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Characterization of barite ores from selected locations in Nigeria for drilling

fluid formulation

Article in Scientific African · November 2021

DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e01057

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 Scientific African 14 (2021) e01057

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Scientific African
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sciaf

Characterization of barite ores from selected locations in

Nigeria for drilling fluid formulation
Ebunu Ighoro Abraham a,∗, Bamidele Lawrence Bayode b, Peter Apata Olubambi b,
Adelana Rasak Adetunji a,c, Azikiwe Peter Onwualu a
a
Materials Science and Engineering Department, African University of Science and Technology, Abuja, Nigeria
b
Centre for Nanomechanaics and Tribocorrosion, School of Mining, Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of Johannesburg,
South Africa
c
Material Science and Engineering Department, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile Ife, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Barite is a non-metallic mineral composed of barium sulfate and is largely used by the
Received 1 December 2020 oil and gas industry during drilling operations to control reservoir pressure. According to
Revised 4 November 2021
the American Petroleum Institute (API) standard, the specific gravity of barite should be a
Accepted 16 November 2021
minimum of 4.1 to be applied as an additive in drilling fluid. In Nigeria, barite deposits are
found in veins and cavity fillings hosted by varieties of rocks. Despite the abundance of
Editor: DR B Gyampoh barites reserves in Nigeria, the barites used in the Nigerian oil industry are imported from
other countries. Therefore, in this research, barite deposits in some selected troughs in
Keywords:
Nigeria were sampled and studied to determine their chemical composition and suitability
Barite
as drilling fluid additives. The specific gravity of barites in the following states: Nasarawa,
Specific gravity
Benue trough Benue, Plateau, Cross River, and Taraba was determined using the Pycnometer method, and
Drilling fluid their values were found to range from 2.9 to 4.3 on average. The quality of barite varies
Beneficiation from location to location and with depth. The barite quality was enhanced when some
low-grade barites were blended with a high grade, as shown in the blended samples of
Plateau States, where specific gravity increased from 2.9 to 3.7. The results of XRF, E.D.X.
and S.E.M. analysis of the samples show a predominance of BaO, Fe2 O3 , SrSO4, and SiO2 .
Samples from Benue (89.4% BaSO4 ) and Taraba (96.5% BaSO4 ) States met API standard for
drilling mud application in terms of chemical composition, specific gravity, and a particle
size distribution, while samples from Cross River (83.16% BaSO4 ), Nasarawa (77% BaSO4 ),
and Plateau (10.88% BaSO4 ) States need to be upgraded to meet the standard for usage as
drilling fluid additives. However, they can be used as extenders or fillers in the rubber and
paper industry.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of
Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aebunu@aust.edu.ng (E.I. Abraham).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e01057
2468-2276/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
E.I. Abraham, B.L. Bayode, P.A. Olubambi et al. Scientific African 14 (2021) e01057

Introduction

The primary source of income for the Nigerian economy is the oil and gas industry. As long as the activities of the
petroleum industry are maintained, the barite will be essential for its success. For example, even though available infor-
mation reveals that Nigeria’s oil and gas industry requires about 440,0 0 0 t of barite for the year 2020, which is valued at
$96 million [1], It is also estimated that $300 million will be saved from the importation of barite [2]. Barite is one of the
additives needed for drilling fluid formulation to control reservoir pressure and prevent blowout during drilling operations
[3,4]. Barite is non-metallic and the major source of barium. It usually occurs in a coarse crystalline form associated with
secondary minerals or gangue. Barite is not only produced from its deposit but can also be processed from the ores of other
minerals, which exist as gangue [5–9]. The American Petroleum Institute (API) specifies a minimum specific gravity of 4.1
before any barite can be used for drilling fluids formulation [10].
The Nigeria Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) was the first to report on Barite mineralization in Nigeria in its memo-
randum report 1959 [11], but no interest was shown with regards to its exploration at that time [12]. However, between
1975 and 1980, the Nigerian Mining Corporation carried out exploratory work on barite deposits in Azara, Nasarawa State
in North-Central Nigeria. It had an estimated reserve of about 730,0 0 0 tonnes of barite [13]. In 2004, the Federal Ministry
of Solid Minerals Development [14] reported only two states with barite mineralization. But today, additional States with
barite mineralization have been identified.
The Nigeria Geological Survey Agency [9] gives the occurrence and deposits of barite in the following states: Nasarawa,
Adamawa, Ebonyi, Benue, Cross River, Plateau, Gombe, Taraba, and Zamfara [12,15–22]. It shows that the current mineral-
ization of barite in Nigeria is across the N-S axis. The barite deposits in Nigeria located in the North-East are specifically
along the Benue Trough, which includes states like Benue, Taraba, and Adamawa; towards the North (Nasarawa, Plateau, and
Gombe states) and to the South fringe of Cross River [20,23–25]. Also, barite deposits are found in Zamfara and Katsina in
the North-West region of Nigeria [20,24,25].
There are at least ten barite fields that are found in the trough. Each of them contains swarms of veins that are of
hydrothermal origin. Two trends of veins exist in the trough: the NW-SE trend that tends to be orthogonal to the axis of
the trough, and the N-S to NNE-SSW trend that is younger than the former. Both sets of veins were formed as a result of
different post-sedimentary deformation phases that occurred in the trough [21,24]. The veins have a simple block profile
ranging in width from a few centimetres to as high as 6 m, although widths are usually between 50 cm and 1 m. This
indicates that the concentrations of barium sulfate in the hydrothermal fluids in the trough were probably low during the
Cretaceous period [20,24]. The top of the vein has low-quality barite, but deeper down the vein contains high-quality barite.
Hence, mining the veins that are of lower quality barite should be preceded by vertical stripping [21].
The properties of barite vary from location to location and along with the depth. For example, Ribi is a site that is located
a few kilometres south of Azara. The barite quality is poor at Azara but much better at Ribi. In all the cases studied by Oden
[21], the properties of barite from the topmost part of a vein (0–5 m depth) tested were lower than barite samples from the
deeper parts of the same vein. This implies that much of the touted barite reflects the characteristics of the field in question.
At a depth of 15 m and below, higher quality barites were obtained. For large-scale barite mining in the trough, ten fields
have been identified, and these include the Didango, Gombe, Azara, Lessel, Yala, Keana, Guma, Kumar, Ihugh, and Ibi fields
[21,26]. There are more veins of low quality in Nigeria producing medium to high-quality barite than that producing low-
quality barite in the trough. There is also a large gap between the supply and demand of barite, and prices of barite have
been unstable over the years as a result of quality issues. Hence there is a need to improve the barite mining technique [27]
In Nigeria, most of the barites used by the oil and gas industry are imported. In 2015, 17,406 tonnes of barite were
imported from China, the U.S.A., and the U.K., while in 2012, 13,678 tonnes of barite were imported from the Netherlands
[28]. It is assumed by the oil and gas companies in Nigeria that barites produced in the country do not meet the required
standards for application in drilling fluids. To change this, it becomes necessary to give data and information on barites in
Nigeria concerning the occurrence, reserves estimate, mining sites, and the processing and quality of barites. There should
be baseline data to attract investors, especially the oil and gas industry since they are the primary consumers of barites.
The objective of this study was to analyze barite samples from some locations in Nigeria, compare Nigeria barites quality
with API standard specifications, and create an awareness of the quality of barite in Nigeria, its utilization, and prospects to
encourage local production.

Research methods

Samples of barite from five different locations in Nigeria were used for this research. Barite mining sites in these locations
were visited to examine barite mineralization within the areas. The samples collected were characterized to determine their
suitability as drilling fluid additives using API standards as a benchmark.

Sampling of barite

Barite samples were collected from barite mining sites being worked by artisanal miners in the following states in Nige-
ria; Benue, Cross River, Nasarawa, Plateau, and the Taraba States. After the topsoil is removed to expose the barite vein,
explosives are used to break the barite rocks. The bulk samples were collected manually from already mined barite ore at

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E.I. Abraham, B.L. Bayode, P.A. Olubambi et al. Scientific African 14 (2021) e01057

Table 1
Location and physical characteristics of barite samples for analysis.

States LGA GPS Coordinates Physical Appearances/color Texture

Nassarawa Azara 8° 21 44.712  N White Coarse grained

8°45 54.036  E
Benue Guma 7° 20 6.432  N Reddish Brown Medium to Coarse-grained
8° 45 54.036  E
Plateau kanam 9° 46 20.532  N White Very Coarse-grained
8° 48 50.184  E
Cross River Baise 4° 55 57.756  N Reddish Brown Fine –grained
8° 19 13.26  E
Taraba Karim Lamido 9° 18 45.54  N Cream Fine- grained
11° 11 24.504  E

a depth of about 10 m and examined to understand the physical characteristics, texture, and color similarities of the rocks
in the deposits, as shown in Table 1. From each site, representative samples were picked from veins with width ranging
from a few centimetres to about 5 m and length of about 40 0 0meters and kept in samples bags with name tags on them.
The collected samples were washed, dried, and crushed to appreciable sizes for geochemical and sieve analysis and spe-
cific gravity determination. All the materials were obtained as lumps, ground, and pulverized to powder. The samples were
coded as follows: A= Nasarawa (Azara), B = Benue (Guma), C = Plateau (Kanam), D= Cross River States (Baise) and E=
Taraba (Karim Lamido). Both the sample preparation and analysis were carried out in the chemical and physical laboratories
of the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (National Geosciences Research Laboratory, Kaduna) and the Nigerian Building and
Road Research Institute, Abuja.

X-ray fluorescence analysis

The samples collected were ground to powder using a pulverizing machine (planetary micro mill pulverisette 7). The
pulverized samples were sieved using 150 micro mesh sieves. For pelletizing, 5 g of the powdered sample was weighed
into a beaker, with 1 g of binding aid (starch soluble). The mixture was thoroughly mixed to ensure homogeneity and was
pressed at high pressure to produce pellets, labeled, and packaged, ready for analysis. Energy Dispersive X-ray fluorescence
(EDXRF) spectrometer of model "Minipal 4 was used for the examination. The voltage used was 14 kV for major oxides,
20 kV for the trace elements/rare earth metals, and the selected filters were "Kapton" for major oxides, Ag/Al-thin for the
trace elements/rare earth metals.

Loss on ignition (L.O.I.)

L.O.I. was determined gravimetrically by adding 1 g of the pulverized sample into a cleaned crucible whose dry weight
had been determined, and the crucible was heated to 10 0 0 °C. Thereafter, the weight of the crucible containing the sample
was determined. The L.O.I. was calculated using the relationship below Eq. (1).
a−b
LOI = × 100% → H2 O+ (1)
a
where a = weight of crucible + 1 g of the sample before heating
b = weight of crucible + 1 g of the sample after heating

Scanning electron microscopic analysis

A scanning electron microscope (SEM/EDX) was used to determine the surface morphology of materials and elemental
composition. The surface morphology and the elemental composition of the barite samples were determined using scanning
electron microscope model Zeiss Evo L.S. 10

Determination of specific gravity

Barite samples of 15.36 g and 15.38 g respectively were obtained by riffling due to the size of the density bottle. The
samples were then oven-dried at 105 °C and placed in an airtight container. The density bottle was washed, dried, and
its weight was determined as M1 . The sample was transferred to the density bottle and weighed with the stopper as M2 .
Enough air-free distilled water was added to cover the sample in the bottle. The bottle was placed without a stopper in the
vacuum desiccator to reduce the pressure gradually to about 25KPa, and the bottle was left for at least 1 hour under vacuum
until no further loss of air was apparent. The vacuum was released, and the desiccator lid was removed.This method was
repeated several times until air was no longer evolving from the sample. The density bottle in the desiccator was removed,
and air-free water was added until it was filled up. The density bottle filled with water was placed in the constant water

3
E.I. Abraham, B.L. Bayode, P.A. Olubambi et al. Scientific African 14 (2021) e01057

bath for at least one hour for the bottle to attain the temperature of the bath. The bottle was removed from the bath and
wiped dry. Then the bottle with the sample and water were weighed as M3 . The bottle was emptied, air-dried, and weighed
as M4 . The specific gravity was calculated using the relationship in Eq. (2).
M2 − M1
s= (2)
( M4 − M1 ) − ( M3 − M2 )
Where: Ɋs= Specific gravity, M1 = mass of density bottle, M2 = mass of bottle and dry sample, M3 = mass of bottle and
sample and liquid, M4 = mass of bottle and liquid

Determination of particle size distribution using sedimentation technique

This technique looks at the distribution of the barite particle size passing through 75 μm sieve and particles less than
six μm sieve. This is important because the finer the particle, the more easily a homogenous solution will be formed for
drilling mud applications [29]. The dried barite samples were poured onto the top sieve and shaken by hand to get the
weight retained. The total weight of all the particles larger than each sieve size was determined and divided by the total
sample weight to obtain the percentage of particles retained for that sieve size, and this value was subtracted from 100% to
obtain the percentage of particles that passed through the sieve.
The samples were dried in an oven at 65 °C, weighed to 0.01 g, and then placed in a 10 0 0 ml beaker. 10 0 ml of the
standard dispersant solution was added to the sample. The mixture was thoroughly shaken using a high-speed cup and
stirred for about 1 hour until all the samples were in suspension. The suspended barite particles were washed on a 63 μm
sieve using 500 mL distilled water. The retained particles on the 63 μm sieve were placed on an evaporating dish and
dried in an oven at 105 °C. When cooled, the material was sieved on 2 mm, 600 μm, and 63 μm and weighed to 0.01 g.
The material passing the 63 μm sieve was added to a sedimentation cylinder. The sedimentation cylinder was filled with
distilled water to the 1 L graduation mark and placed in the constant-temperature bath, set at 25 °C.
A second cylinder that contains 100 mL of the dispersant solution was filled with distilled water to exactly 1 L, placed
in the constant temperature water bath. The solution was heated for 1 hour to allow the temperature in the cylinder and
water bath to become uniform. The cylinder was inverted with the solution for ten seconds and placed in the constant
temperature bath again. The rubber bung was removed, and the hydrometer was inserted steadily and allowed to float
freely. Care was taken such that it was not allowed to bulb up and down or to rotate.
Readings of the hydrometer were taken from 0 to 4 min. The hydrometer was removed slowly, rinsed in distilled water,
and placed in the distilled water inside a separate cylinder in the constant temperature bath. The reading was taken and
recorded to the nearest meniscus. The hydrometer was inserted slowly about 15 s before reading was due and withdrawn
very carefully. The temperature variation of the water bath was observed after every recording. For temperatures varying
more than 1 °C, another reading was taken.

Results and discussion

X-ray spectrometry analysis of the barite samples

Table 2 shows the results of the X-Ray Spectrometry analysis of each of the barite samples. The oxide composition of the
barite samples analyzed shows that the samples are dominated by BaO, Fe2 O3, and SiO2 . Sample A has BaSO4 of 77.76% and
gangue materials such as Fe2 O3 (4.72%), SiO2 (15.20), and Celestite (SrSO4 ). The barite veins are rich in silica and hosted
by varieties of rocks such as mudstones, shale, limestones, and siltstones. The low value of BaSO4 is a result of the very
high silica content influenced by quarzitic host rock. Ministry of Mines and Steel Development [30] reported similar results
of the impurities present in some samples collected from other locations in the same state. Sample B has BaSO4 (89.54%),
SiO2 (6.49), and Fe2 O3 (4.72%). The sample is rich in sulfur at about 22.05% from the E.D.X. report. Mineralization of Sample
B is in the form of fissure filling hosted with shale and sandstones. The quality of barite is also affected by the associated
minerals. Sample C is a very low barite grade dominated by calcite (49.91%), BaSO4 (10.88%), and Fe2 O3 (2.37%). This agrees
with E.D.X. results with a value of 89.2% of calcium. Most of the locations in the state previously reported by the Ministry
of Mines and Steel Development [30] have barite mineralization found to be veins of calcite and celestite (SrSO4 ) with lower
S.G. values. Both minerals are impurities in the barites. While the content of celestite is insignificant in all the samples, that
of calcite is quite high, thus lowering the specific gravity. Sample D has BaSO4 (83.16%), SiO2 (10.2%), and Fe2 O3 (4.34%). The
host rock is hard, and the sample is rich in silica and hematite. Sample E has the highest oxide composition of BaSO4 (96.5%)
and SiO2 (1%), and as such, meets the API standard required for drilling mud applications. The result of the chemical analysis
in Table 3 shows that samples A, C, and D can be used as fillers or extenders in paper and rubber industries but require
further upgrading to be used as drilling fluid additives. However, Samples B and E meet API standards for drilling fluid
additives. In order to enhance the barite quality, gravity separation is required. It is one of the oldest separation techniques
for the beneficiation of minerals known for its low cost, easy to control, and eco-friendly nature [31]. The barite is separated
from the associated host rocks by gravity. In this beneficiation process, the specific gravity of barite is enough to separate
it from silica. Thereafter this should be followed by a magnetic separation process to remove gangue such as hematite.
Hematite is paramagnetic because it has only ferric ions (Fe3+ ). Its magnetic properties are a result of unpaired electrons.

4
E.I. Abraham, B.L. Bayode, P.A. Olubambi et al. Scientific African 14 (2021) e01057

Table 2
XRF results of the barite samples.

Oxide’s composition (%) A B C D E

SiO2 15.20 6.49 ND 10.20 1.00

TiO2 ND ND ND ND ND
Al2 O3 ND ND ND ND 0.003
Fe2 O3 4.72 1.42 2.37 4.34 0.13
CaO ND 0.653 49.91 ND ND
MgO ND 0.113 ND ND ND
MnO ND ND 1.07 ND ND
SO3 20.08 21.76 1.50 19.06 33.10
Na2 O 0.07 0.02 ND ND ND
K2 O 0.06 0.005 ND ND ND
NiO ND ND ND 0.006 ND
SrO 0.997 0.467 1.07 0.869 0.60
CuO 0.064 0.057 0.027 0.051 0.074
ZnO 0.024 0.097 ND ND ND
BaO 57.68 67.78 9.38 64.10 63.40
Ga2 O3 ND ND ND ND 0.008
OsO4 ND ND ND ND 0.02
WO3 ND ND ND ND 0.03
L.O. I 1.10 1.13 34.67 1.37 1.20
∗
ND = Not Detected.

Table 3
Chemical oxide content of barite compared with standard barite composition.
∗
Oxide composition% Sample A% Sample B% Sample C% Sample D% Sample E% (API) Standard Chemical analyses%

BaSO4 77 89.54 10.88 83.16 96.50 95

Fe2 O3 4.72 1.42 2.37 4.34 0.13 0.03
CaO ND 0.653 49.91 ND ND 0.01
MgO ND 0.113 ND ND ND 0.04
Al2 O3 ND ND ND ND 0.003 0.035
SiO2 15.20 6.49 ND 10.20 1.00 0.01
SG 3.9 4.3 2.9 3.8 4.2 4.35

Therefore, hematite can be separated from barite using high-intensity magnetic separation methods, which use magnetic
fields with intensity ranging from 0.02 to 4.0 Tesla [32,33]. The separation of hematite particles can be enhanced to about
82% by reducing the particle size of the barite ore below 63 μm [34].

Microstructural analysis of the barite samples

Fig. 1 shows the S.E.M. micrograph results of the samples analyzed, which comprises well-connected dark regions with
sharp edges. Sample A consists of both fine and large irregular particles. The light-dark regions may suggest the presence
of barium, sulfur, and strontium, while the dark black region suggests the presence of quartz [35]. Hence Sample A is
predominantly barite according to the XRF and E.D.X. results in Tables 1and 3 and contains about 70% BaSO4 and fewer
gangue materials. However, for it to meet the API standard for drilling mud applications, it needs to be upgraded through
beneficiation processes to remove the gangue. Sample B going by Haq et al. [35] report, is mostly dominated by BaSO4,
and from the results of the XRF and E.D.X. analyses, the sample may contain about 90% BaSO4 with a limited number of
associated minerals, and the particle sizes are irregular.
Sample C consists of both coarse and granular irregular-shaped particles. These predominant granular-shaped particles
may show the presence of calcite. The sample is more of calcite, as shown in Tables 1and 2. Sample D has both coarse and
fine particles. The silica content is relatively high, which is about 10%, while BaSO4 occupies 80% of the total composition,
as shown in Table 1 and 2. Further processing of these barite samples is required to increase the% BaSO4 from 80 to 95 to
be applicable on API standard [36,37,38]. Sample E has the best oxide composition from the XRF result in Table 2 and with
more light-dark regions going by Haq et al. [35] report. This suggests that the BaSO4 compound dominates the barite ore
sample. The information on the S.E.M. images is in agreement with the XRF result shown in Table 2. Hence sample G meets
some of the API specifications for drilling mud (% BaSO4 ).

Specific gravity of the barite samples

Table 4 shows the specific gravity (S.G.) for all the samples analyzed. The specific gravity values for the barite samples
range from 2.9 to 4.3 on average. Samples B and E meets the API standard of 4.1 SG, which is the minimum S.G. needed
for drilling mud applications. Samples A, C, and D were below API standard but can be improved through the product

5
E.I. Abraham, B.L. Bayode, P.A. Olubambi et al. Scientific African 14 (2021) e01057

Fig. 1. Micrograph of Sample A.

Table 4
EDX analyses result of samples.

Element Weight (A%) Weight (B%) Weight (C%) Weight (D%) Weight (E%)

O 0.98 1.15 3.47 1.35 0.34

Al 1.49 1.42 0 1.61 0.28
Ac 0 0 0.44 0 0
Si 39.95 1.83 0 30.1 0.74
Ca 0 0 89.2 0 0
Y 0.46 0 0 0 0
S 5.92 22.05 1.48 10.44 16.4
Te 0.38 0.57 0 0 0.71
Ba 42.23 72.19 3.29 48.71 80.14
Ce 2.34 0 0.39 0 0
Nd 0 0.04 0 0 0.63
Fe 6.25 0.73 1.77 7.79 0.35

Table 5
Specific gravity of the barite samples.

Samples States LGA SG

A Nasarawa Azara 3.8–3.9

B Benue Guma 4.3–4.4
C Plateau Kanam 2.8–2.9
D Cross River Baise 3.8–3.9
E Taraba Karim Lamido 4.2–4.3

mix process. The results shown in Table SM1 are in agreement with the claims made by the Ministry of Mines and Steel
Development as presented in Table 5. This indicates that barites in Nigeria can meet the API standard of 4.1 SG and would
bear comparable properties with resources in other parts of the world if the properties are improved by beneficiation and
product mixing. Some of the Nigerian barites can compete with barites in the global market and serve as an investment
destination for interested partners in the barite business, either partnering with existing titleholders, outrightly obtaining
titles, or in the supply of equipment for underground mining [38].
There is the possibility that associated minerals such as lead and iron, which are heavier than barite, would tend to
increase the S.G unnecessarily. The contents of such minerals would have been revealed from the characterization results.
If this happens, such minerals should be reduced to a minimum or removed by appropriate beneficiation methods. In this
study, the presence of these minerals is not considered high. We, therefore, conclude that the S.G. of our samples is the
accurate measurement.

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E.I. Abraham, B.L. Bayode, P.A. Olubambi et al. Scientific African 14 (2021) e01057

Product mix from various deposits is a common occurrence in the final preparation of barite for oil drilling mud. This
becomes necessary for two reasons: when the product from a particular site is grossly inadequate in terms of quantity for
extensive application, and when the S.G. from a specific location is just nearly below the required specification.
In this work, Sample B barite has an S.G. range of 4.3 – 4.4, Sample A 3.8 – 3.9, and Sample C 2.8 – 2.9, as shown
in Table 5. The blending of Sample A with Sample C yielded an average of S.G. of 3.7, while the blending of Sample B
with Sample C also yielded an average of 3.7 (Table SM4). It is expected that blending Sample E with other samples would
yield similar results. However, an S.G. of 3.7 is very much below the required specification. Thus an extensive calculation of
mixing ratios would have to be applied to arrive at products with the required specification.

Sedimentation analysis of the barite samples

All the graphs for the hydrometer analysis were plotted on the semi-log scale indicating percentage passing against sieve
sizes. The blue line, which is the line of the best fit, represents the dry sieve component, while the red represents the wet
sieve, respectively. Particles of barite passing through sieve size 63 μm were subjected to hydrometer analysis which applies
stokes law for the particle classification up to clay sizes as shown on each graph. The hydrometer analysis was connected
following BS 1377: part 2: 1990.
Figure SM2 shows the particle size distribution chart for sample A. For particles less than 6 μm in diameter, 7% weight
was obtained at 120 min and below. The particles become finer as the diameter of the particles reduces with time, as shown
in Table SM6. Table SM5 shows nothing was retained at 75 μm. Hence Sample A meets the API standard for particle size
distribution. Figure SM3 shows the particle size distribution chart for sample B. At about 6 μm and less in diameter, 24%
weight was obtained at 120 min as shown in Table SM8. At 75 μm, nothing is retained. Table SM8 shows that the barite
particles are finer as the diameter of the particles reduces. Hence Sample B meets the API standard for sieve analysis.
Figure SM4 shows the particle size distribution chart for sample C. Table SM10, 4% weight was obtained at 6 μm and
less, and at75 μm, 42.65% was retained for dry sieve analysis. In addition, Table S.M. 10 shows that the barite particles are
finer as the diameter of the particles reduces. Sample C in terms of sieve analysis does not meet the API standard. Figure
SM5 shows particle size distribution chart for sample D. At about 6 μm in diameter and less 19% weight was obtained as
shown in Table SM12, the percentage by weight retained is zero at 75 μm, no portion of the sample was retained shown in
Table S.M. 11. Table SM12 shows that the barite particles are finer as the diameter of the particles reduces. Similarly, sample
D in terms of sieve analysis meets the API standard.
Figure SM6 shows the particle size distribution chart for sample E. At about 6 μm the percentage by weight retained is
10% at 120 min and below as shown in Table SM14, and at 75 μm, no material was retained for dry sieve analysis. Table
SM14 shows that the barite particles are finer as the diameter of the particles reduces. In terms of sieve analysis, sample E
meets the API standards for particle size distribution. In summary, samples A, B, D, and E meet the specification of API in
terms of the particle size distribution except for sample C because it has a very high calcite content.

Conclusions

Barite samples from five different locations in Nigeria were analyzed for their suitability as drilling fluid additives, as
shown in the results displayed in Table 5. The results of XRF, E.D.X. and S.E.M. analysis of the samples show a predom-
inance of gangue minerals such as celestite, silica, and hematite which significantly lowers the quality of barite. These
gangue materials can be removed using gravity separation and high-intensity magnetic separation. Specific gravity values
of the barite samples range from 2.9 to 4.3 on average. Samples B from Guma (BaSO4 89.54%) and E from Karim lamido
(BaSO4 96.50%) met the API standard of 4.1 SG and particle size distribution necessary for drilling mud application. Samples
A from Azara (BaSO4 77.76%) and Samples D from Baise (BaSO4 83.16%) met only the API standard for particle size distri-
bution except for Samples C from Kanam that has a high calcite content. However, Samples Azara (BaSO4 77.76%), Kanam
(BaSO4 10.88%), and Baise (BaSO4 83.16%) need beneficiation from gangue minerals to be comparable to imported barite
for drilling mud application. However, they can be used as fillers or extenders in paper and rubber industries but require
further upgrading to be used as drilling fluid additives. The quality of barite varies from location to location and with depth,
as shown in Table SM3. When low-grade barite is blended with high grade, the quality is enhanced, as shown in Table SM4.
The specific gravity of sample C increases significantly from 2.9 to 3.7 on average. Hence blending and beneficiation will
improve the quality of barite. Therefore, there is a need to document all barites occurrences and encourage further research
on the exploration and quantification of barite deposits within the identified locations to determine reserve estimates to
guide investment decisions.

Credit author statement

A.I .Ebunu: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources,
Software, Validation, Visualization, Project administration, writing original draft, Writing review & editing.
B.L. Bayode: Validation, Visualization, Writing - review & editing.
P.A. Olubambi: Validation, Visualization Writing - review & editing.

7
E.I. Abraham, B.L. Bayode, P.A. Olubambi et al. Scientific African 14 (2021) e01057

A.R. Adetunji: Supervision, Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Method-
ology, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Project administration, writing original draft, Writing review & editing.
A.P. Onwualu: Supervision, Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Method-
ology, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Project administration, writing original draft, Writing review & editing.
Approval of the version of the manuscript to be published: All authors.

Declaration of Competing Interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest

Funding statement

This work was supported by the Pan African Materials Institute (PAMI) under the World Bank African Centre’s of Excel-
lence (A.C.E.) program, hosted by the African University of Science and Technology (AUST), Abuja, Nigeria (PAMI/2015/5415-
NG).

Acknowledgements

The authors of this work are grateful to the Pan African Materials Institute (PAMI) for their support and funding of the
research. The authors also appreciate the following organization and their staffs for their support: Nigeria Geological Survey
Agency, Abuja, Raw Materials Research and Development Council, Abuja, Ministry of Mines and Steel Development, Abuja,
National Geosciences Research Laboratory, Kaduna, and the Nigeria Building and Road Research Institute, Abuja

Supplementary materials

Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e01057.

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