COMPUTERNETWORKS

UNI
T-3

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~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
DESI
GNISSUES:
 Thefu
nct
io
noft
hed
atal
in
kla
yeri
stot
akes
erv
ice
sfr
omt
hep
hys
ica
lla
yera
ndp
rov
ide
s
erv
ice
stot
hen
etwo
rkl
aye
r.
 Thet
woma
infu
nct
io
nso
fthed
atal
in
kla
yera
red
atal
in
kco
ntr
ola
ndme
diaa
cce
ssc
ont
rol
.
 Da
tal
in
kco
ntr
olfu
nct
io
nsi
ncl
udefr
ami
ng,fl
owa
nde
rro
rco
ntr
ol,a
nds
oft
war
e
i
mpl
eme
nte
dpr
oto
col
stha
tpr
ovi
des
moo
tha
ndr
eli
abl
etr
ans
mis
si
ono
ffr
ame
sbe
twe
enn
ode
s.
SERVI
CESPROVI
DEDTONETWORKLAYER:

 Thep
rima
ryr
esp
ons
ibi
li
tyo
fDa
tal
in
kla
yeri
stop
rov
ides
erv
ice
stot
hen
etwo
rkl
aye
r.The
o
neo
fthema
jors
erv
icep
rov
ide
dist
het
ran
sfe
rri
ngt
hed
atafr
omn
etwo
rkl
aye
ront
he
s
our
cema
chi
net
othen
etwo
rkl
aye
rond
est
ina
tio
nma
chi
ne.
 Thed
atal
in
kla
yerha
san
umb
ero
fsp
eci
fi
cfu
nct
io
nsi
tca
nca
rryo
ut.The
sefu
nct
io
ns
i
ncl
ude
1
.Pr
ovi
di
ngawe
ll
-de
fin
eds
erv
icei
nte
rfa
cet
othen
etwo
rkl
aye
r.
2.De
ali
ngwi
tht
ran
smi
ss
ione
rro
rs.
3.Re
gul
ati
ngt
hefl
owo
fda
tas
otha
tsl
owr
ece
ive
rsa
ren
ots
wamp
edb
yfa
sts
end
ers
.
1
.Se
rvi
cesPr
ovi
dedt
otheNe
two
rkLa
yer
:
 Thej
obo
fthed
atal
in
kla
yeri
stot
ran
smi
ttheb
itst
othed
est
ina
tio
nma
chi
nes
othe
yca
nbe
ha
nde
dov
ert
othen
etwo
rkl
aye
rthe
re,a
ssho
wni
nfi
gur
e.Thea
ctu
alt
ran
smi
ss
ionfo
ll
ows
t
hep
atho
ffi
gur
e,b
uti
tise
asi
ert
othi
nki
nte
rmso
ftwod
atal
in
kla
yerp
roc
ess
es
c
ommu
nic
ati
ngu
sin
gad
atal
in
kpr
oto
col
.

VI
EW 1
 Fi
g:3.
16Se
rvi
cesPr
ovi
dedt
otheNe
two
rkLa
yer

 Thet
hre
ema
jort
ype
sofs
erv
ice
soffe
redb
yda
tal
in
kla
yera
re:

1
.Un
ackn
owl
edge
dco
nne
cti
onl
esss
erv
ice
.

2.
Ackn
owl
edge
dco
nne
cti
onl
esss
erv
ice
.

3.Ac
kno
wle
dge
dco
nne
cti
ono
rie
nte
dse
rvi
ce.

1
.Un
ackn
owl
edge
dCo
nne
cti
onl
essSe
rvi
ce

 I
nthi
sty
peo
fse
rvi
ces
our
cema
chi
nes
end
sfr
ame
stod
est
ina
tio
nma
chi
neb
utt
hed
est
ina
tio
n
ma
chi
ned
oesn
ots
enda
nya
ckn
owl
edge
men
toft
hes
efr
ame
sba
ckt
othes
our
ce.He
ncei
tis
c
all
edu
nac
kno
wle
dge
dse
rvi
ce.

 The
rei
snoc
onn
ect
io
nes
tab
lis
hme
ntb
etwe
ens
our
cea
ndd
est
ina
tio
nma
chi
neb
efo
red
ata
t
ran
sfe
rorr
ele
asea
fte
rda
tat
ran
sfe
r.The
refo
rei
tiskn
owna
sco
nne
cti
onl
esss
erv
ice
.

 The
rei
snoe
rro
rco
ntr
oli
.e.i
fan
yfr
amei
slo
std
uet
ono
iseo
nthel
in
e,n
oat
temp
tisma
de
t
ore
cov
eri
t.

 Thi
sty
peo
fse
rvi
cei
sus
edwhe
ner
rorr
atei
slo
wan
dIti
ssu
ita
blefo
rre
alt
imet
raffi
c
s
ucha
ssp
eec
h.

2.
Ackn
owl
edge
dCo
nne
cti
onl
essSe
rvi
ce

 I
nthi
sse
rvi
ce,n
eit
hert
hec
onn
ect
io
nise
sta
bli
she
dbe
for
ethed
atat
ran
sfe
rno
risi
tre
lea
sed
a
fte
rthed
atat
ran
sfe
rbe
twe
ens
our
cea
ndd
est
ina
tio
n.

VI
EW 2
  Whe
nthes
end
ers
end
sthed
atafr
ame
stod
est
ina
tio
n,d
est
ina
tio
nma
chi
nes
end
sba
ckt
he
a
ckn
owl
edge
men
toft
hes
efr
ame
s.

 Thi
sty
peo
fse
rvi
cep
rov
ide
sad
dit
io
nalr
eli
abi
li
tyb
eca
uses
our
cema
chi
ner
etr
ans
mitt
he
fr
ame
sifi
tdo
esn
otr
ece
ivet
hea
ckn
owl
edge
men
toft
hes
efr
ame
swi
thi
nthes
pec
ifi
edt
ime
.

 Thi
sse
rvi
cei
sus
efu
lov
eru
nre
li
abl
echa
nne
ls,s
ucha
swi
rel
esss
yst
ems
.

3.Ac
kno
wle
dge
dCo
nne
cti
on-Or
ien
tedSe
rvi
ce

 Thi
sse
rvi
cei
sthemo
sts
ophi
st
ic
ate
dse
rvi
cep
rov
ide
dbyd
atal
in
kla
yert
one
two
rkl
aye
r.

 I
tisc
onn
ect
io
n-o
rie
nte
d.I
tme
anst
hatc
onn
ect
io
nise
sta
bli
shme
ntb
etwe
ens
our
ce&
d
est
ina
tio
nbe
for
ean
yda
tai
str
ans
fer
red
.

 I
nthi
sse
rvi
ce,d
atat
ran
sfe
rha
sthr
eed
ist
inc
tpha
ses
:-Co
nne
cti
one
sta
bli
shme
nt,Ac
tua
l
d
atat
ran
sfe
r,Co
nne
cti
onr
ele
ase
.

 He
re,e
achfr
ameb
ein
gtr
ans
mit
tedfr
oms
our
cet
ode
sti
nat
io
nisgi
venas
pec
ifi
cnu
mbe
ran
d
i
sac
kno
wle
dge
dbyt
hed
est
ina
tio
nma
chi
ne.

 Al
lthefr
ame
sar
ere
cei
vedb
yde
sti
nat
io
nint
hes
ameo
rde
rinwhi
cht
heya
res
endb
ythe
s
our
ce.
FRAMI
NG:
 TheDLLt
ran
sla
test
hep
hys
ica
lla
yer
'sr
awb
its
tre
ami
ntod
isc
ret
eun
its(
mes
sage
s)c
all
ed
fr
ame
s.
 Fr
ami
ngi
nthed
atal
in
kla
yers
epa
rat
esame
ssa
gefr
omo
nes
our
cet
oad
est
ina
tio
n,o
rfr
om
o
the
rme
ssa
gest
oot
herd
est
ina
tio
ns,b
yad
din
gas
end
era
ddr
essa
ndad
est
ina
tio
nad
dre
ss.
Thed
est
ina
tio
nad
dre
ssd
efi
neswhe
ret
hep
acke
tist
ogo
;thes
end
era
ddr
esshe
lpst
he
r
eci
pi
enta
ckn
owl
edget
her
ece
ipt
.
 Whe
name
ssa
gei
sca
rri
edi
non
eve
ryl
argefr
ame
,ev
enas
ingl
e-b
ite
rro
rwo
uldr
equ
iret
he
r
etr
ans
mis
si
ono
fthewho
leme
ssa
ge.Whe
name
ssa
gei
sdi
vi
dedi
ntos
mal
le
rfr
ame
s,a
s
ingl
e-b
ite
rro
raffe
ctso
nlyt
hats
mal
lfr
ame
.

VI
EW 3
Ty
peso
ffr
ami
ng:
 Fi
xed
-Si
zeFr
ami
ng
 Va
ria
ble
-Si
zeFr
ami
ng
1
. Fi
xed
-Si
zeFr
ami
ng:
 I
nfi
xed
-si
zefr
ami
ng,t
her
eisn
one
edfo
rde
fin
ingt
heb
oun
dar
ieso
fthefr
ame
s;
t
hes
izei
ts
elfc
anb
eus
eda
sad
eli
mit
er.
 Ane
xamp
leo
fthi
sty
peo
ffr
ami
ngi
stheATMwi
de-
are
ane
two
rk,whi
chu
ses
fr
ame
soffi
xeds
izec
all
edc
ell
s.
2.Va
ria
ble
-Si
zeFr
ami
ng:
 Va
ria
ble
-si
zefr
ami
ngi
sus
edi
nlo
cal
-ar
ean
etwo
rks
.
 I
nva
ria
ble
-si
zefr
ami
ng,wen
eedawa
ytod
efi
net
hee
ndo
fthefr
amea
ndt
he
b
egi
nni
ngo
fthen
ext
.
 Fo
ura
ppr
oac
heswe
reu
sedfo
rthi
spu
rpo
se:
 Cha
rac
terc
oun
t.
 Fl
agb
yte
swi
thb
ytes
tuffi
ng.
 St
art
inga
nde
ndi
ngfl
ags
,wi
thb
its
tuffi
ng.
 Phy
sic
all
aye
rco
din
gvi
ol
ati
ons
.
Cha
rac
terCo
unt
:
Thefi
rstfr
ami
ngme
tho
dus
esafi
el
dint
hehe
ade
rtos
pec
ifyt
hen
umb
ero
fcha
rac
ter
sint
hefr
ame
.
Whe
nthed
atal
in
kla
yera
tthed
est
ina
tio
nse
est
hec
har
act
erc
oun
t,i
tkn
owsho
wma
nyc
har
act
ers
fo
ll
owa
ndhe
ncewhe
ret
hee
ndo
fthefr
amei
s.Thi
ste
chn
iqu
eiss
howni
nfo
ll
owi
ngFi
g.3.
1(a
)fo
r
fo
urfr
ame
sofs
ize
s5,5,8,a
nd8c
har
act
ers
,re
spe
cti
vel
y.

-
VIEW 4
 Fi
gur
e3-
1.Ab
ytes
tre
am.(
a)Wi
tho
ute
rro
rs.(
b)Wi
tho
nee
rro
r.
Thet
rou
blewi
tht
hisa
lgo
rit
hmi
stha
tthec
oun
tca
nbega
rbl
edb
yat
ran
smi
ss
ione
rro
r.Fo
rex
amp
le,
i
fthec
har
act
erc
oun
tof5i
nthes
eco
ndfr
ameo
fFi
g.3.
1(
b)b
eco
mesa7
,thed
est
ina
tio
nwi
llge
t
o
uto
fsy
nchr
oni
zat
io
nan
dwi
llb
eun
abl
etol
oca
tet
hes
tar
toft
hen
extfr
ame
.Ev
eni
fthec
hec
ksu
m
i
sin
cor
rec
tsot
hed
est
ina
tio
nkn
owst
hatt
hefr
amei
sba
d,i
tst
il
lha
snowa
yoft
ell
in
gwhe
ret
he
n
extfr
ames
tar
ts.Se
ndi
ngafr
ameb
ackt
othes
our
cea
ski
ngfo
rar
etr
ans
mis
si
ond
oesn
othe
lp
e
it
her
,si
ncet
hed
est
ina
tio
ndo
esn
otkn
owho
wma
nyc
har
act
erst
oski
pov
ert
oge
ttot
hes
tar
toft
he
r
etr
ans
mis
si
on.Fo
rthi
sre
aso
n,t
hec
har
act
erc
oun
tme
tho
disr
are
lyu
seda
nymo
re.
Fl
agb
yte
swi
thb
ytes
tuffi
ng:
 Cha
rac
ter
-or
ien
tedfr
ami
ngwa
spo
pul
arwhe
non
lyt
extwa
sex
cha
nge
dbyt
hed
atal
in
k
l
aye
rs.

Fi
g:3.
2afr
amei
nac
har
act
er-
ori
ent
edp
rot
oco
l
 I
fwes
endo
the
rty
peso
fin
for
mat
io
nsu
cha
sgr
aphs
,au
dio
,an
dvi
deo
,the
rewi
llb
ea
c
han
ceo
fthi
sda
tat
obema
tche
dwi
tht
hefl
agd
ata
,sowha
tha
ppe
nsi
sther
ece
ive
r,

VI
EW 5
 whe
nite
nco
unt
erst
hisp
att
erni
nthemi
ddl
eoft
hed
ata
,thi
nksi
tha
sre
ache
dthee
ndo
f
t
hef
rame
.
 Tofi
xthi
spr
obl
em,ab
yte
-st
uffi
ngs
tra
tegywa
sad
dedt
ocha
rac
ter
-or
ien
tedfr
ami
ng.

Fi
g.3.
3cha
rac
ter
-or
ien
tedp
rot
oco
l
 I
nby
tes
tuffi
ng(
orc
har
act
ers
tuffi
ng)
,as
pec
ialb
ytei
sad
dedt
othed
atas
ect
io
noft
he
fr
amewhe
nthe
rei
sac
har
act
erwi
tht
hes
amep
att
erna
sthefl
ag.Thed
atas
ect
io
nis
s
tuf
fedwi
tha
nex
trab
yte
.Thi
sby
tei
sus
ual
lyc
all
edt
hee
sca
pec
har
act
er(
ESC)
,whi
chha
s
ap
red
efi
nedb
itp
att
ern
.
 Whe
nev
ert
her
ece
ive
ren
cou
nte
rst
heESCc
har
act
er,i
tre
mov
esi
tfr
omt
hed
atas
ect
io
nan
d
t
rea
tst
hen
extc
har
act
era
sda
ta,n
otad
eli
mit
ingfl
ag.
 By
tes
tuffi
ngi
sthep
roc
esso
fad
din
g1e
xtr
aby
tewhe
nev
ert
her
eisafl
ago
res
cap
e
c
har
act
eri
nthet
ext
.

VI
EW 6
 Fi
g:3.
4cha
rac
ter
-or
ien
tedp
rot
oco
l
St
art
inga
nde
ndi
ngfl
ags
,wi
thb
its
tuffi
ng:
 Bi
tst
uffi
ngi
sthep
roc
esso
fad
din
gon
eex
tra0whe
nev
erfi
vec
ons
ecu
tiv
e1sfo
ll
owa0i
n
t
hed
ata
,sot
hatt
her
ece
ive
rdo
esn
otmi
st
aket
hep
att
ern01
11
11
0fo
rafl
ag.
 I
nab
it-
ori
ent
edp
rot
oco
l,t
hed
atas
ect
io
nofafr
amei
sas
equ
enc
eofb
itst
obei
nte
rpr
ete
d
b
ytheu
ppe
rla
yera
ste
xt,gr
aphi
c,a
udi
o,v
ide
o,a
nds
oon
.
 Mo
stp
rot
oco
lsu
seas
pec
ial8-
bitp
att
ernfl
ag01
11
11
10a
sthed
eli
mit
ert
ode
fin
etheb
egi
nni
ng
a
ndt
hee
ndo
fthefr
ame
.

Fi
g:3.
5Afr
amei
nab
ito
rie
nte
dpr
oto
col
 Thi
sfl
agc
anc
rea
tet
hes
amet
ypeo
fpr
obl
emwes
awi
ntheb
yte
-or
ien
tedp
rot
oco
ls.Tha
tis
,
i
fthefl
agp
att
erna
ppe
arsi
nthed
ata
,wen
eedt
oso
meho
win
for
mther
ece
ive
rtha
tthi
sis
n
ott
hee
ndo
fthefr
ame
.Wed
othi
sbys
tuffi
ng1s
ingl
ebi
t(i
nst
eado
fIb
yte
)top
rev
entt
he
p
att
ernfr
oml
ooki
ngl
ikeafl
ag.Thes
tra
tegyi
sca
lle
dbi
tst
uffi
ng.

VI
EW 7
 Fi
g:3.
6Bi
t-Or
ien
tedPr
oto
col
s
 I
nbi
tst
uffi
ng,i
fa0a
ndfi
vec
ons
ecu
tiv
eIb
itsa
ree
nco
unt
ere
d,a
nex
tra0i
sad
ded
.Thi
s
e
xtr
ast
uffe
dbi
tise
ven
tua
llyr
emo
vedfr
omt
hed
atab
yther
ece
ive
r
Phy
sic
all
aye
rco
din
gvi
ol
ati
ons
.
Thel
astme
tho
doffr
ami
ngi
son
lya
ppl
ic
abl
eton
etwo
rksi
nwhi
cht
hee
nco
din
gont
hep
hys
ica
l
me
diu
mco
nta
inss
omer
edu
nda
ncy
.Fo
rex
amp
le,s
omeLANse
nco
de1b
ito
fda
tab
yus
ing2p
hys
ica
l
b
its
.No
rma
lly
,a1b
iti
sahi
gh-
lowp
aira
nda0b
iti
sal
ow-
highp
air
.Thes
che
meme
anst
hate
ver
y
d
atab
itha
sat
ran
sit
io
nint
hemi
ddl
e,ma
kin
gite
asyfo
rther
ece
ive
rtol
oca
tet
heb
itb
oun
dar
ies
.
Thec
omb
ina
tio
nshi
gh-
higha
ndl
ow-
lowa
ren
otu
sedfo
rda
tab
uta
reu
sedfo
rde
li
mit
ingfr
ame
sin
s
omep
rot
oco
ls.
Asafi
naln
oteo
nfr
ami
ng,ma
nyd
atal
in
kpr
oto
col
sus
eco
mbi
nat
io
nofac
har
act
erc
oun
t
wi
tho
neo
ftheo
the
rme
tho
dsfo
rex
tras
afe
ty.Whe
nafr
amea
rri
ves
,thec
oun
tfi
el
disu
sedt
o
l
oca
tet
hee
ndo
fthefr
ame
.On
lyi
fthea
ppr
opr
iat
ede
li
mit
eri
spr
ese
nta
ttha
tpo
sit
io
nan
dthe
c
hec
ksu
misc
orr
ecti
sthefr
amea
cce
pte
dasv
ali
d.Ot
her
wis
e,t
hei
npu
tst
rea
miss
can
nedf
ort
he
n
extd
eli
mit
er.
ERRORCONTROL:
 Er
rorc
ont
roli
ncl
ude
sbo
the
rro
rde
tec
ti
ona
nde
rro
rco
rre
cti
on.
 I
tal
lo
wst
her
ece
ive
rtoi
nfo
rmt
hes
end
ero
fan
yfr
ame
slo
sto
rda
mage
dint
ran
smi
ss
iona
nd
c
oor
din
ate
sther
etr
ans
mis
si
ono
ftho
sefr
ame
sbyt
hes
end
er.
 Er
rorc
ont
roli
nthed
atal
in
kla
yeri
sba
sedo
nau
toma
ticr
epe
atr
equ
est(
ARQ)
,whi
chi
sthe
r
etr
ans
mis
si
ono
fda
ta.
 An
yti
mea
ner
rori
sde
tec
tedi
nane
xcha
nge
,sp
eci
fi
edfr
ame
sar
ere
tra
nsmi
tt
ed.Thi
s
p
roc
essi
sca
lle
dau
toma
ticr
epe
atr
equ
est(
ARQ)
.

VI
EW 8
FLOW CONTROL:
 Fl
owc
ont
roli
sas
eto
fpr
oce
dur
est
hatt
ell
sthes
end
erho
wmu
chd
atai
tca
ntr
ans
mitb
efo
re
i
tmu
stwa
itfo
rana
ckn
owl
edgme
ntfr
omt
her
ece
ive
r.
 An
yre
cei
vi
ngd
evi
ceha
sal
imi
te
dsp
eeda
twhi
chi
tca
npr
oce
ssi
nco
min
gda
taa
ndal
imi
te
d
a
mou
nto
fme
mor
yinwhi
cht
ost
orei
nco
min
gda
ta.
 Ther
ece
ivi
ngd
evi
cemu
stb
eab
let
oin
for
mthes
end
ingd
evi
ceb
efo
ret
hos
eli
mit
sar
ere
ache
d
a
ndt
ore
que
stt
hatt
het
ran
smi
tt
ingd
evi
ces
endfe
werfr
ame
sors
topt
emp
ora
ril
y.
 Si
ncet
her
ateo
fpr
oce
ssi
ngi
soft
ens
lowe
rtha
nther
ateo
ftr
ans
mis
si
on,r
ece
ivi
ngd
evi
ce
ha
sab
loc
kofme
mor
y,c
all
edab
uffe
r,r
ese
rve
dfo
rst
ori
ngi
nco
min
gda
tau
nti
lthe
yar
e
p
roc
ess
ed.I
ftheb
uffe
rbe
gin
stofi
llu
p,t
her
ece
ive
rmu
stb
eab
let
ote
llt
hes
end
ert
oha
lt
t
ran
smi
ss
ionu
nti
liti
son
cea
gai
nab
let
ore
cei
ve.
ERRORDETECTI
ONANDCORRECTI
ON:
 Da
tac
anb
eco
rru
pte
ddu
rin
gtr
ans
mis
si
on.So
mea
ppl
ic
ati
onsr
equ
iret
hate
rro
rsb
ede
tec
ted
a
ndc
orr
ect
ed.
 Whe
nev
erb
itsfl
owfr
omo
nep
oin
ttoa
not
her
,the
yar
esu
bje
ctt
oun
pre
dic
tab
lec
han
ges
b
eca
useo
fin
ter
fer
enc
e.Thi
sin
ter
fer
enc
eca
ncha
nget
hes
hap
eoft
hes
ign
al.
TYPESOFERRORS:
The
rea
ret
wot
ype
s.The
yar
e,
 Si
ngl
eBi
tEr
ror
 Bu
rstEr
ror
 Si
ngl
eBi
tEr
ror
:
 I
tme
anst
hato
nlyo
neb
ito
fagi
vend
atau
niti
scha
nge
dfr
om1t
o0o
rfr
om0t
o1.Si
ngl
e-
b
ite
rro
rsa
ret
hel
eas
tli
kel
yty
peo
fer
rori
nse
ria
lda
tat
ran
smi
ss
ion
.

Fi
g:3.
7Si
ngl
eBi
tEr
ror

VI
EW 9
  Bu
rstEr
ror
:
 Ab
urs
ter
rorme
anst
hat2o
rmo
reb
itsi
nthed
atau
nitha
vec
han
ged
.
 Then
umb
ero
fbi
tsa
ffe
cte
dde
pen
dso
nthed
atar
atea
ndd
ura
tio
nofn
ois
e.
 Thel
engt
hoft
heb
urs
tisme
asu
redfr
omt
hefi
rstc
orr
upt
edb
itt
othel
astc
orr
upt
edb
it.
So
meb
itsi
nbe
twe
enma
yno
tha
veb
eenc
orr
upt
ed.

Fi
g:3.
8Bu
rste
rro
r

ERRORDETECTI
ON
Fo
rre
li
abl
eco
mmu
nic
ati
one
rro
rsmu
stb
ede
tec
teda
ndc
orr
ect
ed.Fo
rer
rord
ete
cti
onwe
a
reu
sin
gma
nyme
cha
nis
ms.
REDUNDANCY
 Re
dun
dan
cyi
safo
rmo
fer
rord
ete
cti
onme
cha
nis
miss
end
inge
ver
yda
tau
nitt
wic
e.
 Ther
ece
ivi
ngd
evi
ce,t
het
wou
nit
sar
eco
mpa
reda
ndi
fthe
yar
esa
me,i
tisa
ssu
medt
hatn
o
t
ran
smi
ss
ione
rro
rsha
veo
ccu
rre
d.I
fan
ydi
scr
epa
ncywo
uldi
ndi
cat
eane
rro
r,a
nda
n
a
ppr
opr
iat
eco
rre
cti
onme
cha
nis
mco
uldb
eus
ed.
 Re
dun
dan
cyi
sac
har
act
err
edu
nda
ncya
ndme
ssa
ger
edu
nda
ncy
.
 Whe
nthed
atau
niti
sas
ingl
echa
rac
ter
,iti
sca
lle
dCha
rac
terr
edu
nda
ncy
.
 Whe
nthed
atau
niti
sae
nti
reme
ssa
ge,i
tisc
all
edme
ssa
ger
edu
nda
ncy
.
 Bu
tin
ste
ado
fre
pea
tin
gthee
nti
red
atas
tre
am,as
hor
tergr
oupo
fbi
tsma
ybea
ppe
nde
dtot
he
e
ndo
fea
chu
nit
.Thi
ste
chn
iqu
eisc
all
edr
edu
nda
ncyb
eca
usee
xtr
abi
tsa
rer
edu
nda
ntt
othe
i
nfo
rma
tio
n.The
yar
edi
sca
rde
dass
oona
sthea
ccu
rac
yoft
het
ran
smi
ss
ionha
sbe
end
ete
rmi
ned
.
Ty
pes
:Fo
urt
ype
sofr
edu
nda
ncyc
hec
ksa
reu
sedi
nda
tac
ommu
nic
ati
ons
.The
yar
e
 v
ert
ic
alr
edu
nda
ncyc
hec
k(VRC)
 l
ongi
tud
ina
lre
dun
dan
cyc
hec
k(LRC)
 c
ycl
icr
edu
nda
ncyc
hec
k(CRC)
VI
EW 1
0
  c
hec
ksu
m
De
tec
ti
onv
ers
usCo
rre
cti
on:
 Thec
orr
ect
io
nofe
rro
rsi
smo
red
iffi
cul
ttha
nthed
ete
cti
on.
 I
ner
rord
ete
cti
on,u
ser
sar
elo
oki
ngo
nlyt
ose
eifa
nye
rro
rha
soc
cur
red
.As
ingl
e-b
ite
rro
r
i
sthes
amea
sab
urs
ter
ror
.
 I
ner
rorc
orr
ect
io
n,u
sern
eedt
okn
owt
hee
xac
tnu
mbe
rofb
itst
hata
rec
orr
upt
eda
ndt
hei
r
l
oca
tio
nint
heme
ssa
ge.
 Then
umb
ero
fthee
rro
rsa
ndt
hes
izeo
ftheme
ssa
gea
rei
mpo
rta
ntfa
cto
rs.
Fo
rwa
rdEr
rorCo
rre
cti
onv
ers
usRe
tra
nsmi
ss
ion
:
 The
rea
ret
woma
inme
tho
dso
fer
rorc
orr
ect
io
n.
 Fo
rwa
rde
rro
rco
rre
cti
oni
sthep
roc
essi
nwhi
cht
her
ece
ive
rtr
iest
ogu
esst
heme
ssa
geb
y
u
sin
gre
dun
dan
tbi
ts
.Thi
sisp
oss
ibl
e,i
fthen
umb
ero
fer
ror
siss
mal
l.
 Co
rre
cti
onb
yre
tra
nsmi
ss
ioni
sat
echn
iqu
einwhi
cht
her
ece
ive
rde
tec
tst
heo
ccu
rre
nceo
fan
e
rro
ran
das
kst
hes
end
ert
ore
sen
dtheme
ssa
ge.Re
sen
din
gisr
epe
ate
dun
tilame
ssa
gea
rri
ves
t
hatt
her
ece
ive
rbe
li
eve
sise
rro
r-fr
ee.
Co
din
g:
 Re
dun
dan
cyi
sac
hie
vedt
hro
ughv
ari
ousc
odi
ngs
che
mes
.
 Co
din
gsc
heme
sar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
wob
roa
dca
tego
rie
s:
1
.Bl
ockc
odi
ng
2.
Con
vol
uti
onc
odi
ng
St
ruc
tur
eofe
nco
dera
ndd
eco
der
:

Fi
g:3.
9St
ruc
tur
eofe
nco
dera
ndd
eco
der
Mo
dul
arAr
ithme
ti
c:
 I
nmo
dul
o-Na
rit
hme
ti
c,weu
seo
nlyt
hei
nte
ger
sint
her
an oN-1
ge0t ,in
clu
siv
e.

VI
EW 1
1
  Mo
dul
o-2Ar
ithme
ti
c,
Ad
din
g 0+0=
0 0+1
=1 1
+0=
1 1
+1=
0
Su
btr
act
ing: 0-
0=0 0-
1=1 1
-0=
1 1
-1
=0
 I
nthi
sar
ithme
ti
cweu
set
heXOR(
exc
lus
iveOR)o
per
ati
onfo
rbo
tha
ddi
ti
ona
nds
ubt
rac
ti
on.
Ther
esu
lto
fanXORo
per
ati
oni
s0i
ftwob
itsa
ret
hes
ame
;ther
esu
lti
sIi
ftwob
itsa
re
d
iffe
ren
t.
BLOCKCODI
NG:
 I
nbl
ockc
odi
ng,me
ssa
gei
sdi
vi
dedi
ntob
loc
ks,e
acho
fsi
zekb
its
,ca
lle
dasd
ata
wor
ds.
 Re
dun
dan
tbi
ts
(r)i
sad
dtoe
achb
loc
ktoma
ket
hel
en hn=k+r
gt .Ther
esu
lti
ngn
-bi
t
b
loc
ksa
rec
all
edc
ode
wor
ds.
 Wi
thkb
its
,wec
anc
rea
teac
omb
ina
tio
nof2kd
ata
wor
ds;wi
thnb
its
,wec
anc
rea
tea
c
omb
ina
tio
nof2nc
ode
wor
ds.
 Si
ncen>
k,t
hen
umb
ero
fpo
ssi
blec
ode
wor
dsi
sla
rge
rtha
nthen
umb
ero
fpo
ssi
bled
ata
wor
ds.
 Theb
loc
kco
din
gpr
oce
ssi
son
e-t
o-o
ne;t
hes
amed
ata
wor
disa
lwa
yse
nco
deda
sthes
ame
c
ode
wor
d.

Fi
g:3.
10Da
tawo
rdsa
ndc
ode
wor
dsi
nbl
ockc
odi
ng
Er
rorDe
tec
ti
on:
Fo
ll
owi
ngs
tep
sar
eus
edfo
rde
tec
ti
nge
rro
rsi
ntheb
loc
kco
din
g.
1
.Ther
ece
ive
rha
sal
is
tofv
ali
dco
dewo
rds
.
2.
Theo
rigi
nalc
ode
wor
dha
scha
nge
dtoa
nin
val
ido
ne.

VI
EW 1
2
 Fi
g:3.
11Pr
oce
sso
fer
rord
ete
cti
oni
nbl
ockc
odi
ng
 Thes
end
erc
rea
tesc
ode
wor
dso
uto
fda
tawo
rdsb
yus
ingage
ner
ato
rtha
tap
pli
est
her
ule
san
d
p
roc
edu
reso
fen
cod
ing.Ea
chc
ode
wor
dse
ntt
other
ece
ive
rma
ycha
nged
uri
ngt
ran
smi
ss
ion
.
 I
fther
ece
ive
dco
dewo
rdi
sthes
amea
son
eoft
hev
ali
dco
dewo
rds
,thewo
rdi
sac
cep
ted
;the
c
orr
esp
ond
ingd
ata
wor
dise
xtr
act
edfo
rus
e.I
fther
ece
ive
dco
dewo
rdi
sno
tva
li
d,i
tis
d
isc
ard
ed.
 I
fthec
ode
wor
disc
orr
upt
edd
uri
ngt
ran
smi
ss
io
nbu
tther
ece
ive
dwo
rds
ti
llma
tche
sav
ali
d
c
ode
wor
d,t
hee
rro
rre
mai
nsu
nde
tec
ted
.
 Thi
sty
peo
fco
din
gca
nde
tec
ton
lys
ingl
eer
ror
s.Twoo
rmo
ree
rro
rsma
yre
mai
nun
det
ect
ed.
Ex
amp
le:Le
tusa
ssu
met
hatk=
2adn=
n 3.Ta
bles
howst
hel
is
tofd
ata
wor
dsa
ndc
ode
wor
ds.

As
sumet
hes
end
ere
nco
dest
hed
ata
wor
d01a
s01
1an
dse
ndsi
ttot
her
ece
ive
r.Co
nsi
dert
he
fo
ll
owi
ngc
ase
s:
1
. Ther
ece
ive
rre
cei
ves01
1
.Iti
sav
ali
dco
dewo
rd.Ther
ece
ive
rex
tra
ctst
hed
ata
wor
d01fr
om
i
t.
2.Thec
ode
wor
disc
orr
upt
edd
uri
ngt
ran
smi
ss
ion
,an
d11
1isr
ece
ive
d(t
hel
eft
mos
tbi
tis
c
orr
upt
ed)
.Thi
sisn
otav
ali
dco
dewo
rda
ndi
sdi
sca
rde
d.

I
. VI
EW 1
3
 3
.Thec
ode
wor
disc
orr
upt
edd
uri
ngt
ran
smi
ss
ion
,an
d000i
sre
cei
ved(
ther
ightt
wob
itsa
re
c
orr
upt
ed)
.Thi
sisav
ali
dco
dewo
rd.
4
.Ther
ece
ive
rin
cor
rec
tlye
xtr
act
sthed
ata
wor
d00.
Twoc
orr
upt
edb
itsha
vema
det
hee
rro
run
det
ect
abl
e.
Er
rorCo
rre
cti
on:
 Er
rorc
orr
ect
io
nismu
chmo
red
iffi
cul
ttha
ner
rord
ete
cti
on.
 I
ner
rord
ete
cti
on,t
her
ece
ive
rne
edst
okn
owo
nlyt
hatt
her
ece
ive
dco
dewo
rdi
sin
val
id
;
 I
ner
rorc
orr
ect
io
nther
ece
ive
rne
edst
ofi
ndt
heo
rigi
nalc
ode
wor
dse
nt.Mo
ren
umb
ero
f
r
edu
nda
ntb
itsa
rer
equ
ire
dfo
rer
rorc
orr
ect
io
ntha
nfo
rer
rord
ete
cti
on.

Fi
g:3.
12Er
rorCo
rre
cti
on
Ex
amp
le:As
sumet
hed
ata
wor
dis01
.Thes
end
erc
ons
ult
sthet
abl
e(o
rus
esa
nal
gor
ithm)t
ocr
eat
e
t
hec
ode
wor
d01
011
.Thec
ode
wor
disc
orr
upt
edd
uri
ngt
ran
smi
ss
ion
,an
d01
001i
sre
cei
ved(
err
ori
nthe
s
eco
ndb
itfr
omt
her
ight
).Fi
rst
,ther
ece
ive
rfi
ndst
hatt
her
ece
ive
dco
dewo
rdi
sno
tint
het
abl
e.
Thi
sme
ansa
ner
rorha
soc
cur
red
.(De
tec
ti
onmu
stc
omeb
efo
rec
orr
ect
io
n.)Ther
ece
ive
r,a
ssu
min
g
t
hatt
her
eiso
nly1b
itc
orr
upt
ed,u
sest
hefo
ll
owi
ngs
tra
tegyt
ogu
esst
hec
orr
ectd
ata
wor
d.

VI
EW 1
4
 1
. Co
mpa
rin
gther
ece
ive
dco
dewo
rdwi
tht
hefi
rstc
ode
wor
dint
het
abl
e(01
001v
ers
us00000)
,
t
her
ece
ive
rde
cid
est
hatt
hef
irs
tco
dewo
rdi
sno
ttheo
net
hatwa
sse
ntb
eca
uset
her
ear
e
t
wod
iffe
ren
tbi
ts
.
2
.Byt
hes
amer
eas
oni
ng,t
heo
rigi
nalc
ode
wor
dca
nno
tbet
het
hir
dorfo
urt
hon
eint
het
abl
e.
3
. Theo
rigi
nalc
ode
wor
dmu
stb
ethes
eco
ndo
nei
nthet
abl
ebe
cau
set
hisi
stheo
nlyo
net
hat
d
iffe
rsfr
omt
her
ece
ive
dco
dewo
rdb
y1b
it.Ther
ece
ive
rre
pla
ces01
001wi
th01
011a
nd
c
ons
ult
sthet
abl
etofi
ndt
hed
ata
wor
d01
.
Si
mpl
ePa
rit
y-Che
ckCo
de:
 Themo
stfa
mil
ia
rer
ror
-de
tec
ti
ngc
odei
sthes
imp
lep
ari
ty-
che
ckc
ode
.Int
hisc
od,ak-b
e it
d
ata
wor
disc
han
gedt
oann
-bi
tco
dewo
rdwhe
ren=k+1
.Thee
xtr
abi
t,c
all
edt
hep
ari
tyb
it,
i
sse
lec
tedt
oma
ket
het
ota
lnu
mbe
rof1
sint
hec
ode
wor
dev
en.
Al
tho
ughs
omei
mpl
eme
nta
tio
nss
pec
ifya
nod
dnu
mbe
rofI
s,wed
isc
usst
hee
ven
cas
e.
 Mo
stc
ommo
n,l
eas
tco
mpl
ex
 Si
ngl
ebi
tisa
dde
dtoab
loc
k
 Twos
che
mes
:
1
. Ev
enp
ari
ty–Ma
int
aine
venn
umb
ero
f1s
 E.
g.,1
011 1
011
1
2.Od
dpa
rit
y–Ma
int
aino
ddn
umb
ero
f1s
 E.
g.,1
011 1
011
0
Su
ppo
set
hes
end
erwa
ntst
ose
ndt
hewo
rdwo
rld
.InASCI
Ithefi
vec
har
act
ersa
rec
ode
d(wi
th
e
venp
ari
ty)a
s11
101
111
101
11
111
1001
011
011
001
1001
00
Thefo
ll
owi
ngs
howst
hea
ctu
alb
itss
ent
1
11
011
101
101
11
101
11
001
001
101
10001
1001
001
Re
cei
verr
ece
ive
sthi
sse
que
nceo
fwo
rds
:
1
11
11
11
011
011
11
011
101
1001
101
10001
1001
001
Whi
chb
loc
ksa
rea
cce
pte
d? Whi
cha
rer
eje
cte
d?1a
nd3a
rer
eje
cte
d.

I
. -
VIEW 1
5
2DPa
rit
yChe
ck

2DPa
rit
yChe
ck:Pe
rfo
rma
nce

Fi
g:3.
13p
ari
tyc
hec
kco
des

CHECKSUM
I
dea
Thec
onc
epto
fthec
hec
ksu
misn
otd
iffi
cul
t.
 Su
ppo
seo
urd
atai
sal
is
toffi
ve4
-bi
tnu
mbe
rst
hatwewa
ntt
ose
ndt
oad
est
ina
tio
n.I
n
a
ddi
ti
ont
ose
ndi
ngt
hes
enu
mbe
rs,wes
endt
hes
umo
fthen
umb
ers
.Fo
rex
amp
le,i
fthes
et
o
fnu
mbe
rsi
s(
7,1
1
,12,0,6
),wes
end(
7,1
1,1
2,0,
6,36)
,whe
re36i
sthes
umo
fthe
o
rigi
naln
umb
ers
.

-
VIEW 1
6
 Ther
ece
ive
rad
dst
hefi
ven
umb
ersa
ndc
omp
are
sther
esu
ltwi
tht
hes
um.I
fthet
woa
ret
he
s
ame
,ther
ece
ive
ras
sume
snoe
rro
r,a
cce
ptst
hefi
ven
umb
ers
,an
ddi
sca
rdst
hes
um.
Ot
her
wis
e,t
her
eisa
ner
rors
ome
whe
rea
ndt
hed
ataa
ren
ota
cce
pte
d.
 On
e’sc
omp
leme
nta
rit
hme
ti
c:I
non
e'
sco
mpl
eme
nta
rit
hme
ti
c,an
ega
tiv
enu
mbe
rca
nbe
r
epr
ese
nte
dbyi
nve
rti
nga
llb
its(
cha
ngi
nga0t
oa1a
nda1t
oa0)
.
Thee
rro
rde
tec
ti
onme
tho
dus
edb
ythehi
ghe
rla
yerp
rot
oco
lsi
sca
lle
dche
cks
um.
I
tco
nsi
st
soft
wop
art
s.The
yar
e,
1
.che
cks
umge
ner
ato
r
2.c
hec
ksu
mche
cke
r
Che
cks
umGe
ner
ato
r:
I
nthes
end
er,t
hec
hec
ksu
mge
ner
ato
rsu
bdi
vi
dest
hed
atau
niti
ntoe
qua
lse
gme
nts
o
fnb
its
.The
ses
egme
ntsa
rea
dde
dwi
the
acho
the
rbyu
sin
gon
e’sc
omp
leme
nta
rit
hme
ti
c
i
nsu
chawa
ytha
tthet
ota
lisa
lsonb
itsl
ong.Tha
tto
tali
sthe
nco
mpl
eme
nte
dan
d
a
ppe
nde
dtot
hee
ndo
fthed
atau
nit
.
Che
cks
umChe
cke
r:
Ther
ece
ive
rsu
bdi
vi
dest
hed
atau
nita
sab
ovea
nda
ddsa
lls
egme
ntst
oge
the
ran
d
c
omp
leme
ntst
her
esu
lt.I
fthee
xte
nde
dda
tau
niti
sin
tac
t,t
het
ota
lva
luefo
undb
y
a
ddi
ngt
hed
atas
egme
ntsa
ndt
hec
hec
ksu
mfi
el
dsho
uldb
eze
ro.Ot
her
wis
ethep
acke
t
c
ont
ain
sane
rro
ran
dther
ece
ive
rre
jec
tsi
t.
EXAMPLE
Att
hes
end
er
Da
tau
nit
:101
01001001
11
001
1
0101
001
001
11
001
Su
m 1
11
0001
0
Che
cks
um0001
11
01
Att
her
ece
ive
r
Re
cei
vedd
ata
:101
01001001
11
0010001
11
01
1
0101
001
001
11
001
0001
11
01

I
. -
VIEW 1
7
 Su
m 1
11
11
11
1
Co
mpl
eme
nt 00000000
I
tme
anst
hatt
hep
att
eri
sok.
I
nte
rne
tChe
cks
um
Tr
adi
ti
ona
lly
,theI
nte
rne
tha
sbe
enu
sin
ga1
6-b
itc
hec
ksu
m.Thes
end
erc
alc
ula
test
hec
hec
ksu
m
b
yfo
ll
owi
ngt
hes
est
eps
.
Se
nde
rsi
te
:
1
.Theme
ssa
gei
sdi
vi
dedi
nto1
6-b
itwo
rds
.
2.
Thev
alu
eoft
hec
hec
ksu
mwo
rdi
sse
tto0.
3.Al
lwo
rdsi
ncl
udi
ngt
hec
hec
ksu
mar
ead
dedu
sin
gon
e'
sco
mpl
eme
nta
ddi
ti
on.
4
.Thes
umi
sco
mpl
eme
nte
dan
dbe
come
sthec
hec
ksu
m.
5.Thec
hec
ksu
miss
entwi
tht
hed
ata
.
Ther
ece
ive
rus
est
hefo
ll
owi
ngs
tep
sfo
rer
rord
ete
cti
on.
Re
cei
vers
it
e:
1
.Theme
ssa
ge(
in
clu
din
gche
cks
um)i
sdi
vi
dedi
nto1
6-b
itwo
rds
.
2.
Allwo
rdsa
rea
dde
dus
ingo
ne'
sco
mpl
eme
nta
ddi
ti
on.
3.Thes
umi
sco
mpl
eme
nte
dan
dbe
come
sthen
ewc
hec
ksu
m.
4
.Ift
hev
alu
eofc
hec
ksu
mis0,t
heme
ssa
gei
sac
cep
ted
;ot
her
wis
e,i
tisr
eje
cte
d.
CYCLI
CREDUNDANCYCHECK(
CRC)
:
 CRCi
sba
sedo
nbi
nar
ydi
vi
si
on.I
nthi
sas
equ
enc
eofr
edu
nda
ntb
its
,ca
lle
dCRC
r
ema
ind
eri
sap
pen
dedt
othee
ndo
fad
atau
nits
otha
tther
esu
lti
ngd
atau
nitb
eco
mes
e
xac
tlyd
ivi
si
bl
ebyas
eco
ndp
red
ete
rmi
nedb
ina
ryn
umb
er.
 Ati
tsd
est
ina
tio
n,t
hei
nco
min
gda
tau
niti
sdi
vi
dedb
ythes
amen
umb
er.I
fatt
hiss
tep
t
her
eisn
ore
min
der
,thed
atau
niti
sas
sume
dtob
ein
tac
tan
dthe
refo
rea
cce
pte
d.A
r
ema
ind
eri
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hed
atau
nitha
sbe
enc
han
gedi
ntr
ans
ita
ndt
her
efo
remu
stb
e
r
eje
cte
d.
 He
re,t
her
ema
ind
eri
stheCRC.I
tmu
stha
vee
xac
tlyo
nel
essb
itt
hant
hed
ivi
sor
,an
d
a
ppe
ndi
ngi
ttot
hee
ndo
fthed
atas
tri
ngmu
stma
ket
her
esu
lti
ngb
its
equ
enc
eex
act
ly
d
ivi
si
bl
ebyt
hed
ivi
so
r.

-
VIEW 1
8
 Fi
g:3.
14CYCLI
CREDUNDANCYCHECK(
CRC)
 Fi
rst
,as
tri
ngo
fn-
10si
sap
pen
dedt
othed
atau
nit
.Then
umb
ero
f0si
son
ele
sst
hant
he
n
umb
ero
fbi
tsi
nthed
ivi
sorwhi
chi
snb
its
.The
nthen
ewl
yel
onga
tedd
atau
niti
sdi
vi
dedb
y
t
hed
ivi
soru
sin
gap
roc
essc
all
edb
ina
ryd
ivi
si
on.Ther
ema
ind
eri
sCRC.TheCRCi
sre
pla
ces
t
hea
ppe
nde
d0sa
tthee
ndo
fthed
atau
nit
 Thed
atau
nita
rri
vesa
tther
ece
ive
rfi
rst
,fo
ll
owe
dbyt
heCRC.Ther
ece
ive
rtr
eat
swho
le
s
tri
nga
sthed
atau
nita
ndd
ivi
desi
tbyt
hes
amed
ivi
sort
hatwa
sus
edt
ofi
ndt
heCRC
r
ema
ind
er.I
fther
ema
ind
eri
s0t
hent
hed
atau
niti
ser
rorfr
ee.Ot
her
wis
eitha
vin
gso
me
e
rro
ran
ditmu
stb
edi
sca
rde
d.
 CRCGe
ner
ato
r

Fi
g:3.
15CRCGe
ner
ato
r

-
VIEW 1
9
  Che
cki
ngCRC

Fi
g:3.
16Che
cki
ngCRC
Po
lyn
omi
alc
ode
s

 Ap
att
erno
f0sa
nd1
sca
nber
epr
ese
nte
dasap
oly
nomi
alwi
thc
oeffi
ci
ento
f0a
nd1
.

 He
re,t
hep
owe
rofe
acht
erms
howst
hep
osi
ti
ono
ftheb
ita
ndt
hec
oeffi
ci
ents
howst
he
v
alu
eso
fthe
bit
.
5
 Fo
rex
amp
le,i
fbi
nar
ypa
tte
rni
s1001
01,i
tsc
orr
esp
ond
ingp
oly
nomi
alr
epr
ese
nta
tio
nisx +
2
x +1
.Fi
gur
esho
wst
hep
oly
nomi
alwhe
rea
llt
het
ermswi
thz
eroc
oeffi
ci
enta
rer
emo
ved
a
ndxJi
sre
pla
cedb
yxa
ndXOb
y1.

Fi
g:3.
17Po
lyn
omi
alr
epr
ese
nta
tio
n

 Theb
ene
fit
sofu
sin
gpo
lyn
omi
alc
ode
sist
hati
tpr
odu
cess
hor
tco
des
.Fo
rex
amp
lehe
rea6-
b
itp
att
erni
sre
pla
cedb
y3t
erms
.

VI
EW 20
  I
npo
lyn
omi
alc
ode
s,t
hed
egr
eei
s1l
esst
hant
hen
umb
ero
fbi
tsi
ntheb
ina
ryp
att
ern
.The
d
egr
eeo
fpo
lyn
omi
ali
sthehi
ghe
stp
owe
rinp
oly
nomi
al
.Fo
rex
amp
lea
ssho
wni
nfi
gde
gre
e
5 2
o
fpo
lyn
omi
alx+x+1a
re5.Theb
itp
att
erni
nthi
sca
sei
s6.

 Thep
oly
nomi
alge
ner
ato
rsho
uldha
vefo
ll
owi
ngp
rop
ert
ie
s:

1
.Its
hou
ldha
vea
tle
astt
wot
erms
.
0
2.
Thec
oeffi
ci
ento
fthet
ermxsho
uldb
e1.

3.
Its
hou
ldn
otb
edi
vi
si
bleb
yx.

4
.Its
hou
ldb
edi
vi
si
bleb
yx+1
.

 The
rea
res
eve
rald
iffe
ren
tst
and
ardp
oly
nomi
al
sus
edb
ypo
pul
arp
rot
oco
lsfo
rCRC
ge
ner
ati
on.The
sea
re:

Er
ror
-Co
rre
cti
ngCo
des
:

Wewi
lle
xami
nefo
urd
iffe
ren
ter
ror
-co
rre
cti
ngc
ode
s:

1
.Ha
mmi
ngc
ode
s.

2.
Bin
aryc
onv
olu
tio
nalc
ode
s.

3.Re
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
des
.

4
.Lo
w-De
nsi
tyPa
rit
yChe
ckc
ode
s.

Al
loft
hes
eco
desa
ddr
edu
nda
ncyt
othei
nfo
rma
tio
ntha
tiss
ent
.Afr
amec
ons
is
t fmd
so ata(
i.
e.,
me
ssa
ge)b
itsa
ndrr
edu
nda
nt(
i.
e.c
hec
k)b
its
.Inab
loc
kco
de herc
,t hec
kbi
tsa
rec
omp
ute
dso
lel
y
a
safu
nct
io
no hemd
ft atab
itswi
thwhi
cht
heya
rea
sso
cia
ted
,ast
hou hemb
ght itswe
rel
ooke
dup
i
nal
arget
abl
etofi
ndt
hei
rco
rre
spo
ndi
ngrc
hec
kbi
ts
.

-
VIEW 21
 I
nas
yst
ema
ticc
ode
,themd
atab
itsa
res
entd
ire
ctl
y,a
lon
gwi
tht
hec
hec
kbi
ts
,ra
the
rtha
n
b
ein
gen
cod
edt
hems
elv
esb
efo
ret
heya
res
ent
.Inal
in
earc
ode
,therc
hec
kbi
tsa
rec
omp
ute
dasa
l
in
earfu
nct
io
no hemd
ft atab
its
.

Le
tthet
ota
lle
ngt
hofab
loc
kben(
i.
e.,n=m+r
).Wewi
lld
esc
rib
ethi
sasa
n(n
,m)c
ode
.
Ann
-bi
tun
itc
ont
ain
ingd
ataa
ndc
hec
kbi
tsi
sre
fer
redt
oa nn
sa b
itc
ode
wor
d.Thec
oder
ate
,or
s
imp
lyr
ate
,ist
hefr
act
io
noft
hec
ode
wor
dtha
tca
rri
esi
nfo
rma
tio
ntha
tisn
otr
edu
nda
nt rm/n
,o .

Then
umb
ero
fbi
tpo
sit
io
nsi
nwhi
cht
woc
ode
wor
dsd
iffe
risc
all
edt
heHa
mmi
ngd
ist
anc
e(Ha
mmi
ng,
1
950)
.It
ssi
gni
fi
can
cei
stha
tift
woc
ode
wor
dsa
reaHa
mmi
ngd
ist
aneda
c par
t,i
twi
llr
equ
ired
s
ingl
e-b
ite
rro
rst
oco
nve
rto
nei
ntot
heo
the
r.

Ha
mmi
ngc
ode
s:

Ha
mmi
ngc
odei
sas
eto
fer
ror
-co
rre
cti
onc
ode
stha
tca
nbeu
sedt
ode
tec
tan
dco
rre
ctt
hee
rro
rst
hat
c
ano
ccu
rwhe
nthed
atai
smo
vedo
rst
ore
dfr
omt
hes
end
ert
other
ece
ive
r.I
t i
ste
chn
iqu
e
d
eve
lop
edb
yR.
W.Ha
mmi
ngfo
rer
rorc
orr
ect
io
n.

Re
dun
dan
tbi
ts–

Re
dun
dan
tbi
tsa
ree
xtr
abi
nar
ybi
tst
hata
rege
ner
ate
dan
dad
dedt
othei
nfo
rma
tio
n-c
arr
yin
gbi
tso
f
d
atat
ran
sfe
rtoe
nsu
ret
hatn
o b
its we
re l
ost d
uri
ng t
he d
ata t
ran
sfe
r. The
n
umb
ero
fre
dun
dan
tbi
tsc
anb
eca
lcu
lat
edu
sin
gthefo
ll
owi
ngfo
rmu
la:

2^
r≥m+r+1

whe
re,r=r
edu
nda
ntb
it,m=d
atab
it

Su
ppo
set
hen
umb
ero
fda
tab
itsi
s7,t
hent
hen
umb
ero
fre
dun
dan
tbi
tsc
anb
eca
lcu
lat
edu
sin
g:
=2^
4≥7+4+1
Thu
s,t
hen
umb
ero
fre
dun
dan
tbi
ts
=4

Pa
rit
ybi
ts–
Ap
ari
tyb
iti
sab
ita
ppe
nde
dtoad
atao
fbi
nar
ybi
tst
oen
sur
etha
tthet
ota
lnu
mbe
rof1
’si
nthe
d
ataa
ree
veno
rod
d.Pa
rit
ybi
tsa
reu
sedfo
rer
rord
ete
cti
on.The
rea
ret
wot
ype
sofp
ari
tyb
its
:

VI
EW 22
 1
. Ev
enp
ari
tyb
it:
I
nthec
aseo
fev
enp
ari
ty,fo
ragi
vens
eto
fbi
ts
,then
umb
ero
f1’
sar
eco
unt
ed.I
ftha
t
c
oun
tiso
dd,t
hep
ari
tyb
itv
alu
eiss
ett
o1,ma
kin
gthet
ota
lco
unto
foc
cur
ren
ceso
f1’
san
e
venn
umb
er.I
fthet
ota
lnu
mbe
rof1
’si
nagi
vens
eto
fbi
tsi
sal
rea
dye
ven
,thep
ari
tyb
it’
s
v
alu
eis0.

2.Od
dPa
rit
ybi
t–
I
nthec
aseo
fod
dpa
rit
y,fo
ragi
vens
eto
fbi
ts
,then
umb
ero
f1’
sar
eco
unt
ed.I
ftha
tco
unt
i
sev
en,t
hep
ari
tyb
itv
alu
eiss
ett
o1,ma
kin
gthet
ota
lco
unto
foc
cur
ren
ceso
f1’
sano
dd
n
umb
er.I
fthet
ota
lnu
mbe
rof1
’si
nagi
vens
eto
fbi
tsi
sal
rea
dyo
dd,t
hep
ari
tyb
it’
sva
lue
i
s0.

Ge
ner
alAl
gor
ithmo
fHa
mmi
ngc
ode–
TheHa
mmi
ngCo
dei
ssi
mpl
ytheu
seo
fex
trap
ari
tyb
itst
oal
lo
wthei
den
tifi
cat
io
nofa
ner
ror
.

1
. Wr
itet
heb
itp
osi
ti
onss
tar
tin
gfr
om1i
nbi
nar
yfo
rm(
1,1
0,1
1,1
00,e
tc)
.

2.Al
ltheb
itp
osi
ti
onst
hata
reap
owe
rof2a
rema
rke
dasp
ari
tyb
its(
1,2,4
,8,e
tc)
.

3.Al
ltheo
the
rbi
tpo
sit
io
nsa
rema
rke
dasd
atab
its
.

4
.Ea
chd
atab
iti
sin
clu
dedi
nau
niq
ues
eto
fpa
rit
ybi
ts
,asd
ete
rmi
nedi
tsb
itp
osi
ti
oni
n
b
ina
ryfo
rm.
a
.Pa
rit
ybi
t1c
ove
rsa
llt
heb
itsp
osi
ti
onswho
seb
ina
ryr
epr
ese
nta
tio
nin
clu
desa1i
nthe
l
eas
tsi
gni
fi
can
t
p
osi
ti
on(
1,3,5,7
,9,1
1,e
tc)
.
b
.Pa
rit
ybi
t2c
ove
rsa
llt
heb
itsp
osi
ti
onswho
seb
ina
ryr
epr
ese
nta
tio
nin
clu
desa1i
nthe
s
eco
ndp
osi
ti
onfr
om
t
hel
eas
tsi
gni
fi
can
tbi
t(2,3,6,7
,10,1
1,e
tc)
.
c
.Pa
rit
ybi
t4c
ove
rsa
llt
heb
itsp
osi
ti
onswho
seb
ina
ryr
epr
ese
nta
tio
nin
clu
desa1i
nthe
t
hir
dpo
sit
io
nfr
om

VI
EW 23
 t
hel
eas
tsi
gni
fi
can
tbi
t(4
–7,1
2–1
5,20–
23,e
tc)
.
d
.Pa
rit
ybi
t8c
ove
rsa
llt
heb
itsp
osi
ti
onswho
seb
ina
ryr
epr
ese
nta
tio
nin
clu
desa1i
nthe
fo
urt
hpo
sit
io
nfr
om
t
hel
eas
tsi
gni
fi
can
tbi
tbi
ts(
8–1
5,24
–31
,40–
47,e
tc)
.
e
.Inge
ner
ale
achp
ari
tyb
itc
ove
rsa
llb
itswhe
ret
heb
itwi
seANDo
fthep
ari
typ
osi
ti
on
a
ndt
heb
itp
osi
ti
oni
s
n
on-
zer
o.

5.Si
ncewec
hec
kfo
rev
enp
ari
tys
etap
ari
tyb
itt
o1i
fthet
ota
lnu
mbe
rofo
nesi
nthe
p
osi
ti
onsi
tche
cksi
s
o
dd.

6
.Se
tap
ari
tyb
itt
o0i
fthet
ota
lnu
mbe
rofo
nesi
nthep
osi
ti
onsi
tche
cksi
sev
en.

De
ter
min
ingt
hep
osi
ti
ono
fre
dun
dan
tbi
ts–
The
ser
edu
nda
ncyb
itsa
rep
lac
eda
tthep
osi
ti
onswhi
chc
orr
esp
ondt
othep
owe
rof2.Asi
n
t
hea
bov
eex
amp
le:

1
. Then
umb
ero
fda
tab
its=7

2.Then
umb
ero
fre
dun
dan
tbi
ts=4

3.Thet
ota
lnu
mbe
rofb
its=1
1

4
.Ther
edu
nda
ntb
itsa
rep
lac
eda
tpo
sit
io
nsc
orr
esp
ond
ingt
opo
wero
f2-1
,2,4
,an
d8

Su
ppo
set
hed
atat
obet
ran
smi
tt
edi
s101
1001
,theb
itswi
llb
epl
ace
dasfo
ll
ows
:

-
VIEW 24
De
ter
min
ingt
hePa
rit
ybi
ts–

1
. R1b
iti
sca
lcu
lat
edu
sin
gpa
rit
yche
cka
tal
ltheb
itsp
osi
ti
onswho
seb
ina
ry
r
epr
ese
nta
tio
nin
clu
desa1i
nthel
eas
tsi
gni
fi
can
tpo
sit
io
n.

R1
:bi
ts1
,3,5,7
,9,1
1

Tofi
ndt
her
edu
nda
ntb
itR1
,wec
hec
kfo
rev
enp
ari
ty.Si
ncet
het
ota
lnu
mbe
rof1
’si
nal
ltheb
itp
osi
ti
ons
c
orr
esp
ond
ingt
oR1i
sane
venn
umb
ert
hev
alu
eofR1(
par
ityb
it’
sva
lue
)=0

2.R2b
iti
sca
lcu
lat
edu
sin
gpa
rit
yche
cka
tal
ltheb
itsp
osi
ti
onswho
seb
ina
ry
r
epr
ese
nta
tio
nin
clu
desa1i
nthes
eco
ndp
osi
ti
onfr
omt
hel
eas
tsi
gni
fi
can
tbi
t.

R2:b
its2,
3,6,
7,1
0,1
1

- 25
Tofi
ndt
her
edu
nda
ntb
itR2,wec
hec
kfo
rev
enp
ari
ty.Si
ncet
het
ota
lnu
mbe
rof1
’si
nal
ltheb
it
p
osi
ti
onsc
orr
esp
ond
ingt
oR2i
sano
ddn
umb
ert
hev
alu
eofR2(
par
ityb
it’
sva
lue
)=1

3.R4b
iti
sca
lcu
lat
edu
sin
gpa
rit
yche
cka
tal
ltheb
itsp
osi
ti
onswho
seb
ina
ry
r
epr
ese
nta
tio
nin
clu
desa1i
nthet
hir
dpo
sit
io
nfr
omt
hel
eas
tsi
gni
fi
can
tbi
t.

R4
:bi
ts4
,5,6,7

Tofi
ndt
her
edu
nda
ntb
itR4
,wec
hec
kfo
rev
enp
ari
ty.Si
ncet
het
ota
lnu
mbe
rof1
’si
nal
ltheb
it
p
osi
ti
onsc
orr
esp
ond
ingt
oR4i
sano
ddn
umb
ert
hev
alu
eofR4
(pa
rit
ybi
t’
sva
lue
)=1

4
.R8b
iti
sca
lcu
lat
edu
sin
gpa
rit
yche
cka
tal
ltheb
itsp
osi
ti
onswho
seb
ina
ry
r
epr
ese
nta
tio
nin
clu
desa1i
nthefo
urt
hpo
sit
io
nfr
omt
hel
eas
tsi
gni
fi
can
tbi
t.

R8:b
it8,
9,1
0,1
1

I
. RAJU-
ASST.
PROF-
VIEW 26
Tofi
ndt
her
edu
nda
ntb
itR8,wec
hec
kfo
rev
enp
ari
ty.Si
ncet
het
ota
lnu
mbe
rof1
’si
nal
ltheb
it
p
osi
ti
onsc
orr
esp
ond
ingt
oR8i
sane
venn
umb
ert
hev
alu
eofR8(
par
ityb
it’
sva
lue
)=0.

Thu
s,t
hed
atat
ran
sfe
rre
dis
:

Er
rord
ete
cti
ona
ndc
orr
ect
io
n–
Su
ppo
sei
nthea
bov
eex
amp
let
he6t
hbi
tisc
han
gedfr
om0t
o1d
uri
ngd
atat
ran
smi
ss
ion
,the
nit
gi
vesn
ewp
ari
tyv
alu
esi
ntheb
ina
ryn
umb
er:

-
VIEW 27
 ‘

Theb
itsgi
vet
heb
ina
ryn
umb
era
s01
10who
sed
eci
malr
epr
ese
nta
tio
nis6.Thu
s,t
heb
it6
c
ont
ain
sane
rro
r.Toc
orr
ectt
hee
rro
rthe6t
hbi
tisc
han
gedfr
om1t
o0.

Bi
nar
yco
nvo
lut
io
nalc
ode
:

Thes
eco
ndc
odewewi
lll
ooka
tisac
onv
olu
tio
nalc
ode
.Thi
sco
dei
stheo
nlyo
newewi
llc
ove
rtha
tis
n
otab
loc
kco
de.I
nac
onv
olu
tio
nalc
ode
,ane
nco
derp
roc
ess
esas
equ
enc
eofi
npu
tbi
tsa
ndge
ner
ate
sa
s
equ
enc
eofo
utp
utb
its
.The
rei
snon
atu
ralme
ssa
ges
izeo
ren
cod
ingb
oun
dar
yasi
nab
loc
kco
de.The
o
utp
utd
epe
ndso
nthec
urr
enta
ndp
rev
iou
sin
putb
its
.Tha
tis
,thee
nco
derha
sme
mor
y.Then
umb
er
o
fpr
evi
ousb
itso
nwhi
cht
heo
utp
utd
epe
ndsi
sca
lle
dthec
ons
tra
intl
engt
hoft
hec
ode
.Co
nvo
lut
io
nal
c
ode
sar
esp
eci
fi
edi
nte
rmso
fthe
irr
atea
ndc
ons
tra
intl
engt
h.

As
imp
ler
ate½c
onv
olu
tio
nalc
odee
nco
deri
ssho
wnb
elo
w.

VI
EW 28
Ther ect
angu
larboxrepr
ese
ntsoneele
mentofas
eria
lshiftregi
ste
r.Thec o
nte
ntsoftheshi
ftregi
st
ers
i
ss hifte
dfromlefttori
ght.Thecirc
lewit
haplussi
gninsi
deitrep
rese
ntsXORo p
erati
on.No
tic
ehow
theco d
edigi
tswhic
ha r
eoutpu
tbyt heenc
ode
raremult
iple
xedint
oas e
ria
lstre
amofb i
narydi
git
s.For
eve
r ybina
rydigi
tthaten
ter
sthee n
coder
,twoco
dedigi
tsareoutp
ut.Hencecod
erate=1/2.

I
nge
ner
al,t
hec
oder
ateRcode=k/n

Theco
nst
rai
ntl
en hKo
gt facon
vol
uti
ona
lcod
eisde
fin
eda
sthen
umb
ero
fshi
ftso
verwhi
cha
si
ngl
emessa
gebi
tcani
nfl
uen
cetheen
code
routp
ut.

HOW TODETERMINETHEOUTPUTCODEWORD?
Ther
ear
eess
ent
ial
lyt
wowaysinwhi
cht
heo
utp
utc
ode
wor
dma
ybed
ete
rmi
ned
.Wewi
llt
akeac
los
e
lo
okatb
othmet
hodsi
nthi
sle
ctur
e.

Sta
teDiagr
amApproa
ch
Thest
ateofarat
e1/2enc
oderi
sde
fin
edb
ythemo
s K-
t( 1
)me
ssa
geb
itsmo
vedi
ntot
hee
nco
dera
s
i
llu
str
atedi
nthedi
agrambel
ow.

VI
EW 29
  Thecorre
spo
ndi
ngs
tat
edia
gramforthera
t /2,K=3c
e1 o
nvol
uti
onalc
odeissho
wnbel
ow.
Not
icethatt
her
ear
efourst
ate
s[00],[01
],[
10]
,[1
1]
,co
rres
pond
ingtothe(K-1
)=2b
ina
ry
di
gittu
p l
e.

 Wema
yas
sumet
hee
nco
ders
tar
tsi
nthea
ll-
zer
ost
ate[
00]

STATETABLE
Theea
sie
stwa
ytod
ete
rmi
net
hes
tat
edi
agr
ami
stofi
rstd
ete
rmi
net
hes
tat
eta
blea
ssho
wnb
elo
w.

I
NTIAL OUTPUT
I
NPUTDI
GIT FI
NALSTATE
STATE CODEWORD

0 00 00 00

1 00 1
0 1
1

0 01 00 1
1

1 01 1
0 00

0 1
0 01 1
0

1 1
0 1
1 01

0 1
1 01 01

1 1
1 1
1 1
0

 Not
ic
ehowallt
heco
mbina
tio
nsofthein
iti
alst
atean
dinp
utd
igi
tar
eus
edt
ofi
rst
de
ter
min
ethefi
nals
tat
e,andthe
nt heo
utputc
odewor
d.

 No
wweu
set
hiss
tat
eta
blet
odr
awt
hes
tat
edi
agr
ama
ssho
wnb
elo
w.

-
VIEW 30
STATEDI
AGRAM

KEY
1
/01Thi
smean
sfore
xamp
le,thatt
hei
npu
tbi
nar
ydi
gitt
othee
nco
derwa
s1a
ndt
he
c
orre
spo
ndi
ngcod
ewo
rdou
tputis01
.

Thi
sre
pre
sen
tst
hes
tat
eoft
hee
nco
der
.Int
hise
xamp
le,t
hes
tat
eis01

Re
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
de:
Re
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
desa
reb
loc
k-b
ase
der
rorc
orr
ect
ingc
ode
swi
thawi
der
angeo
fap
pli
cat
io
nsi
n
d
igi
talc
ommu
nic
ati
onsa
nds
tor
age
.Re
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
desa
reu
sedt
oco
rre
cte
rro
rsi
nma
nys
yst
ems
i
ncl
udi
ng:

 St
ora
ged
evi
ces(
in
clu
din
gta
pe,Co
mpa
ctDi
sk,DVD,b
arc
ode
s,e
tc)

 Wi
rel
esso
rmo
bil
eco
mmu
nic
ati
ons(
in
clu
din
gce
ll
ula
rte
lep
hon
es,mi
cro
wav
eli
nks
,et
c)

-
VIEW 31
  Sa
tel
li
tec
ommu
nic
ati
ons

 Di
git
alt
ele
vis
ion/DVB

 Hi
gh-
spe
edmo
demss
ucha
sADSL,x
DSL,e
tc.

At
ypi
cals
yst
emi
ssho
wnhe
re:

TheRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nen
cod
ert
ake
sab
loc
kofd
igi
tald
ataa
nda
ddse
xtr
a"r
edu
nda
nt"b
its
.Er
ror
soc
cur
d
uri
ngt
ran
smi
ss
iono
rst
ora
gefo
ran
umb
ero
fre
aso
ns(
fore
xamp
len
ois
eori
nte
rfe
ren
ce,s
cra
tche
s
o
naCD,e
tc)
.TheRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nde
cod
erp
roc
ess
ese
achb
loc
kan
dat
temp
tst
oco
rre
cte
rro
rsa
nd
r
eco
vert
heo
rigi
nald
ata
.Then
umb
era
ndt
ypeo
fer
ror
stha
tca
nbec
orr
ect
edd
epe
ndso
nthe
c
har
act
eri
st
ic
soft
heRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
de.

2.
Pro
per
tie
sofRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
des

Re
edSo
lomo
nco
desa
reas
ubs
eto
fBCHc
ode
san
dar
eli
nea
rbl
ockc
ode
s.ARe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
dei
s
s
pec
ifi
eda n
sRS(,k)wi
ths
-bi
tsy
mbo
ls.

Thi
sme
anst
hatt
hee
nco
dert
a skd
ke atas
ymb
ol fsb
so itse
acha
nda
ddsp
ari
tys
ymb
olst
oma nn
kea
s
ymb
olc
ode
wor
d.The
rea
ren
-kp
ari
tys
ymb
olso
fsb
itse
ach.ARe
ed-
Sol
omo
nde
cod
erc
anc
orr
ect
u
ptots
ymb
olst
hatc
ont
aine
rro
rsi
nac
ode
wor
d,whe
re2t=n
-k.

Thefo
ll
owi
ngd
iagr
ams
howsat
ypi
calRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
dewo
rd(
thi
siskn
owna
saSy
ste
mat
icc
ode
b
eca
uset
hed
atai
sle
ftu
ncha
nge
dan
dthep
ari
tys
ymb
olsa
rea
ppe
nde
d):

-
VIEW 32
Ex
amp
le:Ap
opu
larRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
dei
sRS(
255,
223)wi
th8-
bits
ymb
ols
.Ea
chc
ode
wor
dco
nta
ins
255c
odewo
rdb
yte
s,o
fwhi
ch223b
yte
sar
eda
taa
nd32b
yte
sar
epa
rit
y.Fo
rthi
sco
de:

n=255,k=223,s=8

2t=32,t=1
6

Thed
eco
derc
anc
orr
ecta
ny1
6sy
mbo
ler
ror
sint
hec
odewo
rd:i
.e.e
rro
rsi
nupt
o16b
yte
san
ywhe
re
i
nthec
ode
wor
dca
nbea
uto
mat
ic
all
yco
rre
cte
d.

Gi
venas
ymb
ols
izes
,thema
ximu
mco
dewo
rdl
engt
h(n
)fo
raRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
d sn=2s–1
ei

Fo
rex
amp
le,t
hema
ximu
mle
ngt
hofac
odewi
th8-
bits
ymb
ols(
s=8)i
s255b
yte
s.

Re
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
desma
ybes
hor
ten
edb
y(c
onc
ept
ual
ly)ma
kin
gan
umb
ero
fda
tas
ymb
olsz
eroa
tthe
e
nco
der
,no
ttr
ans
mit
ti
ngt
hem,a
ndt
henr
e-i
nse
rti
ngt
hema
tthed
eco
der
.

Ex
amp
le:The(
255,
223)c
oded
esc
rib
eda
bov
eca
nbes
hor
ten
edt
o(200,
168)
.Thee
nco
dert
ake
sa
b
loc
kof1
68d
atab
yte
s,(
con
cep
tua
lly
)ad
ds55z
erob
yte
s,c
rea
tesa(
255,
223)c
ode
wor
dan
d
t
ran
smi
tso
nlyt
he1
68d
atab
yte
san
d32p
ari
tyb
yte
s.

Thea
mou
nto
fpr
oce
ssi
ng"
powe
r"r
equ
ire
dtoe
nco
dea
ndd
eco
deRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
desi
sre
lat
edt
othe
n
umb
ero
fpa
rit
ysy
mbo
lsp
erc
ode
wor
d.Al
argev
alu
eoftme
anst
hatal
argen
umb
ero
fer
ror
sca
n
b
eco
rre
cte
dbu
tre
qui
resmo
rec
omp
uta
tio
nalp
owe
rtha
nas
mal
lva
lueo
ft.

Sy
mbo
lEr
ror
s

On
esy
mbo
ler
roro
ccu
rswhe
n1b
iti
nas
ymb
oli
swr
ongo
rwhe
nal
ltheb
itsi
nas
ymb
ola
rewr
ong.

Ex
amp
le:RS(
255,
223)c
anc
orr
ect1
6sy
mbo
ler
ror
s.I
nthewo
rstc
ase
,16b
ite
rro
rsma
yoc
cur
,
e
achi
nas
epa
rat
esy
mbo
l(b
yte
)sot
hatt
hed
eco
derc
orr
ect
s16b
ite
rro
rs.I
ntheb
estc
ase
,16
c
omp
let
eby
tee
rro
rso
ccu
rsot
hatt
hed
eco
derc
orr
ect
s16x8b
ite
rro
rs.

Re
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
desa
rep
art
ic
ula
rlywe
lls
uit
edt
oco
rre
cti
ngb
urs
ter
ror
s(whe
reas
eri
eso
fbi
tsi
n
t
hec
ode
wor
dar
ere
cei
vedi
ner
ror
).

-
VIEW 33
De
cod
ing

Re
ed-
Sol
omo
nal
geb
rai
cde
cod
ingp
roc
edu
resc
anc
orr
ecte
rro
rsa
nde
ras
ure
s.Ane
ras
ureo
ccu
rswhe
n
t
hep
osi
ti
ono
fane
rre
dsy
mbo
liskn
own
.Ad
eco
derc
anc
orr
ectu
ptote
rro
rso
rup o2t
t
e
ras
ure
s.Er
asu
rei
nfo
rma
tio
nca
noft
enb
esu
ppl
ie
dbyt
hed
emo
dul
ato
rinad
igi
talc
ommu
nic
ati
on
s
yst
em,i
.e.t
hed
emo
dul
ato
r"fl
ags
"re
cei
veds
ymb
olst
hata
rel
ike
lyt
oco
nta
ine
rro
rs.

Whe
nac
ode
wor
disd
eco
ded
,the
rea
ret
hre
epo
ssi
bleo
utc
ome
s:

1
.If2s+r<2t(
ser
ror
s,re
ras
ure
s)t
hent
heo
rigi
nalt
ran
smi
tt
edc
odewo
rdwi
lla
lwa
ysb
e
r
eco
ver
ed,

OTHERWI
SE

2
.Thed
eco
derwi
lld
ete
ctt
hati
tca
nno
tre
cov
ert
heo
rigi
nalc
odewo
rda
ndi
ndi
cat
ethi
sfa
ct.

OR

3
.Thed
eco
derwi
llmi
s-d
eco
dea
ndr
eco
vera
nin
cor
rec
tco
dewo
rdwi
tho
uta
nyi
ndi
cat
io
n.

Thep
rob
abi
li
tyo
fea
cho
fthet
hre
epo
ssi
bi
li
ti
esd
epe
ndso
nthep
art
ic
ula
rRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
dea
ndo
n
t
hen
umb
era
ndd
ist
rib
uti
ono
fer
ror
s.

Co
din
gGa
in

Thea
dva
nta
geo
fus
ingRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nco
desi
stha
tthep
rob
abi
li
tyo
fane
rro
rre
mai
ni
ngi
nthe
d
eco
dedd
atai
s(u
sua
lly
)mu
chl
owe
rtha
nthep
rob
abi
li
tyo
fane
rro
rifRe
ed-
Sol
omo
nisn
otu
sed
.
Thi
siso
fte
nde
scr
ibe
dasc
odi
ngga
in.

Ex
amp
le:Ad
igi
talc
ommu
nic
ati
ons
yst
emi
sde
si
gne
dtoo
per
atea
taBi
tEr
rorRa
tio(
BER)o
f10-9,
i
.e.n
omo
ret
han1i
n109b
itsa
rer
ece
ive
dine
rro
r.Thi
sca
nbea
chi
eve
dbyb
oos
ti
ngt
hep
owe
roft
he
t
ran
smi
tt
ero
rbya
ddi
ngRe
ed-
Sol
omo
n(o
ran
othe
rty
peo
fFo
rwa
rdEr
rorCo
rre
cti
on)
.Re
ed-
Sol
omo
n
a
llo
wst
hes
yst
emt
oac
hie
vet
hist
arge
tBERwi
thal
owe
rtr
ans
mit
tero
utp
utp
owe
r.Thep
owe
r
"
sav
ing"gi
venb
yRe
ed-
Sol
omo
n(i
nde
cib
els
)ist
hec
odi
ngga
in.

I
. VI
EW 34
Lo
w-De
nsi
tyPa
rit
yChe
ck

Thefi
nale
rro
r-c
orr
ect
ingc
odewewi
llc
ove
rist
heLDPC(
Low-
Den
sit
yPa
rit
yChe
ck)c
ode
.LDPC
c
ode
sar
eli
nea
rbl
ockc
ode
stha
twe
rei
nve
nte
dbyRo
ber
tGa
lla
ghe
rinhi
sdo
cto
ralt
hes
is(
Gal
laghe
r,
1
962)
.Li
kemo
stt
hes
es,t
heywe
rep
romp
tlyfo
rgo
tte
n,o
nlyt
ober
ein
ven
tedi
n1995whe
nad
van
ces
i
nco
mpu
tin
gpo
werha
dma
det
hemp
rac
ti
cal
.Ina
nLDPCc
ode
,ea
cho
utp
utb
iti
sfo
rme
dfr
omo
nlya
fr
act
io
noft
hei
npu
tbi
ts
.Thi
sle
adst
oama
tri
xre
pre
sen
tat
io
noft
hec
odet
hatha
sal
owd
ens
it
yof
1
s,he
ncet
hen
amefo
rthec
ode
.Ther
ece
ive
dco
dewo
rdsa
red
eco
dedwi
tha
nap
pro
xima
tio
nal
gor
ithm
t
hati
te
rat
ive
lyi
mpr
ove
sonab
estfi
toft
her
ece
ive
dda
tat
oal
ega
lco
dewo
rd.Thi
sco
rre
ctse
rro
rs.

ELEMENTARYDATALI
NKLAYERPROTOCOLS
Whe
nda
ta-
fra
mei
str
ans
mit
ted
,the
rei
sap
rob
abi
li
tyt
hatd
ata
-fr
amema
ybel
osti
nthe
t
ran
sito
riti
sre
cei
vedc
orr
upt
ed.I
nbo
thc
ase
s,t
her
ece
ive
rdo
esn
otr
ece
ivet
hec
orr
ectd
ata
-
fr
amea
nds
end
erd
oesn
otkn
owa
nyt
hin
gab
outa
nyl
oss
.Ins
uchc
ase
,bo
ths
end
era
ndr
ece
ive
rar
e
e
qui
ppe
dwi
ths
omep
rot
oco
lswhi
chhe
lpst
hemt
ode
tec
ttr
ans
ite
rro
rss
ucha
slo
sso
fda
ta-fr
ame
.
He
nce
,ei
the
rthes
end
err
etr
ans
mit
sthed
ata
-fr
ameo
rther
ece
ive
rma
yre
que
stt
ore
sen
dthe
p
rev
iou
sda
ta-
fra
me.

Fi
g:3.
18El
eme
nta
ryDa
taLi
nkLa
yerPr
oto
col
s
 Po
sit
iveACK-Whe
nther
ece
ive
rre
cei
vesac
orr
ectfr
ame
,its
hou
lda
ckn
owl
edgei
t.
 Ne
gat
iveACK-Whe
nther
ece
ive
rre
cei
vesad
ama
gedfr
ameo
rad
upl
ic
atefr
ame
,its
end
sa
NACKb
ackt
othes
end
era
ndt
hes
end
ermu
str
etr
ans
mitt
hec
orr
ectfr
ame
.

-
VIEW 35
  Re
tra
nsmi
ss
ion
: The s
end
er ma
int
ain
sac
loc
kan
dse
tsat
ime
outp
eri
od.I
fan
a
ckn
owl
edge
men
tofad
ata
-fr
amep
rev
iou
slyt
ran
smi
tt
edd
oesn
ota
rri
veb
efo
ret
het
ime
out
t
hes
end
err
etr
ans
mit
sthefr
ame
,thi
nki
ngt
hatt
hefr
ameo
rit
sac
kno
wle
dge
men
tisl
osti
n
t
ran
sit
.

 Pi
ggy
bac
kin
g:I
ntwowa
yco
mmu
nic
ati
on,whe
nev
erad
atafr
amei
sre
cei
ved
,ther
ece
ive
r
wa
itsa
ndd
oesn
ots
endt
hec
ont
rolfr
ame(
ackn
owl
edge
men
t)b
ackt
othes
end
eri
mme
dia
tel
y.
Ther
ece
ive
rwa
itsu
nti
lit
sne
two
rkl
aye
rpa
sse
sint
hen
extd
atap
acke
t.Thed
ela
yed
a
ckn
owl
edge
men
tist
hena
tta
che
dtot
hiso
utgo
ingd
atafr
ame
.Hi
ste
chn
iqu
eoft
emp
ora
ril
y
d
ela
yin
gthea
ckn
owl
edge
men
tsot
hati
tca
nbeho
oke
dwi
thn
exto
utgo
ingd
atafr
amei
s
kn
owna
spi
ggy
bac
kin
g.
NOI
SELESSCHANNELS
Si
mpl
estPr
oto
col
:
 Si
mpl
estPr
oto
coli
son
etha
tha
snofl
owo
rer
rorc
ont
rola
ndi
tisau
nid
ire
cti
ona
lpr
oto
coli
n
whi
chd
atafr
ame
sar
etr
ave
li
ngi
non
lyo
ned
ire
cti
on-
fro
mthes
end
ert
ore
cei
ver
.
 Wea
ssu
met
hatt
her
ece
ive
rca
nimme
dia
tel
yha
ndl
ean
yfr
amei
tre
cei
veswi
thap
roc
ess
ing
t
imet
hati
ssma
lle
nou
ght
oben
egl
igi
ble
.Thed
atal
in
kla
yero
fther
ece
ive
rimme
dia
tel
y
r
emo
vest
hehe
ade
rfr
omt
hefr
amea
ndha
ndst
hed
atap
acke
ttoi
tsn
etwo
rkl
aye
r,whi
ch
c
ana
lsoa
cce
ptt
hep
acke
timme
dia
tel
y.
 Nos
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rso
rac
kno
wle
dge
men
tsa
reu
sedhe
re.

Fi
g:3.
19Ex
amp
leo
fCo
mmu
nic
ati
onSi
mpl
estPr
oto
col

-
VIEW 36
  Thefo
ll
owi
ngfi
gur
esho
wsa
nex
amp
leo
fco
mmu
nic
ati
onu
sin
gthi
spr
oto
col
.Iti
sve
rys
imp
le.
Thes
end
ers
end
sas
equ
enc
eoffr
ame
swi
tho
ute
vent
hin
kin
gab
outt
her
ece
ive
r.Tos
end
t
hre
efr
ame
s,t
hre
eev
ent
soc
cura
tthes
end
ers
it
ean
dthr
eee
ven
tsa
tther
ece
ive
rsi
te
.
 Da
taa
ret
ran
smi
tt
edi
non
edi
rec
ti
ono
nly
 Thet
ran
smi
tt
ing(
Tx)a
ndr
ece
ivi
ng(
Rx)ho
stsa
rea
lwa
ysr
ead
y
 Pr
oce
ssi
ngt
imec
anb
eign
ore
d
 I
nfi
ni
teb
uffe
rsp
acei
sav
ail
abl
e
 Noe
rro
rso
ccu
r;i
.e.n
oda
mage
dfr
ame
san
dnol
ostfr
ame
s(p
erfe
ctc
han
nel
)

Fi
g:3.
19NoDa
mage
dFr
ame
sAn
dNoLo
stFr
ame
s(Pe
rfe
ctCha
nne
l)
"
Simp
les
t":Ps
eud
oCo
de
 Se
nde
r

-
VIEW 37
  Re
cei
ver

St
op-
and
-Wa
itPr
oto
col
 I
fda
tafr
ame
sar
riv
eatt
her
ece
ive
rsi
tefa
ste
rtha
nthe
yca
nbep
roc
ess
ed,t
hefr
ame
smu
st
b
est
ore
dun
tilt
hei
rus
e.No
rma
lly
,ther
ece
ive
rdo
esn
otha
vee
nou
ghs
tor
ages
pac
e,
e
spe
cia
llyi
fiti
sre
cei
vi
ngd
atafr
omma
nys
our
ces
.Thi
sma
yre
sul
tine
it
hert
hed
isc
ard
ing
o
ffr
ame
sord
eni
alo
fse
rvi
ce.Top
rev
entt
her
ece
ive
rfr
omb
eco
min
gov
erwhe
lme
dwi
th
fr
ame
s,wes
ome
hown
eedt
ote
llt
hes
end
ert
osl
owd
own
.The
remu
stb
efe
edb
ackfr
omt
he
r
ece
ive
rtot
hes
end
er.
 Thep
rot
oco
lno
wisc
all
edt
heSt
op-
and
-Wa
itPr
oto
colb
eca
uset
hes
end
ers
end
son
efr
ame
,
s
top
sun
tili
tre
cei
vesc
onfi
rma
tio
nfr
omt
her
ece
ive
r(o
kayt
ogoa
hea
d),a
ndt
hens
end
sthe
n
extfr
ame
.
 I
tisau
nid
ire
cti
ona
lco
mmu
nic
ati
onfo
rda
tafr
ame
s,b
uta
uxi
li
aryACKfr
ame
s(s
imp
le
t
oke
nso
fac
kno
wle
dgme
nt)t
rav
elfr
omt
heo
the
rdi
rec
ti
on.
 Re
cei
verha
sli
mit
edb
uffe
r,Re
qui
resfl
owc
ont
rol
.

-
VIEW 38
 Fi
g:3.
20St
op-
and
-Wa
itPr
oto
col
St
op-
and
-Wa
it:Ps
eud
oCo
de
 Se
nde
rsi
de

 Re
cei
vers
ide

VI
EW 39
 Fi
g:3.
20St
op-
and
-Wa
it:Fl
owDi
agr
am

No
isyc
han
nelp
rot
oco
ls:s
topa
ndwa
itARQNo
isy
Cha
nne
l:
 Re
ali
st
ic
Er
rorc
ana
ndwi
llha
ppe
n,Re
qui
ree
rro
rco
ntr
ol
 Me
cha
nis
ms:
1
. St
op-
and
-Wa
itARQ
2.Go
-Ba
ck-
NARQ
3.Se
lec
ti
veRe
pea
tARQ
1
. St
op-
and
-Wa
itAu
toma
ticRe
pea
tRe
que
st:
Thefo
ll
owi
ngt
ran
sit
io
nma
yoc
curi
nSt
op-
and
-Wa
itARQ:

I
. -
VIEW 4
0
  Thes
end
erma
int
ain
sat
ime
outc
oun
ter
.Whe
nafr
amei
sse
nt,t
hes
end
ers
tar
tst
het
ime
out
c
oun
ter
.
 I
fac
kno
wle
dge
men
toffr
amec
ome
sint
ime
,thes
end
ert
ran
smi
tst
hen
extfr
amei
nqu
eue
.
 I
fac
kno
wle
dge
men
tdo
esn
otc
omei
nti
me,t
hes
end
era
ssu
mest
hate
it
hert
hefr
ameo
rit
s
a
ckn
owl
edge
men
tisl
osti
ntr
ans
it
.Se
nde
rre
tra
nsmi
tst
hefr
amea
nds
tar
tst
het
ime
out
c
oun
ter
.
 I
fan
ega
tiv
eac
kno
wle
dge
men
tisr
ece
ive
d,t
hes
end
err
etr
ans
mit
sthefr
ame
.
 Se
nde
rke
epsac
opyo
fse
ntfr
ameu
nti
lsu
cce
ssfu
lde
li
ver
yise
nsu
red
.
 Re
cei
verr
esp
ond
swi
tha
nac
kwhe
nits
ucc
ess
ful
lyr
ece
ive
safr
ame
.
 Bo
thd
ataa
nda
ckfr
ame
smu
stb
enu
mbe
red
.
Se
que
nceNu
mbe
rs
 Thep
rot
oco
lsp
eci
fi
est
hatfr
ame
sne
edt
oben
umb
ere
d.Thi
sisd
oneb
yus
ings
equ
enc
e
n
umb
ers
.Afi
el
disa
dde
dtot
hed
atafr
amet
oho
ldt
hes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
roft
hatfr
ame
.On
e
i
mpo
rta
ntc
ons
ide
rat
io
nist
her
angeo
fthes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rs.
Fo
rex
amp
le,i
fwed
eci
det
hatt
hefi
el
dismb
itsl
ong,t
hes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rss
tar
t
fr
o o2m-1
m0,got ,an
dthe
nar
ere
pea
ted
.
Ac
kno
wle
dgme
ntNu
mbe
r
 Thea
ckn
owl
edgme
ntn
umb
ersa
lwa
ysa
nno
unc
ethes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
roft
hen
extfr
ame
e
xpe
cte
dbyt
her
ece
ive
r.Fo
rex
amp
le,i
ffr
ame0ha
sar
riv
eds
afe
,ther
ece
ive
rse
ndsa
n
ACKfr
amewi
tha
ckn
owl
edgme
nt1(
mea
nin
gfr
ame1i
sex
pec
tedn
ext
).I
ffr
ame1ha
sar
riv
ed
s
afe
,ther
ece
ive
rse
ndsa
nACKfr
amewi
tha
ckn
owl
edgme
nt0(
mea
nin
gfr
ame0i
sex
pec
ted
).
 I
nSt
op-
and
-Wa
itARQt
hea
ckn
owl
edgme
ntn
umb
era
lwa
ysa
nno
unc
esi
nmo
dul
o-2a
rit
hme
ti
c
t
hes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
roft
hen
extfr
amee
xpe
cte
d.

-
VIEW 4
1
 Fi
g:3.
21St
op-
and
-Wa
itARQ

Fl
owDi
agr
am:No
rma
lOp
era
tio
n

-
VIEW 4
2
 Fi
g:3.
22Fr
ameEx
cha
nge
Pi
pel
in
ing
 The
rei
snop
ipe
li
ni
ngi
nSt
op-
and
-Wa
itARQb
eca
usewen
eedt
owa
itfo
rafr
amet
ore
ach
t
hed
est
ina
tio
nan
dbea
ckn
owl
edge
dbe
for
ethen
extfr
amec
anb
ese
nt.Ho
wev
er,p
ipe
li
ni
ng
d
oesa
ppl
ytoo
urn
extt
wop
rot
oco
lsb
eca
uses
eve
ralfr
ame
sca
nbes
entb
efo
rewer
ece
iven
ews
a
bou
tthep
rev
iou
sfr
ame
s.
 Pi
pel
in
ingi
mpr
ove
sthee
ffi
ci
enc
yoft
het
ran
smi
ss
ioni
fthen
umb
ero
fbi
tsi
ntr
ans
it
io
nis
l
argewi
thr
esp
ectt
otheb
and
wid
th-
del
ayp
rod
uct
.

-
VIEW 4
3
 Go
-Ba
ck-
NAu
toma
ticRe
pea
tRe
que
st:
 I
nthi
spr
oto
colwec
ans
ends
eve
ralfr
ame
sbe
for
ere
cei
vi
nga
ckn
owl
edgme
nts
;weke
epac
opy
o
fthe
sefr
ame
sun
tilt
hea
ckn
owl
edgme
ntsa
rri
ve.
 The
sefr
ame
smu
stb
enu
mbe
redd
iffe
ren
tly
.Fr
amen
umb
ersa
rec
all
edSe
que
ncen
umb
ers
 Fr
ame
smu
stb
ere
cei
vedi
nthec
orr
ecto
rde
r
 I
fafr
amei
slo
st,t
hel
ostfr
amea
nda
llo
fthefo
ll
owi
ngfr
ame
smu
stb
ere
tra
nsmi
tt
ed
Se
que
nceNu
mbe
rs
 Fr
ame
sfr
omas
end
ings
tat
io
nar
enu
mbe
reds
equ
ent
ial
ly.Ho
wev
er,b
eca
usewen
eedt
o
i
ncl
udet
hes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rofe
achfr
amei
nthehe
ade
r,wen
eedt
ose
tal
imi
t.
 I
fthehe
ade
roft
hefr
amea
llwsmb
o itsfo
rthes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
r,t
hes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rs
r
angefr
o o2m-1
m0t .
 Fo
rex
amp
le fmi
,i s4,t
heo
nlys
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rsa
re0t
hro
ugh1
5in
clu
siv
e.Ho
wev
er,we
c
anr
epe
att
hes
equ
enc
e.Sot
hes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rsa
re
0,1
,2,
3,4
,5,
6,7
,8,
9,1
0,1
1,1
2,1
3,1
4,1
5,0,1
,2,
3,4
,5,
6,7
,8,
9,1
0,1
1,.
..
I
not
herwo
rds
,thes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rsa
remo
dul
o-2m
Sl
id
ingWi
ndo
w
Thes
li
di
ngwi
ndo
wisa
nab
str
actc
onc
eptt
hatd
efi
nest
her
angeo
fse
que
ncen
umb
erst
hati
s
t
hec
onc
erno
fthes
end
era
ndr
ece
ive
r.Ther
angewhi
chi
sthec
onc
erno
fthes
end
eri
sca
lle
dthe
s
ends
li
di
ngwi
ndo
w;t
her
anget
hati
sthec
onc
erno
fther
ece
ive
risc
all
edt
her
ece
ives
li
di
ngwi
ndo
w.
Thes
endwi
ndo
wisa
nima
gin
aryb
oxc
ove
rin
gthes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rso
fthed
atafr
ame
swhi
ch
c
anb
eint
ran
sit
.Ine
achwi
ndo
wpo
sit
io
n,s
omeo
fthe
ses
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rsd
efi
net
hefr
ame
stha
t
ha
veb
eens
ent
;ot
her
sde
fin
etho
set
hatc
anb
ese
nt.Thema
ximu
msi
zeo
fthewi
ndo
wis2m–1
.
Se
ndi
ngWi
ndo
w
 Se
ndi
ngmo
ret
hano
nefr
amea
ton
cer
equ
ire
sse
nde
rtob
uffe
rmu
lti
pl
efr
ame
sKn
owna
s
"
sen
din
gwi
ndo
w".An
yoft
hes
efr
ame
sint
hewi
ndo
wca
nbel
ost
.

-
VIEW 4
4
 Fi
g:3.
23Se
ndi
ngWi
ndo
w
Sl
id
ing"Wi
ndo
w”
 On
cet
hefi
rstfr
ame
sint
hewi
ndo
wisACKe
d.ACKe
dfr
ame
sar
ere
mov
edfr
omt
heb
uffe
r.
Mo
refr
ame
sar
etr
ans
mit
ted
 Re
sul
t:Thewi
ndo
wsl
id
est
other
ight

Fi
g:3.
24Thewi
ndo
wsl
id
est
other
ight
Re
cei
vi
ngWi
ndo
w
Re
cei
vere
xpe
ctso
nefr
amea
tat
ime
.

Fi
g:3.
25Re
cei
vi
ngWi
ndo
w
 Thes
endwi
ndo
wisa
nab
str
actc
onc
eptd
efi
ni
nga
nima
gin
aryb
oxo
fsi
ze2m−1
wi
tht
hre
eva
ria
ble
s:Sf
,Sn
,an
dSsi
ze.
 Ther
ece
ivewi
ndo
wisa
nab
str
actc
onc
eptd
efi
ni
nga
nima
gin
aryb
oxo
fsi
ze1wi
tho
ne
s
ingl
eva
ria
bleRn.Thewi
ndo
wsl
id
eswhe
nac
orr
ectfr
ameha
sar
riv
ed;s
li
di
ngo
ccu
rs
o
nes
lota
tat
ime
.

-
VIEW 4
5
 Fi
g:3.
26Se
ndv
s.Re
cei
veWi
ndo
ws
Ti
mer
s
 Al
tho
ught
her
eca
nbeat
ime
rfo
rea
chfr
amet
hati
sse
nt,i
nou
rpr
oto
colweu
seo
nlyo
ne.
Ther
eas
oni
stha
tthet
ime
rfo
rthefi
rsto
uts
tan
din
gfr
amea
lwa
yse
xpi
resfi
rst
;we
s
enda
llo
uts
tan
din
gfr
ame
swhe
nthi
sti
mere
xpi
res
.
Ac
kno
wle
dgme
nt
 Ther
ece
ive
rse
ndsap
osi
ti
vea
ckn
owl
edgme
nti
fafr
ameha
sar
riv
eds
afea
nds
oun
dan
din
o
rde
r.I
fafr
amei
sda
mage
dori
sre
cei
vedo
uto
for
der
,ther
ece
ive
riss
il
enta
ndwi
ll
d
isc
arda
lls
ubs
equ
entfr
ame
sun
tili
tre
cei
vest
heo
nei
tise
xpe
cti
ng.
Re
sen
din
gaFr
ame
 Whe
nthet
ime
rex
pir
es,t
hes
end
err
ese
ndsa
llo
uts
tan
din
gfr
ame
s

Fi
g:3.
27De
si
gno
fGo
-Ba
ck-
NARQ

-
VIEW 4
6
Go
-Ba
ck-
N:Wi
ndo
wSi
zes
 Fo
rm-
bits
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rs.Se
ndwi
ndo
wsi
ze:a
tmo
st2m
o2m-
 Upt 1fr
ame
sca
nbes
entwi
tho
utACK
 Re
cei
vewi
ndo
wsi
ze:1
 Fr
ame
smu
stb
ere
cei
vedi
nor
der
Go
-Ba
ck-
N:No
rma
lOp
era
tio
n

Go
-Ba
ck-
N:Lo
stFr
ame

-
VIEW 4
7
 Wi
ndo
wsi
zefo
rGo
-Ba
ck-
NARQ

Fi
g:3.
28Fr
ameEx
cha
nge
 I
nGo
-Ba
ck-
NARQ,t
hes
izeo
fthes
endwi
ndo
wmu
stb
ele
sst
han2m;t
hes
izeo
fthe
r
ece
ive
rwi
ndo
wisa
lwa
ys1
.

Se
lec
ti
veRe
pea
tAu
toma
ticRe
pea
tRe
que
st:
 Fo
rno
isyl
in
ks,t
her
eisa
not
herme
cha
nis
mtha
tdo
esn
otr
ese
ndNfr
ame
swhe
nju
sto
ne
fr
amei
sda
mage
d;o
nlyt
hed
ama
gedfr
amei
sre
sen
t.Thi
sme
cha
nis
misc
all
edSe
lec
ti
ve
Re
pea
tARQ.I
tismo
ree
ffi
ci
entfo
rno
isyl
in
ks,b
utt
hep
roc
ess
inga
tther
ece
ive
rismo
re
c
omp
lex
.
Wi
ndo
ws
 TheSe
lec
ti
veRe
pea
tPr
oto
cola
lsou
sest
wowi
ndo
ws:as
endwi
ndo
wan
dar
ece
ivewi
ndo
w.
 Se
nde
ran
dre
cei
vers
har
ewi
ndo
wsp
acee
qua
lly
rm-
Fo bits
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rs
 Se
ndwi
ndo
w:u
pto2m-1
 Re
cei
vewi
ndo
w:u
pto2m-1
Fo
rex
amp
le fm=4
,i ,thes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rsgofr
om0t
o15,b
utt
hes
izeo
fthewi
ndo
wis
j
ust8(
iti
s15i
ntheGo
-Ba
ck-
NPr
oto
col
).Thes
mal
le
rwi
ndo
wsi
zeme
ansl
ess

-
VIEW 4
8
 e
ffi
ci
enc
yinfi
ll
in
gthep
ipe
,bu
tthefa
ctt
hatt
her
ear
efe
werd
upl
ic
atefr
ame
sca
n
c
omp
ens
atefo
rthi
s.
Se
ndWi
ndo
w

Fi
g:3.
29Se
ndWi
ndo
w
Re
cei
veWi
ndo
w
 TheSe
lec
ti
veRe
pea
tPr
oto
cola
llo
wsa
sma
nyfr
ame
sast
hes
izeo
fther
ece
ivewi
ndo
wto
a
rri
veo
uto
for
dera
ndb
eke
ptu
nti
lthe
rei
sas
eto
fin
-or
derfr
ame
stob
ede
li
ver
edt
othe
n
etwo
rkl
aye
r.Al
lthefr
ame
sint
hes
endfr
amec
ana
rri
veo
uto
for
dera
ndb
est
ore
dun
til
t
heyc
anb
ede
li
ver
ed.

Fi
g:3.
30Re
cei
veWi
ndo
w
Wi
ndo
wSi
zes
 Thes
izeo
fthes
end
era
ndr
ece
ive
rwi
ndo
wsmu
stb
eatmo
sto
neha
l f2m.
fo
Fo
rane
xamp
le,wec
hoo
sem=2,whi
chme
anst
hes
izeo
fthewi
ndo
wis2m/2,
or2.Co
mpa
resa
wi
ndo
wsi
zeo
f2wi
thawi
ndo
wsi
zeo
f3.
Ift
hes
izeo
fthewi
ndo
wis2a
nda
lla
ckn
owl
edgme
ntsa
re
l
ost
,thet
ime
rfo
rfr
ame0e
xpi
resa
ndfr
ame0i
sre
sen
t.Ho
wev
er,t
hewi
ndo
woft
her
ece
ive
ris
n
owe
xpe
cti
ngfr
ame2,n
otfr
ame0,s
othi
sdu
pli
cat
efr
amei
sco
rre
ctl
ydi
sca
rde
d.Whe
nthe

-
VIEW 4
9
s
izeo
fthewi
ndo
wis3a
nda
lla
ckn
owl
edgme
ntsa
rel
ost
,thes
end
ers
end
sad
upl
ic
ateo
ffr
ame
1
.Ho
wev
er,t
hist
ime
,thewi
ndo
woft
her
ece
ive
rex
pec
tst
ore
cei
vefr
ame0(
0isp
arto
fthe
wi
ndo
w),s
oita
cce
ptsfr
ame0,n
ota
sad
upl
ic
ate
,bu
tast
hefi
rstfr
amei
nthen
extc
ycl
e.Thi
sis
c
lea
rlya
ner
ror
.
De
si
gno
fSe
lec
ti
veRe
pea
tARQ

Fi
g:3.
31De
si
gno
fSe
lec
ti
veRe
pea
tARQ

I
. -
VIEW 50
 Fi
g:3.
32Fr
ameEx
cha
nge
Ne
gat
iveACK
Us
edb
yre
cei
vert
oin
dic
atemi
ss
ingfr
ame

Fi
g:3.
33Ne
gat
iveACK
Ho
wSe
lec
ti
veRe
pea
tbe
hav
es

-
VIEW 51
 Fi
g:3.
34Fr
ameEx
cha
nge
Pi
ggy
bac
kin
g
Thet
hre
epr
oto
col
swed
isc
uss
edi
nthi
sse
cti
ona
rea
llu
nid
ire
cti
ona
l:d
atafr
ame
sfl
owi
non
ly
o
ned
ire
cti
ona
ltho
ughc
ont
roli
nfo
rma
tio
nsu
cha
sACKa
ndNAKfr
ame
sca
ntr
ave
lint
heo
the
r
d
ire
cti
on.I
nre
all
ife
,da
tafr
ame
sar
eno
rma
llyf
lowi
ngi
nbo
thd
ire
cti
ons
:fr
omn
odeAt
ono
de
Ba
ndfr
omn
odeBt
ono
deA.Thi
sme
anst
hatt
hec
ont
roli
nfo
rma
tio
nal
son
eed
stofl
owi
nbo
th
d
ire
cti
ons
.At
echn
iqu
eca
lle
dpi
ggy
bac
kin
gis
sue
dtoi
mpr
ovet
hee
ffi
ci
enc
yoft
heb
idi
rec
ti
ona
l
p
rot
oco
ls.
Whe
nafr
amei
sca
rry
ingd
atafr
omAt
oB,i
tca
nal
soc
arr
yco
ntr
oli
nfo
rma
tio
nab
outa
rri
ved
(
orl
ost
)fr
ame
sfr
omB;whe
nafr
amei
sca
rry
ingd
atafr
omBt
oA,i
tca
nal
soc
arr
yco
ntr
ol
i
nfo
rma
tio
nab
outt
hea
rri
ved(
orl
ost
)fr
ame
sfr
omA.

De
si
gno
fpi
ggy
bac
kin
ginGo
-Ba
ck-
NARQ

-
VIEW 52
 Fi
g:3.
35De
si
gno
fpi
ggy
bac
kin
ginGo
-Ba
ck-
NARQ

 Ani
mpo
rta
ntp
oin
tab
outp
iggy
bac
kin
gist
hatb
oths
it
esmu
stu
set
hes
amea
lgo
rit
hm.Thi
s
a
lgo
rit
hmi
sco
mpl
ic
ate
dbe
cau
sei
tne
edst
oco
mbi
net
woa
rri
vale
ven
tsi
ntoo
ne.

HDLCp
rot
oco
l:Fr
amefo
rma
ts
Hi
gh-
Lev
elDa
taLi
nkCo
ntr
ol(
HDLC)
:
 Hi
gh-
lev
elDa
taLi
nkCo
ntr
ol(
HDLC)i
sab
it-
ori
ent
edp
rot
oco
lfo
rco
mmu
nic
ati
ono
verp
oin
t-
t
o-p
oin
tan
dmu
lti
poi
ntl
in
ks.
 HDLCi
sas
ync
hro
nou
sDa
taLi
nkl
aye
rbi
t-o
rie
nte
dpr
oto
cold
eve
lop
edb
ytheI
nte
rna
tio
nal
Or
gan
iza
tio
nfo
rSt
and
ard
iza
tio
n(I
SO)
.
 HDLCp
rov
ide
sbo
thc
onn
ect
io
n-o
rie
nte
dan
dco
nne
cti
onl
esss
erv
ice
.
 HDLCd
efi
nesaLa
yer2fr
ami
ngs
tru
ctu
ret
hata
llo
wsfo
rfl
owc
ont
rola
nde
rro
rco
ntr
ol
t
hro
ught
heu
seo
fac
kno
wle
dgme
nts
.
 I
timp
leme
ntst
heARQme
cha
nis
ms.
Co
nfi
gur
ati
onsa
ndTr
ans
ferMo
des
:
 HDLCp
rov
ide
stwoc
ommo
ntr
ans
fermo
dest
hatc
anb
eus
edi
ndi
ffe
ren
tco
nfi
gur
ati
ons
:
No
rma
lre
spo
nsemo
de(
NRM)a
nd
As
ync
hro
nou
sba
lan
cedmo
de(
ABM)
.
-
VIEW 53
No
rma
lRe
spo
nseMo
de:
 I
nno
rma
lre
spo
nsemo
de(
NRM)
,thes
tat
io
nco
nfi
gur
ati
oni
sun
bal
anc
ed.Weha
veo
nep
rima
ry
s
tat
io
nan
dmu
lti
pl
ese
con
dar
yst
ati
ons
.Ap
rima
rys
tat
io
nca
nse
ndc
omma
nds
;as
eco
nda
ry
s
tat
io
nca
non
lyr
esp
ond
.TheNRMi
sus
edfo
rbo
thp
oin
t-t
o-p
oin
tan
dmu
lti
pl
e-p
oin
tli
nks

Fi
g:3.
36No
rma
lRe
spo
nseMo
de

As
ync
hro
nou
sBa
lan
cedMo
de:
 I
nas
ync
hro
nou
sba
lan
cedmo
de(
ABM)
,thec
onfi
gur
ati
oni
sba
lan
ced
.Thel
in
kisp
oin
t-t
o-
p
oin
t,a
nde
achs
tat
io
nca
nfu
nct
io
nasap
rima
rya
ndas
eco
nda
ry(
act
inga
spe
ers
).

Fi
g:3.
37As
ync
hro
nou
sBa
lan
cedMo
de

-
VIEW 54
HDLCd
efi
nest
hre
ety
peso
ffr
ame
s:
2.
Info
rma
tio
nfr
ame
s:(
I-
fra
mes
)
3.
Sup
erv
iso
ryfr
ame
s(S-
fra
mes
)
4
.Un
numb
ere
dfr
ame
s(U-
fra
mes
)
 Ea
cht
ypeo
ffr
ames
erv
esa
sane
nve
lop
efo
rthet
ran
smi
ss
iono
fad
iffe
ren
tty
peo
fme
ssa
ge.
 I
-fr
ame
sar
eus
edt
otr
ans
por
tus
erd
ataa
ndc
ont
roli
nfo
rma
tio
nre
lat
ingt
ous
erd
ata
(
pi
ggy
bac
kin
g).
 S-
fra
mesa
reu
sedo
nlyt
otr
ans
por
tco
ntr
oli
nfo
rma
tio
n.
 U-
fra
mesa
rer
ese
rve
dfo
rsy
ste
mma
nage
men
t.I
nfo
rma
tio
nca
rri
edb
yU-
fra
mesi
sin
ten
ded
fo
rma
nagi
ngt
hel
in
kit
sel
f.
Fr
ameFo
rma
t
 Ea
chfr
amei
nHDLCma
yco
nta
inu
ptos
ixfi
el
ds,ab
egi
nni
ngfl
agfi
el
d,a
nad
dre
ssf
iel
d,a
c
ont
rolfi
el
d,a
nin
for
mat
io
nfi
el
d,afr
amec
hec
kse
que
nce(
FCS)fi
el
d,a
nda
nen
din
gfl
ag
fi
el
d.I
nmu
lti
pl
e-fr
amet
ran
smi
ss
ion
s,t
hee
ndi
ngfl
ago
fon
efr
amec
ans
erv
east
he
b
egi
nni
ngfl
ago
fthen
extfr
ame

Fi
g:3.
38HDLCFr
ameFo
rma
t

Fi
el
ds
 Fl
agfi
el
d.Thefl
agfi
el
dofa
nHDLCfr
amei
san8-
bits
equ
enc
ewi
tht
heb
itp
att
ern
011
11
11
0
t
hati
den
tifi
esb
otht
heb
egi
nni
nga
ndt
hee
ndo
fafr
amea
nds
erv
esa
sas
ync
hro
niz
ati
on
p
att
ernfo
rther
ece
ive
r.
I
. VI
EW 55
  Ad
dre
ssfi
el
d.Thes
eco
ndfi
el
dofa
nHDLCfr
amec
ont
ain
sthea
ddr
esso
fthes
eco
nda
ry
s
tat
io
n.I
fap
rima
rys
tat
io
ncr
eat
edt
hefr
ame
,itc
ont
aisat
n oad
dre
ss.I
fas
eco
nda
ry
c
rea
test
hefr
ame
,itc
ont
aisafr
n oma
ddr
ess
.Ana
ddr
essfi
el
dca
nbe1b
yteo
rse
ver
alb
yte
s
l
ong,d
epe
ndi
ngo
nthen
eed
soft
hen
etwo
rk.
On
eby
tec
ani
den
tifyu
pto1
28s
tat
io
ns.La
rge
rne
two
rksr
equ
iremu
lti
pl
e-b
yte
a
ddr
essfi
el
ds.I
fthea
ddr
essfi
el
diso
nly1b
yte
,thel
astb
iti
sal
way
sa1
.Ift
hea
ddr
essi
s
mo
ret
han1b
yte
,al
lby
tesb
utt
hel
asto
newi
lle
ndwi
th0;o
nlyt
hel
astwi
lle
ndwi
th1
.
En
din
gea
chi
nte
rme
dia
teb
ytewi
th0i
ndi
cat
est
other
ece
ive
rtha
tthe
rea
remo
rea
ddr
ess
b
yte
stoc
ome
.
 Co
ntr
olfi
el
d.Thec
ont
rolfi
el
disa1o
r2-
byt
ese
gme
nto
fthefr
ameu
sedfo
rfl
owa
nd
e
rro
rco
ntr
ol.
 I
nfo
rma
tio
nfi
el
d.Thei
nfo
rma
tio
nfi
el
dco
nta
inst
heu
ser
'sd
atafr
omt
hen
etwo
rkl
aye
ror
ma
nage
men
tin
for
mat
io
n.I
tsl
engt
hca
nva
ryfr
omo
nen
etwo
rkt
oan
othe
r.
 FCSfi
el
d.Thefr
amec
hec
kse
que
nce(
FCS)i
stheHDLCe
rro
rde
tec
ti
onfi
el
d.
Co
ntr
olFi
el
d
Thec
ont
rolfi
el
dde
ter
min
est
het
ypeo
ffr
amea
ndd
efi
nesi
tsfu
nct
io
nal
it
y.

N(
S)–Fr
ames
equ
enc
enu
mbe
r,
N(
R)–Ac
kse
que
ncen
umb
erP/F
Po
ll(
pri
mar
y s
eco
nda
ry)
Fi
nal(
sec
ond
ary p
rima
ry)
IFr
ame
s:
 I
-fr
ame
sar
ede
si
gne
dtoc
arr
yus
erd
atafr
omt
hen
etwo
rkl
aye
r.I
nad
dit
io
n,t
heyc
an
i
ncl
udefl
owa
nde
rro
rco
ntr
oli
nfo
rma
tio
n(p
iggy
bac
kin
g)

-
VIEW 56
  Thefi
rstb
itd
efi
nest
het
ype
.Ift
hefi
rstb
ito
fthec
ont
rolfi
el
dis0,t
hisme
anst
hefr
ame
i
sanI
-fr
ame
.
 Then
ext3b
its
,ca
lle
dN(
S),d
efi
net
hes
equ
enc
enu
mbe
roft
hefr
ame
.No
tet
hatwi
th3b
its
,
wec
and
efi
neas
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rbe
twe
ena
nd7
;bu
tint
hee
xte
nsi
onfo
rma
t,i
nwhi
cht
he
c
ont
rolfi
el
dis2b
yte
s,t
hisfi
el
disl
arge
r.
 Thel
ast3b
its
,ca
lle
dN(
R),c
orr
esp
ondt
othea
ckn
owl
edgme
ntn
umb
erwhe
npi
ggy
bac
kin
gis
u
sed
.
 Thes
ingl
ebi
tbe
twe
enN(
S)a
ndN(
R)i
sca
lle
dtheP/Fb
it.I
tha
sme
ani
ngo
nlywhe
niti
sse
t
(
bi
t=1
)an
dca
nme
anp
ollo
rfi
nal
.Itme
ansp
ollwhe
nthefr
amei
sse
ntb
yap
rima
rys
tat
io
n
t
oas
eco
nda
ryI
tme
ansfi
nalwhe
nthefr
amei
sse
ntb
yas
eco
nda
ryt
oap
rima
ry.
SFr
ame
:
 Su
per
vis
oryfr
ame
sar
eus
edfo
rfl
owa
nde
rro
rco
ntr
olwhe
nev
erp
iggy
bac
kin
gise
it
her
i
mpo
ssi
bleo
rin
app
rop
ria
te
 S-
fra
mesd
ono
tha
vei
nfo
rma
tio
nfi
el
ds.
 I
fthefi
rst2b
itso
fthec
ont
rolfi
el
dis1
0,t
hisme
anst
hefr
amei
sanS-
fra
me.
 Thel
ast3b
its
,ca
lle
dN(
R),c
orr
esp
ond
stot
hea
ckn
owl
edgme
ntn
umb
er(
ACK)o
rne
gat
ive
a
ckn
owl
edgme
ntn
umb
er(
NAK)d
epe
ndi
ngo
nthet
ypeo
fS-
fra
me.
 The2b
itsc
all
edc
odei
sus
edt
ode
fin
ethet
ypeo
fS-
fra
mei
ts
elf
.Wi
th2b
its
,wec
anha
ve
fo
urt
ype
sofS-
fra
mes
,asd
esc
rib
edb
elo
w:
Re
cei
ver
ead
y(RR)
.
I
fthev
alu
eoft
hec
odes
ubfi
el
dis00,i
tisa
nRRS-
fra
me.Thi
ski
ndo
ffr
ame
a
ckn
owl
edge
sther
ece
ipto
fas
afea
nds
oun
dfr
ameo
rgr
oupo
ffr
ame
s.Thev
alu
eN(
R)fi
el
dde
fin
es
t
hea
ckn
owl
edgme
ntn
umb
er.
Re
cei
ven
otr
ead
y(RNR)
.
I
fthev
alu
eoft
hec
odes
ubfi
el
dis1
0,i
tisa
nRNRS-
fra
me.I
tac
kno
wle
dge
sther
ece
ipto
f
afr
ameo
rgr
oupo
ffr
ame
s,a
ndi
tan
nou
nce
stha
tther
ece
ive
risb
usya
ndc
ann
otr
ece
ivemo
re
fr
ame
s.

-
VIEW 57
Re
jec
t(REJ)
.
I
fthev
alu
eoft
hec
odes
ubfi
el
dis01
,iti
saREJS-
fra
me.Thi
sisaNAKfr
ame
,Iti
sa
NAKt
hatc
anb
eus
edi
nGo
-Ba
ck-
NARQt
oimp
rov
ethee
ffi
ci
enc
yoft
hep
roc
essb
yin
for
min
gthe
s
end
er,b
efo
ret
hes
end
ert
imee
xpi
res
,tha
tthel
astfr
amei
slo
sto
rda
mage
d.
Se
lec
ti
ver
eje
ct(
SREJ)
.
I
fthev
alu
eoft
hec
odes
ubfi
el
dis1
1,i
tisa
nSREJS-
fra
me.Thi
sisaNAKfr
ameu
sedi
n
Se
lec
ti
veRe
pea
tARQ.No
tet
hatt
heHDLCPr
oto
colu
sest
het
erms
ele
cti
ver
eje
cti
nst
eado
fse
lec
ti
ve
r
epe
at.Thev
alu
eofN(
R)i
sthen
ega
tiv
eac
kno
wle
dgme
ntn
umb
er.
 Thefi
fthfi
el
dint
hec
ont
rolfi
el
dist
heP/Fb
ita
sdi
scu
sse
dbe
for
e.
 Then
ext3b
its
,ca
lle
dN(
R),c
orr
esp
ondt
otheACKo
rNAKv
alu
e.
UFr
ame
s:
 Un
numb
ere
dfr
ame
sar
eus
edt
oex
cha
nges
ess
ionma
nage
men
tan
dco
ntr
oli
nfo
rma
tio
nbe
twe
en
c
onn
ect
edd
evi
ces
.
 Un
li
keS-
fra
mes
, U-
fra
mesc
ont
aina
nin
for
mat
io
n fi
el
d,b
uto
neu
sed fo
rsy
ste
m
ma
nage
men
tin
for
mat
io
n,n
otu
serd
ata
.
 U-
fra
mec
ode
sar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
wos
ect
io
ns:a2-
bitp
refi
xbe
for
etheP/Fb
ita
nda3-
bit
s
uffi
xaft
ert
heP/Fb
it.To
get
her
,the
set
wos
egme
nts(
5bi
ts
)ca
nbeu
sedt
ocr
eat
eupt
o
32d
iffe
ren
tty
peso
fU-
fra
mes
.

-
VIEW 58
I
mpl
eme
nti
ngp
iggy
bac
kin
ginHDLC

Fi
g:3.
39Co
nne
cti
on/Di
sc
onn
ect
io
n
 I
tsho
wsho
wV-
fra
mesc
anb
eus
edfo
rco
nne
cti
one
sta
bli
shme
nta
ndc
onn
ect
io
nre
lea
se.No
de
Aa
sksfo
rac
onn
ect
io
nwi
thas
eta
syn
chr
ono
usb
ala
nce
dmo
de(
SABM)fr
ame
;no
deBgi
vesa
p
osi
ti
ver
esp
ons
ewi
tha
nun
numb
ere
dac
kno
wle
dgme
nt(
VA)fr
ame
.Aft
ert
hes
etwo
e
xcha
nge
s,d
atac
anb
etr
ans
fer
redb
etwe
ent
het
won
ode
s(n
ots
howni
nthefi
gur
e).Aft
er
d
atat
ran
sfe
r,n
odeA s
end
saDI
SC(
di
sco
nne
ct)fr
amet
ore
lea
set
hec
onn
ect
io
n;i
tis
c
onfi
rme
dbyn
odeBr
esp
ond
ingwi
thaVA(
unn
umb
ere
dac
kno
wle
dgme
nt)
.
Da
taTr
ans
fer
:Wi
tho
utEr
rorDa
taTr
ans
fer
:Wi
thEr
ror

Fi
g:3.
40Da
taTr
ans
fer
:Wi
tho
utEr
rorDa
taTr
ans
fer
:Wi
thEr
ror

-
VIEW 59
Po
intt
opo
intp
rot
oco
l(PPP)
:fr
ami
ng,t
ran
sit
io
npha
se
POI
NT-
TO-
POI
NTPROTOCOL:
On
eoft
hemo
stc
ommo
npr
oto
col
sfo
rpo
int
-to
-po
inta
cce
ssi
sthePo
int
-to
-Po
intPr
oto
col
(
PPP)
.To
day
,mi
ll
io
nso
fIn
ter
netu
ser
swhon
eedt
oco
nne
ctt
hei
rho
mec
omp
ute
rst
othes
erv
ero
fan
I
nte
rne
tse
rvi
cep
rov
ide
rus
ePPP.Thema
jor
ityo
fthe
seu
ser
sha
veat
rad
iti
ona
lmo
dem;t
heya
re
c
onn
ect
edt
otheI
nte
rne
tthr
oughat
ele
pho
nel
in
e,whi
chp
rov
ide
sthes
erv
ice
soft
hep
hys
ica
lla
yer
.

PPPi
sab
yte
-or
ien
tedp
rot
oco
lus
ingb
ytes
tuffi
ngwi
tht
hee
sca
peb
yte01
11
11
01.Asab
yte
-or
ien
ted
Pr
oto
col
,thefl
agi
nPPPi
sab
ytea
ndn
eed
stob
ees
cap
edwhe
nev
eri
tap
pea
rsi
nthed
atas
ect
io
nof
t
hefr
ame
.Thee
sca
peb
ytei
s01
11
11
01,whi
chme
anst
hate
ver
yti
met
hefl
agl
ikep
att
erna
ppe
arsi
n
t
hed
ata
,thi
sex
trab
ytei
sst
uffe
dtot
ellt
her
ece
ive
rtha
tthen
extb
ytei
sno
tafl
ag.
PPPp
rov
ide
sse
ver
als
erv
ice
s:
1
.PPPd
efi
nest
hefo
rma
toft
hefr
amet
obee
xcha
nge
dbe
twe
end
evi
ces
.
2.PPPd
efi
nesho
wtwod
evi
cesc
ann
ego
ti
atet
hee
sta
bli
shme
nto
fthel
in
kan
dthee
xcha
ngeo
fda
ta.
3.PPPd
efi
nesho
wne
two
rkl
aye
rda
taa
ree
nca
psu
lat
edi
nthed
atal
in
kfr
ame
.
4
.PPPd
efi
nesho
wtwod
evi
cesc
ana
uthe
nti
cat
eea
cho
the
r.
5.PPPp
rov
ide
smu
lti
pl
ene
two
rkl
aye
rse
rvi
cess
upp
ort
ingav
ari
et
yofn
etwo
rkl
aye
rpr
oto
col
s.
6
.PPPp
rov
ide
sco
nne
cti
onso
vermu
lti
pl
eli
nks
.
7
.PPPp
rov
ide
sne
two
rka
ddr
essc
onfi
gur
ati
on.
Ont
heo
the
rha
nd,t
oke
epPPPs
imp
le,s
eve
rals
erv
ice
sar
emi
ss
ing:
I
.PPPd
oesn
otp
rov
idefl
owc
ont
rol
.
2.
PPPha
sav
erys
imp
leme
cha
nis
mfo
rer
rorc
ont
rol
.ACRCfi
el
disu
sedt
ode
tec
ter
ror
s.I
fthe
fr
amei
sco
rru
pte
d,i
tiss
il
ent
lyd
isc
ard
ed;
3.PPPd
oesn
otp
rov
ideas
ophi
st
ic
ate
dad
dre
ssi
ngme
cha
nis
mtoha
ndl
efr
ame
sinamu
lti
poi
nt
c
onfi
gur
ati
on.
Fr
ami
ng:
PPPi
sab
yte
-or
ien
tedp
rot
oco
l.

I
. -
VIEW 60
 Fi
g:3.
41PPPFr
amefo
rma
t

 Fl
agfi
el
d:Fl
agfi
el
dma
rkst
heb
egi
nni
nga
nde
ndo
fthePPPfr
ame
.Fl
agb
ytei
s01
11
11
10.
(
1by
te)
.
 Ad
dre
ssfi
el
d:Thi
sfi
el
diso
f1b
ytea
ndi
sal
way
s11
11
11
11
.Thi
sad
dre
ssi
stheb
roa
dca
st
a
ddr
essi
.e.a
llt
hes
tat
io
nsa
cce
ptt
hisfr
ame
.
 Co
ntr
olfi
el
d:Thi
sfi
el
disa
lsoo
f1b
yte
.Thi
sfi
el
dus
est
hefo
rma
toft
heU-
fra
me
(
unn
umb
ere
d)i
nHDLC.Thev
alu
eisa
lwa
ys0000001
1tos
howt
hatt
hefr
amed
oesn
otc
ont
ain
a
nys
equ
enc
enu
mbe
rsa
ndt
her
eisn
ofl
owc
ont
rolo
rer
rorc
ont
rol
.
 Pr
oto
colfi
el
d:Thi
sfi
el
dsp
eci
fi
est
heki
ndo
fpa
cke
tint
hed
atafi
edi
l .
e.wha
tisb
ein
g
c
arr
iedi
npa
ylo
ad(
dat
a)fi
el
d.
 Pa
ylo
adfi
el
d:I
tsl
engt
hisv
ari
abl
e.I
fthel
engt
hisn
otn
ego
ti
ate
dus
ingLCPd
uri
ngl
in
ese
t
u
p,ad
efa
ultl
engt
hof1
500b
yte
sisu
sed
.Itc
arr
iesu
serd
atao
rot
heri
nfo
rma
tio
n.
 FCSfi
el
d:Thefr
amec
hec
kss
equ
enc
e.I
tise
it
hero
f2b
yte
sor4b
yte
s.I
tco
nta
inst
he
c
hec
ksu
m.
No
te:PPPi
sab
yte
-or
ien
tedp
rot
oco
lus
ingb
ytes
tuffi
ngwi
tht
hee
sca
peb
yte01
11
11
01.

Tr
ans
it
io
nPha
sesi
nPPP

ThePPPc
onn
ect
io
ngo
est
hro
ughd
iffe
ren
tst
ate
s.

Fi
g:3.
42Tr
ans
it
io
nPha
sesi
nPPP

-
VIEW 61
 De
ad:I
nde
adp
has
ethel
in
kisn
otu
sed
.The
rei
snoa
cti
vec
arr
iera
ndt
hel
in
eisq
uie
t.

 Es
tab
lis
h:Co
nne
cti
ongo
esi
ntot
hisp
has
ewhe
non
eoft
hen
ode
sst
artc
ommu
nic
ati
on.I
nthi
s
p
has
e,t
wop
art
ie
sne
got
iat
etheo
pti
ons
.Ifn
ego
ti
ati
oni
ssu
cce
ssfu
l,t
hes
yst
emgo
esi
nto
a
uthe
nti
cat
io
npha
seo
rdi
rec
tlyt
one
two
rki
ngp
has
e.LCPp
acke
tsa
reu
sedfo
rthi
spu
rpo
se.

 Au
the
nti
cat
e:Ho
wev
eri
fthe
yde
cid
etop
roc
eedwi
tha
uthe
nti
cat
io
n,t
heys
ends
eve
ral
a
uthe
nti
cat
io
npa
cke
ts.I
fther
esu
lti
ssu
cce
ssfu
l,t
hec
onn
ect
io
ngo
est
othen
etwo
rki
ng
p
has
e;o
the
rwi
se
,itgo
est
othet
ermi
nat
io
npha
se.

 Ne
two
rk:I
nne
two
rkp
has
e,n
ego
ti
ati
onfo
rthen
etwo
rkl
aye
rpr
oto
col
sta
kesp
lac
e.PPP
s
pec
ifi
est
hatt
won
ode
ses
tab
lis
han
etwo
rkl
aye
ragr
eeme
ntb
efo
red
ataa
tthen
etwo
rk
l
aye
rca
nbee
xcha
nge
d.

 Op
en:I
nthi
spha
se,d
atat
ran
sfe
rta
kesp
lac
e.Thec
onn
ect
io
nre
mai
nsi
nthi
spha
seu
nti
lon
e
o
fthee
ndp
oin
tswa
ntst
oen
dthec
onn
ect
io
n.

 Te
rmi
nat
e:I
nthi
spha
sec
onn
ect
io
nist
ermi
nat
ed.

-
VIEW 62