Stoichiometric Relationships:

States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Particles are slightly further Particles are far apart from one
Particles are close together
apart than in solids another

Particles have larger amounts Particles have much more

Particles have lower energy
of energy than those in the solid energy than the other two
than in the other two states
state states

Particles can move about quite Particles can move rapidly,

Particles can only rotate and
freely around one other while in randomly and haphazardly into
vibrate around fixed positions
close proximity any space available

Strong forces of attraction Moderate forces of attraction Very little forces of attraction
between particles between particles between the particles

Definite shape Indefinite shape Indefinite shape

Definite volume Definite volume Indefinite volume

Incompressible Negligible compressibility Highly compressible

High density Moderate to high density Low density

Mixtures:
• Homogeneous mixture - two or more substances that are evenly distributed throughout the mixture,
resulting in the mixture having a uniform composition and properties
• Heterogeneous mixture - two or more substances that are not evenly distributed throughout the
mixture, resulting in the mixture having a non-uniform composition and varying properties

Calculations and Masses:

• Avogadro’s Constant = 6.02 x 1023 mol
• No. of molecules or atoms in 1 mol of substance = 6.02 x 1023 mol
• Molar mass has a unit of gmol-1
• Ar refers to relative atomic mass and has no units
• Mr refers to relative molecular mass, and is defined as the weighted average mass of a molecule
compared to 1/12 of the mass of one atom of 12C

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Molecular and Empirical Formulas:
• Molecular formulas can be derived from empirical formulas, which show the kind of atoms and their
relative numbers in a substance only in the smallest possible whole number ratios

Combustion:
• Combustion of hydrocarbons formula: CxHy (g) + (x + 0.25 y) O2 -> x CO2 + (0.5 y) H2O
• Volume of water in formula above is negligible as water is a liquid at STP and SATP

Volume of 1 mol of gas (dm3) Temperature Pressure (kPa)

Standard Temperature and

22.7 273 K or 0 ºC 100
Pressure (STP)

Standard Ambient
298 K or 25
Temperature and Pressure 24.8 100
ºC
(SATP)

Calculating Yield:
• Quantity of product calculated to form is the theoretical yield
• Actual amount of product obtained is the actual yield
• Percentage yield = (Actual yield / Theoretical yield) x 100%

Concentration:
• Molar concentration is expressed in moldm-3
• 1 part per million (ppm) = 1 mgdm-3
• Diluting solutions: Initial concentration x Initial volume = Final concentration x Final volume

Primary Standard:
• A solution with a known concentration is a standard solution
• A primary standard is made of a substance that has high purity and stability, which thus will
not decompose easily
• Primary standards include ethanedioic acid, butanedioic acid, sodium hydrogen carbonate and
anhydrous sodium carbonate

Titrations:
• Titrations can be redox, acid-base, gravimetric and complexometric
• During titration, the titrant is placed in the burette and the analyte is placed in the conical flask
• Back titration is used to deal with insoluble solids

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Redox:

Reduction Oxidation

Removal of oxygen Addition of oxygen

Addition of hydrogen Removal of hydrogen

Gain in electrons Loss of electrons

Decrease in oxidation number Increase in oxidation number

• More electronegative atom gets the negative oxidation number

• Disproportionation reaction is a redox reactions whereby an element undergoes both oxidation
and reduction simultaneously

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