● The mitochondria has 2 membranes: The outer membrane and the inner membrane

● The process of metabolism involves many interconnected cellular pathways to ultimately

provide cells with the energy required to carry out their function
● Metabolic pathways are anabolic if they make large molecules or catabolic if they break
these large molecules
● Anabolic pathways require energy (endergonic) whereas catabolic pathways release
energy (exergonic)
● Glucose can break down into 6 carbon molecules (catabolic) and 6 carbon molecules
can build up glucose (anabolic)
● Proteins use the energy released during ATP hydrolysis in several ways:
○ Synthetic work
○ Concentration work
○ Electrical work
○ Mechanical work
○ Bioluminescent work
● Cells obtain energy by the oxidation of organic molecules
● Oxidation refers to the removal of electrons (Methane→ methanol→ formaldehyde→
formic acid→ carbon dioxide)
● Reduction means that there is an addition of electrons (carbon dioxide→ formic acid→
formaldehyde→ methanol→ methane)
● NAD and FAD are coenzymes of redox reactions and electron carriers:
○ Coenzymes are organic molecules that bind to the active sites of certain
enzymes
○ NAD and FAD accept electrons (become reduced) during catabolic steps in the
breakdown of organic molecules.
○ NADH and FADH2 donate these electrons to some other biochemical reaction
normally involved in a process that is anabolic (like the synthesis of ATP)
● Glucose is one of the most important oxidizable substrates in energy metabolism.
○ Reason 1: Its oxidation is highly exergonic
○ Reason 2: Many polysaccharides break down into glucose (for instance: Starch,
glycogen, cellulose)

● Enzymes catalyze oxidation via a series of small steps in which free energy is
transferred in conveniently sized packets to carrier molecules- most often ATP and
NADH

● Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that entails the oxidation of glucose molecules into two
pyruvate molecules
● Glycolysis is a 10 enzymatic reaction process that break glucose into pyruvate
○ Glucose → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2ATP
○ Phrase 1: Add two phosphates and cleave
○ Phase 2: Oxidation and ATP
○ Phase 3: Make pyruvate and ATP
● A bunch of enzymes (kinases) catalyze the reactions in glycolysis
● Kinases move phosphate groups

● Disaccharides are broken into three monosaccharides: glucose, galactose and fructose
● Enzyme names match substrate names for sucrase for sucrose, lactase for lactose, and
maltase for maltose
● Other monosaccharides (eg: Fructose and galactose) are converted into glycolysis
intermediates.
● A kinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates
● Pyruvate is the branchpoint between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
○ Aerobic conditions: In the presence of oxygen, many organisms convert pyruvate
to an activated form of acetate known as acetyl CoA. In this reaction, pyruvate is
both oxidized (with NAD+ being reduced to NADH) and decarboxylated
(liberation of a carbon atom as CO2). Acetyl CoA then becomes the substrate for
aerobic respiration, where NADH is oxidized back to NAD+ by molecular oxygen.
○ Anaerobic conditions: When oxygen is absent, pyruvate is reduced so that NADH
can be oxidized to NAD+, the form of this coenzyme required in reaction of Gly-6
of glycolysis. Common products of pyruvate reduction are lactate (in most animal
cells and many bacteria) or ethanol and CO2 (in many plant cells, yeasts and
other microorganisms)
● If high O2, then PDH (pyruvate dehydrogenase) takes pyruvate
● If low O2, then LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) make lactate
● Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
○ A mitochondrial carrier transports pyruvate into mitochondria
○ The TCA (citric acid) cycle happens in the mitochondria
○ Acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle
● Pyruvate dehydrogenase converts pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA
○ Complex reaction
○ Adds to CoA
○ Removes a carbon
 ○ Releases a lot of energy (-33 delta G)
● Dehydrogenases are enzymes that remove a pair of hydrogen atoms from a substrate,
thereby oxidizing it
● Pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex
○ Metabolize pyruvate
○ It is big ~ 100 subunits
○ Multiples of 3 subunits
○ E1= metabolite binding sites→ this requires thiamine pyrophosphate
○ E2 = core of the complex
○ E3 = intermediate enzyme
● PDH needs a vitamin B1 derivative as a co-factor
○ Thiamine is not thymine
○ Thiamine deficiency is linked to PDH
● Glycolysis stores energy as ATP and NADH molecules
● The citric acid cycle is also called the tricarboxylic acid cycle or the Krebs cycle

● The products of the TCA cycle are CO2, ATP, NADH, and FADH2
● Acetyl CoA→ 3 NADH + FADH2 + ATP + 2CO2
● If there are excess amino acids, or if the body is in a state of starvation, some amino
acids will be converted into TCA cycle metabolites
● TCA cycle intermediates can be lost to cataplerotic pathways that provide precursors for
biosynthesis
○ cataplerotic pathways provide precursors for biosynthesis
○ anaplerotic pathways regenerate the TCA intermediates