraction of the ITZ for Fuller gradation, followed by the volume
fraction of aggregates. The maximum aggregate diameter had the least effect.
The influence of the aggregate size on the failure performance of concrete can also be understood by evaluating its effects on the
mechanical properties of the ITZ, which were performed using a single spherical aggregate in previous studies [77]. The effects of the
aggregate size on the compressive and tensile strengths of concrete are shown in Fig. 12. The experimental results indicated that the
compressive strength of concrete increased gradually with increasing single aggregate size, particularly in medium- and high-strength
concrete, owing to the comparatively greater compatibility between the aggregates and cement. Conversely, the tensile strength of
concrete decreased significantly with an increase in aggregate size, particularly in high-strength composites. This could be explained
by the fact that increasing the aggregate size strengthened the significant difference between the elastic moduli of these two physical
phases, resulting in an increased stress concentration and more microcracks in the ITZ. Consequently, the bonding strength of the ITZ
was found to be the primary determinant of the tensile strength of concrete, with negligible effects on the compressive strength.
3.3. Water-cement ratio
The water-cement ratio (w/c) is a key parameter that significantly influences the quality of the cement matrix and ITZ, which is
crucial for determining the strength and durability of concrete. Königsberger et al. [54] used continuum micromechanics to downscale
Fig. 12. Effects of aggregate size on (a) compressive strength and (b) tensile strength of low strength, medium-strength and high-strength concrete
specimens [77].
18
concrete-level loading to maximum stresses in the ITZ and micron-sized hydrates, applying a Drucker-Prager failure criterion for model
validation. The results revealed that the concrete strength magnitude was governed by the ITZ stress concentration, and that the w/c
ratio was the dominant mixture design parameter. Numerous studies have explored the influence of w/c ratio on the thickness,
microstructure, and mechanical characteristics of the ITZ. It is widely acknowledged that increasing the w/c ratio leads to an increased
porosity in both the cement and ITZ phases [69]. Conversely, reducing the w/c ratio is an effective way to reduce the porosity of the
cement and ITZ phases, thereby improving the ITZ microstructure [69]. In contrast to the pore structure in mortar, the higher water
content and lower filling density of cement particles in the ITZ result in a higher porosity, which significantly influences the overall
properties of the ITZ [11]. As discussed in Section 2.2, it is widely accepted that decreasing the w/c ratio can reduce the ITZ thickness,
thereby enhancing the concrete strength and promoting denser microstructures.
As shown in Fig. 9 and described in Section 3.2.1, the influence of various w/c ratios on the concrete morphology was investigated.
As the w/c increased, the mortar surface became smoother, with fewer pores and more visible microcracks. Moreover, the increase in
w/c contributes to more microcracks and a reduction in the average ENC of the ITZ, which is caused by the shrinkage deformation of the
mortar owing to the higher water content [29]. The physical features could be compared at various w/c ratios with the same aggregate
type, and the correlation between ENC and the distance from the aggregates is illustrated in Fig. 13. It has been noticed that with the
increasing w/c, the ITZ thickness with granite aggregates decreases gradually, but the ITZ thickness with limestone aggregates first
increases and then decreases. The distribution of ENC is consistent with that of previous studies [14,16]. As the ITZ area approached the
aggregates and mortar, the ENC of the ITZ gradually approached the elastic moduli of these two materials.
To study the physical features and evolution of the ITZ, a multi-aggregate method was proposed, considering the effects of w/c
ratios and other practical factors [131]. The results indicated that the porosity decreased more rapidly with increasing distance from
the aggregate surface for lower w/c ratios, resulting in a reduced ITZ thickness. A linear function with a reasonably good correlation
coefficient can be employed to establish a quantitative relationship between the ITZ thickness and logarithmic w/c for a specific paste
thickness. A similar qualitative description of the relationship between the w/c and ITZ can be found in Ref. [67].
Because of the difference in the initial water content, the cement grains within the ITZ regions and bulk cement experience different
w/c ratios, necessitating consideration of the significant influence of the local w/c on the ITZ microstructure [13]. Considering the
influence of the w/c on the physical features of the ITZ, researchers have proposed two equations to fit the ITZ thickness and porosity
[5]. As illustrated in Section 2.2 (Fig. 2), the porosity of the ITZ increased gradually, and the ITZ microstructure appeared to loosen
with increasing w/c ratio. A higher w/c ratio could lead to a highly hydrated binder system and greater initial porosity, both of which
cause a deviation in the linear relationship between the porosity and w/c ratio. Nevertheless, there is no significant deviation from the
linear relationship between porosity and w/c ratio in the region where the distance from the aggregate surface is less than 15 μm.
3.4. Environmental factors
Environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity, have a significant impact on the mechanical behavior and integrity of
the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) in concrete. Exposure to high temperatures causes the concrete material to degrade, and
microcracks initiate and grow owing to moisture loss, which provokes different physicochemical processes [214,215], such as the
disintegration of hydrated cement, shrinkage of cement, and thermal incompatibilities between the mortar and the aggregate. Many
studies indicated that the cement and ITZ are contractive between 230 ◦ C and 300 ◦ C, corresponding to the dehydration of these
phases, while the aggregates are always expansive for a temperature range of 20 ◦ C to 800 ◦ C [214,215]. Extensive studies [216–218]
have indicated that thermal incompatibility stress is generated at the ITZ between the mortar and aggregate owing to the difference in
Fig. 13. Distribution of the nominal compressive elastic modulus (ENC ) of concrete specimens at various w/c ratios with (a) Limestone aggregates
and (b) Granite aggregates [29].
19
their thermal expansion coefficients between aggregate and mortar. This means that coarse aggregates with lower coefficients of
thermal expansion and high moduli, which typically have higher coefficients of thermal expansion, restrain the volume changes of the
ITZ and mortar under identical temperature variations, which typically have higher coefficients of thermal expansion [219]. This
restraint induces a tensile stress in the ITZ tangential to the coarse aggregate surface, resulting in microcracks in the ITZ. When the
microcracks in the ITZ accumulate to a certain degree, they may extend to the mortar and aggregate.
During heating, the ITZ is weakened owing to the dehydration of the cement paste and the decomposition of portlandite, coupled
with an increase in thermal strain due to aggregate expansion [220]. And due to the increasing thermal expansion difference and the
deterioration of the cement mortar with the increasing temperature, the damage to the concrete increased sharply after 500 ◦ C [221].
As revealed by the studies conducted by Shen et al [222], during the heating process, C-S-H exhibits shrinkage due to moisture loss,
which is an irreversible process; that is, it does not regain its original volume upon cooling, whereas aggregates expand during the
heating process and may occupy the space created by the shrinkage of the cement paste. Although the thermal expansion of aggregates
is typically reversible, their contraction during cooling is not accompanied by the cement paste regaining its original volume, leading
to a gap at the interface.
Nadeem et al. [223] examined the microstructure of the ITZ in concrete composed of crushed granite aggregates after exposure to
normal and elevated temperatures by quantitative analysis of SEM images. It is observed that the pore area fraction in the ITZ in
concrete continuously increased with the increasing temperature (27 ◦ C–800 ◦ C), which means that the degradation of the micro
structure resulted in compressive strength and durability losses at elevated temperatures. Nadeem et al. [224] described the physical
condition of ITZ at three temperature ranges, namely: low-range temperatures (27 ◦ C–200 ◦ C), medium range temperatures
(200 ◦ C–400 ◦ C) and high-range temperatures (400 ◦ C–800 ◦ C). Different types of flaws were identified in the ITZ, including texture,
orientation, and local flaws, with a notable increase in the fractions of orientation and local flaws with increasing temperature. With
increasing temperatures, the physical characteristics of the ITZ gradually changed from a discrete or discontinuous flaw zone at normal
or mildly elevated temperatures to a continuous and highly porous flaw zone at elevated temperatures, indicating that this shift was
responsible for the loss of the mechanical and durability properties of concrete.
Extensive studies have shown that the degradation of mechanical performance is generally related to ITZ microcracks under
conditions of sharp temperature variations. Kanellopoulos et al. [225] proposed that the mechanical performance of high-performance
concrete decreased mainly due to the development and propagation of ITZ cracks after 90 thermal cycles (20 ◦ C–90 ◦ C). Huang et al.
[226] selected samples from three different environmental thermal fatigue cycles (0, 150, and 330) for BSE analysis to verify the effect
of environmental thermal fatigue on the ITZ microstructure. It can be seen that microcracks were mainly located in the ITZ during
environmental thermal fatigue cycling, and the area percentage of ITZ microcracks was over 70 %. This is attributed to the ITZ having a
higher porosity and lower elastic modulus than the matrix. Ye et al. [227] conducted the BSE image analysis of the mortar sample after
the thermal cycle in a temperature range of 20 ◦ C–60 ◦ C. The microstructure observed by SEM indicated that the ITZ and hardened
cement paste were the weak regions in the mortar sample and were susceptible to temperature variations. An increase in the maximum
cycling temperature induces deterioration of the ITZ and results in an expansion of the cracks located in the ITZ. On the other hand,
more microcracks will be generated on the hardened cement paste surface as the maximum cycling temperature increases, which may
finally connect together and form a relatively large crack. The deterioration of the ITZ becomes more significant after the thermal cycle
in a temperature range of 20 ◦ C–70 ◦ C. In addition to cracks located around the ITZ, microcracks were easily observed on the hardened
cement paste surface.
However, different concrete deterioration mechanisms were observed under low- and high-temperature conditions. Ziaei-Nia et al.
[228] found that freeze–thaw cycles under normal conditions can cause concrete damage owing to relatively large differences between
the aggregate and cement paste stresses and ITZ stresses. Yang et al. [229,230] investigated the evolution process of concrete ITZ under
the coupling function of fatigue load and freeze–thaw and evaluated the microstructure characteristics of concrete in different tem
perature areas, including low temperature (from –22 ◦ C to − 10 ◦ C) and high temperature (32 ◦ C–40 ◦ C). The results indicated that the
ITZ structure deteriorated considerably under the coupling effect of fatigue load and freeze–thaw, such that the micro-hardness was
reduced significantly and the width of the ITZ increased. Remarkably, the deterioration phenomenon at low temperatures was more
significant than that at high temperatures.
In addition to being affected by factors such as temperature and freeze–thaw cycles, the mechanical properties of ITZ are also
affected by the combined effects of humidity and temperature, which are typically reflected in different curing methods [231,232].
Under standard curing, the ITZ of the concrete is closely connected to the matrix without evident micro-cracks. In contrast, the ITZ in
concrete under autoclaved curing is clearly different from that observed under standard curing and steam curing, primarily due to a
notable alteration in the composition of the concrete hydration products induced by autoclaved curing. The microstructure of ITZ
under autoclaved curing is denser than that under standard curing [233]. Zhang et al. [234] found that autoclaved curing facilitated
the consumption of CH crystals in the ITZ by secondary hydration, resulting in the formation of relatively dense tobermorite and thus a
more densified the ITZ. Both steam curing and autoclaved curing enhance the microhardness of ITZ compared to standard curing.
3.5. Other factors
According to various investigations of ITZ based on both experimental and numerical methods, the physical features and me
chanical properties of ITZ could also be affected by other variables, including the curing age and sand grain size, except for the
affecting factors presented above.
As presented in Sections 2.2, and 2.3, it was demonstrated that the curing age has a significant effect on both the thickness and
porosity of the ITZ. In the initial stage of hydration, cement particles exposed to water start the hydration process, resulting in
20
formation of initial hydration products. Due to the uneven contact between cement particles and the aggregate surface, the micro
structure with greater porosity is formed within ITZ. As hydration progresses to around 28 days, the continuous accumulation of
hydration products incrementally fills the pores within ITZ, resulting in a progressively denser structure. At this stage, the micro
structure and mechanical properties of ITZ gradually approach those of the surrounding cement paste. Nonetheless, the ITZ remains,
for an extended duration, the most vulnerable segment within the concrete, exhibiting relatively elevated porosity and permeability.
However, the ITZ remains the weakest area in concrete, with a relatively higher porosity and permeability. Subsequently, the concrete
enters a stable hydration phase, which lasts for several months or even years. In this prolonged stage, the hydration reaction becomes
very slow, the concrete continues to gain strength, but at a much slower rate. A longer curing age led to a higher degree of hydration,
which significantly reduced the porosity within the ITZ, owing to the filling action of the hydration products.
There have been several long-term studies on concrete [23,106,130,210,235], investigating properties such as strength, durability,
and permeability over periods ranging from months to multiple decades, often focusing on the characteristics of ITZ in relation to
aging. Some researchers developed advanced computational models and simulations to predict the evolution of the ITZ. These models
can simulate the hydration processes and microstructural development over extended periods. For example, Gao et al. [13] employed a
continuum integrated model HYMOSTRUC to simulate the composite microstructure of aggregate-ITZ-bulk paste in concrete, focusing
on both the initial state and after 56 days of curing. Some studies [80] regarded the model structure at 100-hour hydration as
representative of mature concrete, and the computer simulation revealed that gradient structures were qualitatively maintained during
maturation. To simulate the acting process of cement hydration, the modified status-oriented computer model by Ma et al. [131]
indicated that the differences in porosities between ITZ and paste gradually decreased with the hydration process and nearly remained
constant at mature ages, which was supported by experimental findings [9]. Furthermore, the obtained simulation results also indi
cated that the thickness of the ITZ was a function of the curing age, and the thickness would decreased or even disappeared with
increasing curing age, significantly decreasing from 7d to 28d [43]. Additionally, some experimental studies have been conducted to
reveal the correlation between the aging of concrete and physical characteristics of ITZ. Considering that the hydration products of the
concrete changed at different ages, Liao et al. [106] selected various ages of 1, 7, 14, 28 and 56 days to analyze the interfacial
characteristics of paste and aggregate and discuss the relationship between macroscopic properties and microstructures based on the
SEM microstructural analysis. Through the investigation into the development of hydration products within transition zone for
different ages, it was found that the density of the hydration products increased as the curing age increased, and the density of hy
dration products increased as the distance from the aggregate edge increased at any curing age.
The influence of the cement particle size on the ITZ thickness in conventional concrete has been illustrated in detail in previous
studies [66], as mentioned in Section 2.3.1. Using a vector-based microstructural modelling platform, Sharma et al. [40] conducted a
parametric study to investigate the effects of various factors, including the w/c and particle size of cement and aggregates, on the
thickness and microstructure of the ITZ. This study also concluded that the ITZ thickness was mainly determined by the size of the
cement grains rather than that of aggregates, which is consistent with the results obtained in other studies [155]. The porosity dis
tributions along the direction away from the aggregate boundary for different sand grades of mortar were evaluated [42], as shown in
Fig. 14. The results revealed that finer sand resulted in a thinner ITZ.
Research on the ITZ is crucial for understanding its characteristics such as porosity, thickness, volume, and chemical composition.
These factors are essential designing concrete structures that can withstand harsh environments like marine settings, chemical
exposure, or extreme temperatures. For instance, in areas with high acidity or alkalinity, such as near marine settings or areas where
deicing salts are frequently used, a denser ITZ with lower porosity is beneficial. This structure impedes the penetration of acidic or
alkaline solutions and significantly slows down the penetration of chloride. Thereby, optimizing the porosity of ITZ plays a pivotal role
in protecting both the concrete and its steel reinforcements from corrosive damage. Additionally, in colder regions, the ITZ in concrete
is more vulnerable to damage during freeze–thaw cycles due to its higher porosity and weaker microstructure. To counter this, various
Fig. 14. Comparison of porosity distributions for all mortars made with various sand sizes along the direction from aggregate surface to paste [42].
21
mineral admixtures are commonly employed to enhance the pore structure of ITZ by chemically reacting with calcium hydroxide
released during cement hydration, resulting in the formation of additional cementitious compounds. Such enhancements result in a
denser ITZ microstructure with smaller, more evenly distributed pores, which robustly resists freeze–thaw cycles, thus markedly
reducing the risk of frost damage. In short, research on the ITZ of concrete is pivotal in enhancing the performance and durability of
concrete structures, particularly in environments that pose specific challenges like extreme temperatures or chemical exposure.
4. Conclusions and perspectives
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on the physical features and mechanical prop
erties of the ITZ, such as the porosity, thickness, volume, and elastic modulus, which are quantitatively characterized based on a
summary and comparison of extensive literature using theoretical, experimental, and numerical methods. The factors influencing the
physical and mechanical properties of the ITZ are evaluated, as illustrated in Fig. 15. These factors include the mineral addition, grain
size distribution of cement, w/c ratio, aggregate content, diameter and size distribution of aggregates, type of aggregate, and curing
age. These can be classified into direct and indirect factors according to their influence on the microstructure and total volume of the
ITZ, as described in Section 1. Based on a summary and comparison of large quantities of work, the following conclusions can be
drawn.
(1) Accurate characterization of the physical features of the ITZ is the premise for implementing reliable numerical simulations,
especially with regard to its thickness and elastic modulus. These properties provide valuable insights for refining ITZ modelling
in concrete for subsequent investigations. However, in most existing studies, these two types of physical features of the ITZ are
simply determined as constant parameters, which may make it difficult to fully reflect the influence of the variability and
heterogeneity of the ITZ on the macro-mechanical behavior and failure mechanism of concrete. Therefore, introducing more
advanced numerical models that incorporate the gradient distribution of the physical features of the ITZ to simulate the damage
accumulation process in concrete accurately may be a meaningful direction in the future. Specifically, ITZ thickness should be
determined based on the aggregate particle size, with larger particles resulting in a proportionately thicker ITZ that statistically
follows a normal distribution pattern. Correspondingly, the elastic modulus of the ITZ should follow a gradient distribution as a
quadratic function of distance from the aggregate boundary.
(2) Although analytical models of concrete considering the existence of the ITZ have been extensively studied, most have focused on
estimating its elastic modulus and volume fraction by evaluating the elastic modulus of the cement matrix and the aggregate
volume fraction. However, the uneven distribution of stress field and strain gradient within the ITZ region, owing to its ir
regularity and heterogeneity, is still not well explained. Therefore, the development of an analytical model that considers
uneven stress fields within the ITZ to predict the varying bonding strength remains an important topic for future research.
(3) The microstructure and physical features of the ITZ are significantly influenced by multiple factors. Among these factors, the w/
c ratio, curing age, cement fineness, surface texture of aggregates, and mineral addition directly affect the morphological
features and microstructure of the ITZ by influencing the formation and distribution of various unhydrated and hydrated
products during the hydration process. The size distribution and content of the aggregates do not significantly affect the for
mation and microstructure of the ITZ, but they do have a significant influence on the ITZ volume. The ITZ volume fraction is
primarily determined by the ITZ thickness, with the aggregate content being the secondary factor. For a given volume of ag
gregates and ITZ thickness, the ITZ volumes decrease monotonically with increasing maximum equivalent diameter of the
aggregates.
(4) Improving the ITZ microstructure is a feasible strategy for enhancing the bonding strength and macro-mechanical performance
of concrete. Improvements in the properties of the ITZ can be achieved through the addition of mineral admixtures, increasing
the curing age, and adjusting the w/c ratio and sand fineness. These approaches aim to enhance the properties of the ITZ,
particularly its porosity and elastic modulus, by increasing the adhesion between the paste and aggregates and filling the
micropores within the cement matrix, thereby improving its structural density and mechanical properties. Although rougher
aggregates may lead to higher ITZ porosity, increased surface roughness can improve the interfacial strength against frictional
resistance and increase the required fracture area within the ITZ regions. Moreover, the actual size distribution of aggregates
should be optimized to approach the Fuller distribution as soon as possible in the design of concrete engineering.
Additionally, considering the booming advancements in deep learning and data mining, tremendous progress has been made in
recent decades in selecting constituent contents as key features for model inputs to predict a given set of target properties of concrete.
Through the quick extraction of valuable information, neural network models exhibit significant advantages in establishing quanti
tative relationships between microstructures and the macro-physical and mechanical behaviors of the ITZ. Future research could be
conducted using a neural network model. (1) Quickly identify the ITZ phase in concrete and determine its width by analyzing the ITZ
microstructure using SEM-BSE image. (2) Establish a functional relationship between the mechanical properties of the ITZ and its
components. (3) Based on a comprehensive database of experiments and meso-scale simulations of concrete, the macro mechanical
properties and fracture performance of the ITZ can be accurately predicted by processing a set of initial inputs including the mix
compositions and curing conditions.
22
Fig. 15. The relationship between various affecting factors and the multiscale characterization of ITZ.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Qingqing Chen: Data curation, Writingoriginal draft, Investigation, Resources. Jie Zhang: Conceptualization, Funding acquisi
tion, Writing-review & editing, Supervision. Zhiyong Wang: Conceptualization, Writing-review & editing. Tingting Zhao: Writing-
review & editing, Resources. Zhihua Wang: Writing-review & editing, Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 12102292, 12102294, 12272257), the
special fund for Science and Technology Innovation Teams of Shanxi Province (Nos. 202204051002006). The financial contributions
are gratefully acknowledged.
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Engineering Fracture Mechanics 300 (2024) 109979

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Fracture Mechanics

A review of the interfacial transition zones in concrete:

examination of various factors influencing these properties.

2. Physical and mechanical features of ITZ

2.1. Methodologies for identifying and measuring ITZ

2.3.1. Thickness measurement

2.3.2. Thickness in numerical modellings

Asbridge et al. [146] 2002 20μ m-100μ m Microhardness testing

Fig. 6. Typical ITZ modelling methods in numerical simulations [32,36,37,49,167].

has only been validated for image-based models [162].

2.5. Mechanical properties

2.5.1. Elastic modulus

2.5.2. Macroscopic strengths

Fig. 8. Different distribution of elastic modulus of ITZ in concrete.

3. Factors affecting on the physical and mechanical properties of ITZ

3.1. Mineral addition

3.2.1. Type of aggregates

3.2.2. Diameter and size distribution of aggregates

3.3. Water-cement ratio

3.4. Environmental factors

3.5. Other factors

4. Conclusions and perspectives

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of competing interest

Data will be made available on request.

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