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Behavior Modification
Principles and Procedures
R a ymond G . Milt enberger

University of South Florida
S e v enth Edition
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
Behavior Modification: Principles and Last three editions, as applicable: © 2016, © 2012
Procedures, Seventh Edition Copyright © 2024 Cengage Learning, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Raymond G. Miltenberger
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2023
To my wife, Nasrin, and my kids, Ryan, Roxanne, and Steven
About the Author
Raymond G. Miltenberger received his Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1985 from
Western Michigan University. He is currently a professor and director of the Applied
Behavior Analysis Program at the University of South Florida. Dr. Miltenberger teaches
courses in the applied behavior analysis master’s and doctoral programs. He conducts
applied behavior analysis research with his students and publishes widely in the areas of
sports and fitness, child safety skills training, habit disorders, and functional assessment
and treatment of behavioral disorders. In addition to spending time with his family, he
enjoys walking and biking, golf, reading, and travel.
iv
Brief Contents
1 / Introduction to Behavior Modification 1
Part 1 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

2 / Observing and Recording Behavior 13
3 / Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 31
Part 2 Basic Principles

4 / Reinforcement 51
5 / Extinction 71
6 / Punishment 82
7 / Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 97
8 / Respondent Conditioning 112
Part 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior

9 / Shaping 124
10 / Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 137
11 / Chaining 154
12 / Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 169
Part 4 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease Undesirable Behavior

13 / Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional Assessment 183
14 / Applying Extinction 205
15 / Differential Reinforcement 221
16 / Antecedent Interventions 242
17 / Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 262
18 / Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics of Punishment 277
19 / Promoting Generalization 290
Part 5 Other Behavior Change Procedures

20 / Self-Management 305
21 / Habit Reversal Procedures 318
22 / The Token Economy 329
23 / Behavioral Contracts 345
24 / Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 359
25 / Cognitive Behavior Modification 374
Contents
Preface xvi
1 Introduction to Behavior Modification 1
1-1 Defining Human Behavior 1 Prevention 8

1-2 Examples of Behavior 3 Sports Performance 9
Health-Related Behaviors 9
1-3 Defining Behavior Modification 3
Gerontology 9
1-4 Characteristics of Behavior Modification 3
1-7 Professional Practice, Certification, and Ethics 9
1-5 Historical Roots of Behavior Modification 5
1-8 New Directions in Behavior Modification 9
Major Figures 5
Early Behavior Modification Researchers 6 1-9 The Structure of This Textbook 10
Major Publications and Events 7 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change 10
Basic Principles of Behavior 10
1-6 Areas of Application 7
Procedures to Establish New Behaviors 10
Developmental Disabilities and Autism Spectrum
Disorder 7 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behaviors and
Decrease Undesirable Behaviors 10
Mental Illness 7
Other Behavior Change Procedures 10
Education and Special Education 8
Rehabilitation 8 Chapter Summary 10
Community Psychology 8 Key Terms 11
Clinical Psychology 8 Practice Quiz 1 11
Business, Industry, and Human Services 8 Practice Quiz 2 11
Self-Management 8 Practice Quiz 3 12
Child Behavior Management 8
Practice Test 12
Part 1: Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

2 Observing and Recording Behavior 13
2-1 Direct and Indirect Assessment 14 2-6 Reactivity 24

2-2 Defining the Target Behavior 14 2-7 Interobserver Agreement 25
2-3 The Logistics of Recording 15 Chapter Summary 26
The Observer 15 Key Terms 27
When and Where to Record 16 Practice Quiz 1 27
2-4 Choosing a Recording Method 17 Practice Quiz 2 27
Continuous Recording 17
Practice Quiz 3 28
Product Recording 19
Practice Test 28
Sampling Methods 19
Applications 29
2-5 Choosing a Recording Instrument 21
Misapplications 30
vi
Contents vii
3 Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 31
3-1 Components of a Graph 32 Alternating-Treatments Design 44

3-2 Graphing Behavioral Data 34 Changing-Criterion Design 45
Graphing Data from Different Recording Chapter Summary 46
Procedures 34 Key Terms 47
Evaluating Behavior Change in a Graph: Level, Practice Quiz 1 47
Trend, and Variability 36
Practice Quiz 2 48
3-3 Graphing Data to Evaluate Treatment: The A–B
Graph 37 Practice Quiz 3 48
3-4 Graphing Data to Demonstrate a Functional Practice Test 49

Relationship: Research Designs 39 Applications 49
A–B–A–B Reversal Design 40 Misapplications 50
Multiple-Baseline Design 41
Part 2 Basic Principles
4 Reinforcement 51
4-1 Defining Reinforcement 52 Variable Ratio 63

4-2 Positive and Negative Reinforcement 54 Fixed Interval 63
Social versus Automatic Reinforcement 56 Variable Interval 64
4-3 Escape and Avoidance Behaviors 57 4-7 Reinforcing Different Dimensions of Behavior 65
4-4 Conditioned and Unconditioned Reinforcers 57 4-8 Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 65
4-5 Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of 4-9 Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement 65
Reinforcement 58 Chapter Summary 66
Immediacy 58 Key Terms 67
Contingency 59 Practice Quiz 1 67
Motivating Operations 59 Practice Quiz 2 67
Individual Differences 60
Practice Quiz 3 68
Magnitude 61
Practice Test 68
4-6 Schedules of Reinforcement 61
Appendix A 69
Fixed Ratio 62
Appendix B 70
5 Extinction 71
5-1 Defining Extinction 71 5-6 Factors That Influence Extinction 77

5-2 Extinction Burst 73 The Reinforcement Schedule before Extinction 77
5-3 Spontaneous Recovery 74 Reinforcement of the Behavior after Extinction 77
Reinforcement of Functionally Equivalent Alternative
5-4 Procedural Variations of Extinction 75
Behavior during Extinction 77
5-5 A Common Misconception about Extinction 76
viii Contents
Chapter Summary 79 Practice Quiz 3 80

Key Terms 79 Practice Test 80
Practice Quiz 1 79 Appendix A 81
Practice Quiz 2 80
6 Punishment 82
6-1 Defining Punishment 82 Emotional Reactions to Punishment 92

6-2 A Common Misconception about Punishment 84 Escape and Avoidance 92
Negative Reinforcement for the Use of Punishment 92
6-3 Positive and Negative Punishment 84
Punishment and Modeling 92
6-4 Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers 87
Ethical Issues 92
6-5 Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment 88 Self-Assessment 93
6-6 Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Chapter Summary 94
Punishment 89
Key Terms 94
Immediacy 89
Practice Quiz 1 94
Contingency 90
Motivating Operations 90 Practice Quiz 2 95
Individual Differences and Magnitude of the Practice Quiz 3 95
Punisher 90 Practice Test 96
6-7 Problems with Punishment 91 Appendix A 96
7 Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 97
7-1 Examples of Stimulus Control 97 7-6 Generalization 102

7-2 Defining Stimulus Control 98 Examples of Generalization 102
7-3 Developing Stimulus Control: Stimulus 7-7 Stimulus Equivalence 105
Discrimination Training 99 Chapter Summary 108
Discrimination Training in the Laboratory 99 Key Terms 108
Developing Reading and Spelling with Practice Quiz 1 108
Discrimination Training 100
Practice Quiz 2 109
Stimulus Discrimination Training and
Punishment 101 Practice Quiz 3 109
7-4 The Three-Term Contingency 101 Practice Test 109
7-5 Stimulus Control Research 101 Appendix A 110
8 Respondent Conditioning 112
8-1 Examples of Respondent Conditioning 112 8-6 Extinction of Conditioned Responses 117
8-2 Defining Respondent Conditioning 113 Spontaneous Recovery 117
8-3 Timing of the Neutral Stimulus and Unconditioned 8-7 Discrimination and Generalization of Respondent
Stimulus 114 Behavior 117
8-4 Higher-Order Conditioning 115 8-8 Factors That Influence Respondent
Conditioning 118
8-5 Conditioned Emotional Responses 115
Contents ix
The Nature of the Neutral Stimulus and 8-10 Respondent Conditioning and Behavior
Unconditioned Stimulus 118 Modification 121
The Temporal Relationship between the Neutral Chapter Summary 121
Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus 118
Key Terms 121
Contingency between the Neutral Stimulus and
Unconditioned Stimulus 118 Practice Quiz 1 122
The Number of Pairings 118 Practice Quiz 2 122
Previous Exposure to the Neutral Stimulus 118 Practice Quiz 3 122
8-9 Distinguishing between Operant and Respondent Practice Test 123
Conditioning 119
Part 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior
9 Shaping 124
9-1 An Example of Shaping: Teaching a Child to Talk 124 Chapter Summary 134
9-2 Defining Shaping 124 Key Terms 134
9-3 Applications of Shaping 126 Practice Quiz 1 134
Getting Mrs. F to Walk Again 126 Practice Quiz 2 134
Getting Mrs. S to Increase the Time between Practice Quiz 3 135
Bathroom Visits 126
Practice Test 135
9-4 Research on Shaping 127
Applications 136
9-5 How to Use Shaping 131
Misapplications 136
9-6 Shaping of Problem Behaviors 132
10 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 137
10-1 An Example of Prompting and Fading: Teaching Echoic 148

Tee-Ball Players to Hit the Ball 137 Mand 148
10-2 What Is Prompting? 138 Tact 148
Intraverbal 148
10-3 What Is Fading? 139
Multiple Control of Verbal Operants 149
10-4 Types of Prompts 140
Teaching Verbal Behavior to Children with
Response Prompts 140 Autism 149
Stimulus Prompts 141
Chapter Summary 150
10-5 Transfer of Stimulus Control 142
Key Terms 151
Prompt Fading 142
Practice Quiz 1 151
Prompt Delay 144
Stimulus Fading 144 Practice Quiz 2 151
10-6 How to Use Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Practice Quiz 3 152
Control 146 Practice Test 152
10-7 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control in Applications 153
Autism Treatment 147 Misapplications 153
10-8 Verbal Behavior 148
x Contents
11 Chaining 154
11-1 Examples of Behavioral Chains 154 Self-Instructions 164

11-2 Analyzing Stimulus–Response Chains 154 11-8 How to Use Chaining Procedures 165
11-3 Task Analysis 155 Chapter Summary 166
11-4 Backward Chaining 157 Key Terms 166
11-5 Forward Chaining 159 Practice Quiz 1 166
11-6 Total Task Presentation 160 Practice Quiz 2 166
11-7 Other Strategies for Teaching Behavioral Practice Quiz 3 167
Chains 161 Practice Test 167
Written Task Analysis 161 Applications 168
Picture Prompts 163 Misapplications 168
Video Modeling 163
12 Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 169
12-1 Examples of Behavioral Skills Training 12-6 Behavioral Skills Training and the Three-Term
Procedures 169 Contingency 174
Teaching Marcia to Say “No” to the Professors 169 12-7 Behavioral Skills Training in Groups 175
Teaching Children to Protect Themselves from 12-8 Applications of Behavioral Skills Training
Abduction 170
Procedures 175
12-2 Components of the Behavioral Skills Training
12-9 How to Use Behavioral Skills Training
Procedure 170
Procedures 178
Instructions 170
Chapter Summary 179
Modeling 172
Key Terms 180
Rehearsal 172
Feedback 173 Practice Quiz 1 180
12-3 Enhancing Generalization after Behavioral Skills Practice Quiz 2 180

Training 173 Practice Quiz 3 180
12-4 In Situ Assessment 173 Practice Test 181
12-5 In Situ Training 174 Applications 181
Misapplications 182
Part 4: Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease

Undesirable Behavior
13 Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional Assessment 183
13-1 Examples of Functional Assessment 183 13-3 Functions of Problem Behaviors 185
Jacob 183 Social Positive Reinforcement 186
Anna 184 Social Negative Reinforcement 186
13-2 Defining Functional Assessment 185 Automatic Positive Reinforcement 186
Contents xi
Automatic Negative Reinforcement 186 Key Terms 200

13-4 Functional Assessment Methods 186 Practice Quiz 1 201
Indirect Methods 186 Practice Quiz 2 201
Direct Observation Methods 189 Practice Quiz 3 201
Experimental Methods (Functional Analysis) 192
Practice Test 202
13-5 Functional Analysis Research 196
Applications 202
13-6 Conducting a Functional Assessment 198
Misapplications 204
13-7 Functional Interventions 199
Self-Assessment 204
Chapter Summary 200
14 Applying Extinction 205
14-1 The Case of Willy 205 14-6 Research Evaluating the Use of Extinction 214
14-2 Using Extinction to Decrease a Problem Chapter Summary 216
Behavior 206 Key Terms 216
Collecting Data to Assess Treatment Effects 207 Practice Quiz 1 216
Identifying the Reinforcer for the Problem Behavior
Practice Quiz 2 217
through Functional Assessment 207
Eliminating the Reinforcer after Each Instance of the Practice Quiz 3 217
Problem Behavior 208 Practice Test 218
14-3 Taking Account of the Schedule of Reinforcement Applications 218
before Extinction 211 Misapplications 218
14-4 Reinforcing Alternative Behaviors 212 Appendix A 219
14-5 Promoting Generalization and Maintenance 213 Appendix B 219
15 Differential Reinforcement 221
15-1 Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Variations of DRL 233

Behavior 221 How are DRO and Spaced-Responding DRL
Getting Mrs. Williams to Be Positive 221 Different? 234
When to Use DRA 222 Implementing DRL Procedures 234
How to Use DRA 222 Research Evaluating DRL Procedures 235
Using Differential Negative Reinforcement of Chapter Summary 237
Alternative Behaviors 224 Key Terms 237
Variations of DRA 226 Practice Quiz 1 238
Research on DRA 226
Practice Quiz 2 238
15-2 Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior 228
Practice Quiz 3 239
Defining DRO 229
Practice Test 239
Implementing DRO 229
Research Evaluating DRO Procedures 231 Applications 240
15-3 Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Misapplications 240

Responding 233 Self-Assessment 241
Defining DRL 233
xii Contents
16 Antecedent Interventions 242
16-1 Examples of Antecedent Interventions 242 Manipulating Motivating Operations 250

Getting Marianne to Study More 242 16-4 Using Antecedent Interventions 255
Getting Cal to Eat Right 243 Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the
Desirable Behavior 255
16-2 Defining Antecedent Interventions 243
Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the
Presenting the Discriminative Stimulus (SD) or Cues
Undesirable Behavior 255
for the Desired Behavior 243
Arranging Establishing Operations for the Desirable 16-5 Functional Interventions for Problem
Behavior 244 Behaviors 256
Decreasing Response Effort for the Desirable Chapter Summary 257
Behavior 245
Key Terms 257
Removing the Discriminative Stimulus or Cues for
Undesirable Behaviors 246 Practice Quiz 1 257
Presenting Abolishing Operations for Undesirable Practice Quiz 2 257
Behaviors 247 Practice Quiz 3 258
Increasing the Response Effort for Undesirable Practice Test 258
Behaviors 248
Applications 259
16-3 Research on Antecedent Interventions 249
Misapplications 260
Manipulating Discriminative Stimuli 249
Manipulating Response Effort 249 Self-Assessment 261
17 Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 262
17-1 Time-Out 262 Research Evaluating Response Cost

Procedures 271
Types of Time-Out 264
Using Reinforcement with Time-Out 264 Chapter Summary 273
Considerations in Using Time-Out 264 Key Terms 273
Research Evaluating Time-Out Procedures 266 Practice Quiz 1 274
17-2 Response Cost 269 Practice Quiz 2 274
Defining Response Cost 269 Practice Quiz 3 274
Using Differential Reinforcement with Response Practice Test 275
Cost 269
Applications 275
Comparing Response Cost, Time-Out, and
Extinction 270 Misapplications 276
Considerations in Using Response Cost 270 Self-Assessment 276
18 Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics of Punishment 277
18-1 Punishment by Application of Aversive Physical Restraint 280

Activities 277 Cautions in Punishment by the Application of
Overcorrection 278 Aversive Activities 281
Contingent Exercise 279 18-2 Punishment by Application of Aversive
Guided Compliance 280 Stimulation 282
Contents xiii
18-3 Positive Punishment: Treatment of Last Peer Review 286

Resort 284 Accountability: Preventing Misuse and Overuse 286
18-4 Considerations in Using Positive Punishment 284 Chapter Summary 286
18-5 The Ethics of Punishment 285 Key Terms 286
Informed Consent 285 Practice Quiz 1 287
Alternative Treatments 285 Practice Quiz 2 287
Recipient Safety 285
Practice Quiz 3 287
Problem Severity 285
Practice Test 288
Implementation Guidelines 285
Training and Supervision 286 Applications 288
Misapplications 289
19 Promoting Generalization 290
19-1 Examples of Generalization Programming 290 Incorporating Self-Generated Mediators of

Generalization 297
19-2 Defining Generalization 291
19-4 Implementing Strategies to Promote
19-3 Strategies for Promoting Generalization of
Generalization 298
Behavior Change 291
19-5 Promoting Generalized Reductions in Problem
Reinforcing Occurrences of Generalization 291
Behaviors 298
Training Skills That Contact Natural Contingencies
of Reinforcement 292 Chapter Summary 300
Modifying Contingencies of Reinforcement and Key Terms 300
Punishment in the Natural Environment 292
Practice Quiz 1 300
Incorporating a Variety of Relevant Stimulus
Situations in Training 294 Practice Quiz 2 301
Incorporating Common Stimuli 296 Practice Quiz 3 302
Teaching a Range of Functionally Equivalent Practice Test 302
Responses 296 Applications 303
Providing Cues in the Natural Environment 296
Misapplications 303
Self-Assessment 304
Part 5: Other Behavior Change Procedures
20 Self-Management 305
20-1 Examples of Self-Management 305 Goal Setting and Self-Monitoring 309

Getting Murray to Run Regularly 305 Antecedent Interventions 309
Getting Annette to Clean Up Her Mess 305 Behavioral Contracting 309
20-2 Defining Self-Management Problems 307 Arranging Reinforcers and Punishers 310
Social Support 311
20-3 Defining Self-Management 308
Self-Instructions and Self-Praise 311
20-4 Types of Self-Management Strategies 308
xiv Contents
20-5 Steps in a Self-Management Plan 312 Practice Quiz 2 315

20-6 Clinical Problems 314 Practice Quiz 3 316
Chapter Summary 314 Practice Test 316
Key Terms 315 Applications 317
Practice Quiz 1 315 Misapplications 317
21 Habit Reversal Procedures 318
21-1 Examples of Habit Behaviors 318 21-6 Other Treatment Procedures for Habit
21-2 Defining Habit Behaviors 319 Disorders 324
Nervous Habits 319 Chapter Summary 325
Motor and Vocal Tics 319 Key Terms 326
Stuttering 319 Practice Quiz 1 326
21-3 Habit Reversal Procedures 320 Practice Quiz 2 326
21-4 Applications of Habit Reversal 320 Practice Quiz 3 326
Nervous Habits 320 Practice Test 327
Motor and Vocal Tics 321
Applications 327
Stuttering 322
Misapplications 328
21-5 Why Do Habit Reversal Procedures Work? 322
22 The Token Economy 329
22-1 Rehabilitating Sammy 329 22-4 Practical Considerations 334

22-2 Defining a Token Economy 330 22-5 Applications of a Token Economy 335
22-3 Implementing a Token Economy 331 22-6 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Token
Defining the Target Behaviors 331 Economy 341
Identifying the Items to Use as Tokens 331 Chapter Summary 341
Identifying Backup Reinforcers 331 Key Terms 341
Deciding on the Appropriate Schedule of Practice Quiz 1 341
Reinforcement 332
Practice Quiz 2 342
Establishing the Token Exchange Rate 333
Establishing the Time and Place for Exchanging Practice Quiz 3 342
Tokens 333 Practice Test 343
Deciding Whether to Use Response Cost 334 Applications 343
Staff Training and Management 334
Misapplications 343
23 Behavioral Contracts 345
23-1 Examples of Behavioral Contracting 345 23-3 Components of a Behavioral Contract 347
Getting Stavros to Complete His Dissertation 345 23-4 Types of Behavioral Contracts 349
Helping Dan and His Parents Get Along Better 346 One-Party Contracts 349
23-2 Defining the Behavioral Contract 347 Two-Party Contracts 349
Contents xv
23-5 Negotiating a Behavioral Contract 351 Practice Quiz 1 355

23-6 Why Do Behavioral Contracts Influence Practice Quiz 2 356
Behavior? 351 Practice Quiz 3 356
23-7 Applications of Behavioral Contracts 352 Practice Test 357
Chapter Summary 355 Applications 357
Key Terms 355 Misapplications 357
24 Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 359
24-1 Examples of Fear and Anxiety Reduction 359 Chapter Summary 370
Overcoming Trisha’s Fear of Public Speaking 359 Key Terms 371
Overcoming Allison’s Fear of Spiders 360 Practice Quiz 1 371
24-2 Defining Fear and Anxiety Problems 360 Practice Quiz 2 371
24-3 Procedures to Reduce Fear and Anxiety 362 Practice Quiz 3 372
Relaxation Training 362
Practice Test 372
Fear Reduction Procedures 364
Applications 372
24-4 Clinical Problems 370
Misapplications 373
25 Cognitive Behavior Modification 374
25-1 Examples of Cognitive Behavior Modification 374 Practice Quiz 1 383

Helping Daniel Control His Anger 374 Practice Quiz 2 384
Helping Claire Pay Attention in Class 375 Practice Quiz 3 384
25-2 Defining Cognitive Behavior Modification 376 Practice Test 385
Defining Cognitive Behavior 376
Applications 385
Functions of Cognitive Behavior 376
Misapplications 385
25-3 Cognitive Behavior Modification Procedures 377
Cognitive Restructuring 377 Glossary 387
Cognitive Coping Skills Training 380 References 396
Acceptance-Based Therapies 382 Name Index 423
25-4 Clinical Problems 383 Subject Index 431
Chapter Summary 383
Key Terms 383
Preface
I am gratified that the first six editions of Behavior Modifica- Principles and Procedures The various procedures for changing
tion: Principles and Procedures received positive reviews from behavior are based on the fundamental principles of behavior
students and professors. The seventh edition has kept the established in experimental research over the past 90 years. In the
positive features of the first six editions, has been revised to belief that the student will better understand the procedures after
address the suggestions of reviewers, and has been updated first learning the fundamental principles, the principles under-
to reflect the latest research in behavior modification. lying operant and respondent behavior are reviewed in Chapters
The goal of this seventh edition (as with the earlier 4–8; the application of the principles in the behavior modifica-
editions) is to describe basic principles of behavior so that the tion procedures is described in Chapters 9–25.
student learns how environmental events influence human
behavior and to describe behavior modification procedures so Examples from Everyday Life Each chapter uses a variety of
that the student learns the strategies by which human behav- real-life examples—some relevant to college students, some
ior may be changed. The text is divided into 25 relatively short chosen from the author’s clinical and research experience—to
chapters, each covering a manageable amount of information bring the principles and procedures to life.
(for example, one principle or procedure). This text can be
used in a standard one-semester course in behavior modifi- Examples from Research In addition, both classic studies and
cation, applied behavior analysis, behavior management, or the most up-to-date research on behavior modification
behavior change. principles and procedures are integrated into the text.
The material in the text is discussed at an introductory
Practice Quizzes Three fill-in-the-blank quizzes with 10
level so that it may be understood by students with no prior
questions are provided at the end of each of the 25 chapters.
knowledge of the subject. This text is intended for undergrad-
The practice quizzes provide students with further exercises for
uate students or beginning graduate students. It would also
self-assessment of their knowledge of the chapters’ content.
be valuable for individuals working in human services, edu-
cation, or rehabilitation who must use behavior modification Practice Tests Practice tests at the end of each chapter have
procedures to manage the behavior of the individuals in their short-answer essay questions and include page numbers where
care. the answers can be found.
I have made a concerted effort in this text to ensure
examples reflect the fullness of human diversity with respect Application Exercises At the end of each chapter where proce-
to ability, language, culture, gender, age, socioeconomics, and dures are taught (Chapters 2, 3, and 9–25), several application
other forms of human difference that students may bring to exercises are provided. In each exercise, a real-life case is described
the classroom. and then the student is asked to apply the procedure described in
the chapter. These exercises give students an opportunity to think
Features of the Text Continued about how the procedures are applied in real life.
from the First Six Editions Misapplication Exercises The application exercises are followed
by misapplication exercises. In each one, a case example is
The following features of the text are intended to help the provided, and the procedure from the chapter is applied to the
reader learn easily. case in an incorrect or inappropriate manner. The student is asked
to analyze the case example and to describe what is wrong with
Organization of the Text Following a general introduction to
the application of the procedure in that case. These misapplication
the field in Chapter 1, Chapters 2 and 3 present information on
exercises require the student to think critically about the applica-
behavior recording, graphing, and measuring change. This infor-
tion of the procedure. Answers to the applications and misappli-
mation will be used in each subsequent chapter. Next, Chapters
cations are in the Solution and Answer Guide; these are valuable
4–8 focus on the basic principles of operant and respondent
tools for instructors, as they assess their students’ abilities to apply
behavior. The application of these principles forms the subject of
the information provided in the chapter.
the remaining 17 chapters. Procedures to establish new behav-
iors are described in Chapters 9–12, and procedures to increase Step-by-Step Approach In each chapter in which a particular
desirable behaviors and decrease undesirable behaviors are con- behavior modification procedure is taught, the implementa-
sidered in Chapters 13–19. Finally, Chapters 20–25 present a tion of the procedure is outlined in a step-by-step fashion, for
survey of other important behavior modification procedures. ease of comprehension.
xvi
Preface xvii
Summary Boxes Periodically throughout the text, information Cultural Diversity Added a discussion of cultural diversity to
from a chapter is summarized in a box that has been set off Chapters 1 and 13. The names that appear in all chapters are
from the text. These boxes are intended to help the student now more culturally diverse.
organize the material in the chapter.
Graphing and Functional Relationships Added a discussion
Chapter Summaries Chapter summaries provide information of level, trend, and variability in evaluating data in a graph in
that is consistent with the major headings in each chapter. Chapter 3. Made the distinction between graphs to evaluate
behavior change (A–B design) versus graphs to demonstrate a
Examples for Self-Assessment In the early chapters on basic functional relationship (research designs).
principles (Chapters 4–7), there are tables with examples of
the principle discussed within that chapter. Later in the Reinforcement Added information in Chapter 4 to include
chapter (or in a subsequent chapter), the student is directed to more information on concurrent schedules, a description
return to a specific table and, using the new information being of the matching law, a description of multiple schedules
presented in the chapter, to analyze specific aspects of the of reinforcement, and a description of behavioral contrast.
examples provided in that table. Also added a discussion of decision rules for analyzing
reinforcement.
Self-Assessment Questions At intervals throughout the text,
students are presented with self-assessment questions. To answer Resurgence Described the concept of resurgence in the
these questions, students will need to use the information already discussion of reinforcement of functionally equivalent
presented in the chapter. These questions will help students assess responses when using extinction in Chapter 5.
their understanding of the material. In most cases, answers are
presented in the text immediately following the question. Self-Assessment Exercises Added self-assessment exercises in
more chapters to help students understand concepts and
Figures Most of the chapters include figures from the research distinguish among concepts presented in the chapters.
literature to illustrate important principles or procedures. Students
must use information from earlier chapters on behavior recording, Stimulus Equivalence Added a section in Chapter 7 on
graphing, and measuring change to analyze the graphs. stimulus equivalence, with new figures to help explain the
concepts.
For Further Reading Each of the chapters includes a For
Further Reading box. In this feature, interesting articles that Verbal Behavior Added a section on verbal behavior in
are relevant to the content of the chapter are identified and Chapter 10. Explained the different verbal operants, discussed
briefly described. Citations for these articles have also been multiple control, and discussed training verbal behavior.
provided. These articles are from major behavioral journals, so
Functional Assessment Added information in Chapter 13
they can be easily accessed online by students. Instructors can
on using the functional assessment interview, the importance
assign these articles for extra credit or as reading assignments
of multiple informants and having experts in behavior anal-
for when more advanced students use the textbook.
ysis conduct the interview, using the interview to build rap-
List of Key Terms After each Chapter Summary section, there port with caregivers, and assessing factors related to cultural
is a list of the new terms that were used in the chapter. The list diversity. Provided more information on test versus control
of key terms shows the page number on which each term was conditions in conducting a functional analysis. Discussed the
introduced. Although these terms are all found in the Glossary interview informed synthesized contingency analysis as a type
at the end of the text, having the new terms, and their page of hypothesis testing functional analysis. Discussed functional
numbers, listed at the end of each chapter will allow the stu- assessment in research versus practice.
dent to have an easy reference to the terms when reading the
Antecedent Interventions Added information in Chapter
chapter or when studying for a test or quiz.
16 on the high-p instructional sequence as an antecedent
Glossary At the end of the text is a glossary of the important intervention, described behavioral momentum theory as an
behavior modification terms used in the text. Each term is fol- explanation for its effectiveness, and described noncontingent
lowed by a succinct and precise definition. reinforcement.
Acceptance-Based Therapies Added a discussion in Chapter 25

New Features in the Seventh of mindfulness and mindfulness-based therapies. Added more
Edition information on acceptance and commitment therapy.
Learning Objectives Added new learning objectives at the New References Added 178 new references to reflect recent
beginning of each chapter to guide students’ attention to the research and provide the scientific support for the principles
most important topics in each chapter. and procedures presented in the text.
xviii Preface
Other New Features Harnish, Rochester Institute of Technology; Gerald Harris, The
University of Houston; Robert Heffer, Texas A&M Univer-
• Discussed telehealth as a new direction in behavior sity; Stephen W. Holborn, University of Manitoba; Dorothea
modification in Chapter 1. Lerman, Louisiana State University; Tom Lombardo,
University of Mississippi; John Malouff, Nova Southern East-
• Introduced the term sampling methods to categorize inter- ern University; Guenn Martin, Cumberland University; Kay
val recording and time sample recording in Chapter 2. McIntyre, University of Missouri–St. Louis; Ronald Miller,
• Added a “For Further Reading” box to discuss the choice Brigham Young University–Hawaii; Robert W. Montgom-
of continuous versus discontinuous recording methods in ery, Georgia State University; Charles S. Peyser, University
Chapter 2. of the South; Brady Phelps, South Dakota State University;
• Added more information to help students distinguish Joseph J. Plaud, University of North Dakota; Robyn Rogers,
between positive and negative reinforcement and positive Southwest Texas State University; Johannes Rojahn, George
and negative punishment in Chapters 4 and 6. Mason University; Paul Romanowich, Mesa College; Alison
• Added new information on momentary DRO in Chapter 15. Thomas Cottingham, Rider University; J. Kevin Thompson,
University of Southern Florida; Bruce Thyer, University of
• Added more information on the function of habits in Georgia; James T. Todd, Eastern Michigan University; Sharon
Chapter 21. Van Leer, Delaware State University; Timothy Vollmer, Uni-
• Introduced comprehensive behavioral intervention for tics versity of Florida; Robert W. Wildblood, Northern Virginia
in Chapter 21. Community College; Kenneth N. Wildman, Ohio Northern
• Discussed new research on treatment for habits during University; Douglas Woods, University of Wisconsin–
public speaking in Chapter 21. Milwaukee; and Todd Zakrajsek, Southern Oregon State
• Added new information on behavioral contracting for College. I especially want to thank Marianne Taflinger, for-
parents in Chapter 23. mer senior editor at Wadsworth, for her guidance and support
throughout the initial development of the text.
• Restructured information to emphasize relaxation procedures
and fear reduction procedures in Chapter 24.
For the Behavior Modification
Instructor Resources Student
Additional instructor resources for this product are available To get the most out of this text and out of your behavior
online. Instructor assets include an Instructor’s Manual, Solu- modification course, you are encouraged to consider the
tion and Answer Guide, PowerPoint® slides, and a test bank following recommendations.
powered by Cognero®. Sign up or sign in at www.cengage.com 1. Read the assigned chapters before the class meeting at
to search for and access this product and its online resources. which the chapter is to be discussed. You will benefit
more from the class if you have first read the material.
Acknowledgments 2. Answer each of the self-assessment questions in the chapter
I want to thank the anonymous reviewers for their construc- to check if you understand the material just covered.
tive comments on this manuscript and the first six editions: 3. Complete the end-of-chapter practice quizzes to assess
Stacie Curtis, Zane State College; Alan H. Teich, University your knowledge of the chapter content.
of Pittsburgh-Johnstown; Sheri Narin, Wake Tech Commu- 4. Answer the practice test questions at the end of each
nity College; Samantha Bergmann, University of North Texas; chapter. If you can answer each question, you know that
Dera Johnson, Mayville State University; Judith Rauenzahb, you understand the material in the chapter.
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania; Paul Ginnetty, St.
Joseph’s College, Patchogue; Veda Charlton, University of 5. Complete the application and misapplication exercises at
Central Arkansas; Robert W. Allan, Lafayette College; Viviette the end of the procedure chapters. In that way, you will
Allen, Fayetteville State University; Cynthia Anderson, West understand the material in the chapter well enough to
Virginia University; Jennifer Austin, Florida State University; apply it or to identify how it is applied incorrectly.
Charles Blose, MacMurray College; Kristine Brady, California 6. The best way to study for a test is to test yourself. After
School of Professional Psychology; James Carr, Western Mich- reading and rereading the chapter and your class notes,
igan University; Carl Cheney, Utah State University; Darlene test yourself in the following ways.
Crone-Todd, Delta State University; Paula Davis, Southern Illi-
nois University; Richard N. Feil, Mansfield University; Deirdre • Review the key terms in the chapter and check if you
Beebe Fitzgerald, Eastern Connecticut State University; Stephan can define them without looking at the definitions in
Flanagan, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Roger the text.
Preface xix
• Review each practice test question at the end of the you study, you will find that you need to turn the
chapter and check if you can give the correct answer cards over less and less often. Once you can supply
without searching for the answer in the text or in the answer or definition on the back of the card with-
your notes. out looking, you’ll know that you understand the
material.
• Come up with novel examples of each principle or
procedure in the chapter. • Always study in a location that is reasonably free
from distractions or interruptions.
• Make flash cards with a term or question on one side
and the definition of the term or the answer to the • Always begin studying for a test at least a few days in
question on the other side. While studying, look at advance. Give yourself more days to study as more
the term (or question) on one side of the card and chapters are included on the test.
then read the definition (or answer) on the other. As
The following websites provide a range of valuable information about different aspects of behavior modification or applied behavior
analysis.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/ Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
(ISSN)1938-3703
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/ Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
(ISSN)1938-3711
http://www.abainternational.org The Association for Behavior Analysis International
http://www.apbahome.net/ Association of Professional Behavior Analysts
https://www.apa.org/about/division/div25http://www. APA Division 25 (Behavior Analysis)
abct.org
http://www.abct.org Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy
http://fabaworld.org Florida Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.calaba.org/ California Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.txaba.org/ Texas Association for Behavior Analysis
http://babat.org/ Berkshire Association for Behavior Analysis and Therapy
www.autismspeaks.org Autism Speaks
http://www.behavior.org Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies
http://www.bfskinner.org/ B. F. Skinner Foundation
http://www.bacb.com/ Behavior Analyst Certification Board
Introduction to
Behavior Modification 1
L e a r n i n g O bjectives
1-1 Define human behavior
1-2 Describe the defining features of behavior modification
1-3 Describe the historical roots of behavior modification
1-4 Describe the ways behavior modification has improved people’s lives
In this textbook, you will learn about behavior modification, You will notice that each of these examples focuses on
the principles, and procedures used to understand and change some aspect of human behavior and describes ways to change
human behavior. Behavior modification procedures come in the behavior. Because behavior modification focuses on behav-
many forms. Consider the following examples. ior and behavior change, it is appropriate to begin with a dis-
Ted and Jane were having some difficulties in their mar- cussion of behavior.
riage because of frequent arguments. Their marriage counselor
arranged a behavioral contract with them in which they agreed
to do several nice things for each other every day. As a result 1-1 Defining Human Behavior
of this contract, their positive interactions increased and their
Human behavior is the subject matter of behavior modifica-
negative interactions (arguments) decreased.
tion. Behavior is what people do and say. The characteristics
Tanisha pulled her hair incessantly and as a result created
that define behavior are as follows.
a bald spot on the top of her head. Although she was embar-
rassed by the bald spot, which measured 1 inch in diameter, 1. Behavior involves a person’s actions (what people do
she continued to pull her hair. Her psychologist implemented a or say); it is described with action verbs. Behavior is
treatment in which Tanisha was to engage in a competing activ- not a static characteristic of the person. If you say that
ity with her hands (e.g., needlepoint) each time she started to a person is angry, you have not identified the person’s
pull her hair or had the urge to pull. Over time, the hair pull- behavior; you have simply labeled the person. If you
ing stopped and her hair grew back in. identify what the person says or does when angry,
Francisco joined a fitness group. At each group meeting, then you have identified behavior. For example,
Francisco deposited a sum of money, set a goal for daily exer- “Jennifer screamed at her mother, ran upstairs, and
cise, and earned points for meeting his exercise goals each slammed the door to her room.” This is a description
week. If he earned a specified number of points, he got his of behavior that might be labeled as anger.
deposit back. If he did not earn enough points, he lost part 2. Behaviors have dimensions that can be measured.
of his deposit money. Francisco began to exercise regularly You can measure the frequency of a behavior; that
and lost weight as a result of his participation in the group. is, you can count the number of times a behavior
Dr. Crosland had a research meeting with her gradu- occurs (e.g., Shane bit his fingernails 12 times in
ate students every Wednesday at 8:00 a.m. She noticed that the class period). You can measure the duration of
many students arrived a few minutes late each time. Dr. a behavior, or the time from when an instance of the
Crosland began giving every student who showed up by behavior starts until it stops (e.g., Shih jogged for 25
8:00 a.m. a ticket and requiring every student who showed minutes). You can measure the intensity of a behav-
up late to put a dollar in a jar. She randomly chose one ior or the physical force involved in the behavior
ticket each week and gave that student the dollars in the jar. (e.g., Hamid bench pressed 220 pounds). You can
After she put this plan in place, students rarely showed up measure the speed of behavior, or the latency from
late again. some event to the start of a behavior. Frequency,
2 Chapter 1
duration, intensity, and latency are all dimensions of Figure 1–1

a behavior. A dimension is a measurable aspect of the
behavior. This graph, adapted from a study by Durand and Carr (1992),
3. Behaviors can be observed, described, and recorded shows the influence of teacher attention on the disruptive
behavior (defined as pushing away task materials; loud screaming,
by others or by the person engaging in the behavior.
whining, or crying; and hitting or knocking over objects) of a young
Because a behavior is an action, its occurrence can
boy (Paul) in a special education classroom. The graph shows that
be observed. People can see the behavior (or detect it disruptive behavior does not occur when Paul receives frequent
through one of the senses) when it occurs. Because it teacher attention (High ATT). However, when Paul receives
is observable, the person who sees the behavior can teacher attention infrequently (Low ATT), he engages in disruptive
describe it and record its occurrence. (Refer to Chapter 2 behavior about 50% of the time. This graph shows the functional
for a description of methods for recording behavior.) relationship between the teacher’s attention and Paul’s disruptive
4. Behaviors have an impact on the environment, behavior. (Based on Durand, V. M., & Carr, E. G. [1992]. An analysis
including the physical and the social environment of maintenance following functional communication training.
(other people and ourselves). Because a behavior is Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 777-794).
an action that involves movement through space and
100 High Low High Low High
time (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1981), the occurrence
ATT ATT ATT ATT ATT
of a behavior has some effect on the environment
Percentage of Intervals of
in which it occurs. Sometimes the effect on the envi- 75
•
Disruptive Behavior
ronment is obvious. You turn on the light switch,
and the light goes on (an effect on the physical
•
environment). You raise your hand in class, and your 50 • •
professor calls on you (an effect on other people).
• •
You recite a phone number from a website, and you
25
are more likely to remember it and to dial the correct
number (an effect on yourself ). Sometimes the effect
of a behavior on the environment is not obvious. 0 • • • • • • • • 15•
Sometimes it has an effect only on the person who 0 5 10
engages in the behavior. However, all human behav- Sessions
ior operates on the physical or social environment in
some way, regardless of whether we are aware of its
impact.
An overt behavior is an action that can be observed and
5. Behavior is lawful; that is, its occurrence is system-
recorded by a person other than the one engaging in the
atically influenced by environmental events. Basic
behavior. Even if no one else is present when the behavior
behavioral principles describe the functional rela-
occurs, it is overt behavior if it could have been recorded if
tionships between our behavior and environmental
someone were there to observe it. However, some behaviors are
events. These principles describe how our behavior is
covert. Covert behaviors, also called private events (Skinner,
influenced by, or occurs as a function of, environmen-
1974), are not observable by others. For example, thinking is a
tal events (refer to Chapters 4–8). These basic behav-
covert behavior; it cannot be observed and recorded by another
ioral principles are the building blocks of behavior
person. Thinking can be observed only by the person engaging
modification procedures. Once you understand the
in the behavior. The field of behavior modification focuses
environmental events that cause behaviors to occur,
primarily on overt or observable behaviors, as does this textbook.
you can change the events in the environment to alter
However, Chapters 8, 24, and 25 discuss covert behaviors and
behavior. Consider the graph in Figure 1-1, which
behavior modification procedures applied to them.
shows the disruptive behavior of a child with autism
in the classroom. When the child receives high levels
of attention from the teacher, his disruptive behav-
ior rarely occurs. When the child receives low levels Characteristics of Behavior
of attention from the teacher, his disruptive behavior
occurs more frequently. We conclude that the dis- • Behavior is what people do and say.
ruptive behavior is functionally related to the level of • Behaviors have dimensions that can be measured.
teacher attention. • Behaviors can be observed, described, and recorded.
These defining characteristics of behavior apply to behaviors • Behaviors have an impact on the environment.
that are overt or covert. Most often, behavior modification • Behavior is lawful.
procedures are used to understand and change overt behaviors.
Introduction to Behavior Modification 3
1-2 Examples of Behavior ? Identify each of the five characteristics of Samantha’s behavior.
Now let’s illustrate the defining characteristics of behavior with
some examples. The following examples include both common Samantha’s head banging is a behavior. It is an action that
behaviors and problematic behaviors for which behavior modi- she repeats a number of times each day. The teacher could
fication procedures might be used. observe and record the number of occurrences each day. The
head banging produces an effect on the social environment:
Kumiko sits at her computer and types an email to her parents. the teacher provides attention each time the behavior occurs.
Finally, the behavior is lawful: it continues to occur because
This is behavior: pressing the keys on the keyboard there is a functional relationship between the head-banging
while typing is an action, has physical dimensions (frequency behavior and the outcome of teacher attention.
of pressing keys, duration of typing), can be observed and
recorded, has an impact on the environment (produces letters
on the screen), and is lawful (occurs because of previous 1-3 Defining Behavior Modification
learning that pressing the keys produces letters on the screen). Behavior modification is the applied science and profes-
sional practice concerned with analyzing and modifying human
Mandy lies in her crib and cries loudly. Her mother picks her up behavior.
and feeds her.
• Analyzing means identifying the functional relationship
between environmental events and a particular behavior to
This behavior has all five of the characteristics described understand the reasons for the behavior or to determine why
in the previous example (an action that has measurable dimen- a person behaved as they did.
sions, can be observed and recorded, produces an effect on the
environment, and is lawful). One difference is that the effect of • Modifying means developing and implementing procedures
crying is on the social environment: her mother responds to her to help people change their behavior. It involves altering
crying by picking her up and feeding her. Each past instance environmental events to influence behavior. Behavior modifi-
of crying has resulted in Mandy’s mother feeding her, so the cation procedures are developed by professionals (e.g., board
crying continues to occur when Mandy is hungry. There is a certified behavior analysts) and used to change socially sig-
functional relationship between Mandy’s crying and the moth- nificant behaviors, with the goal of improving some aspect of
er’s behavior of feeding her. a person’s life. Following are some characteristics that define
behavior modification (Gambrill, 1977; Kazdin, 1994).
Lamont’s paper for his behavior modification class is a week late.

Lamont gives the paper to his professor and lies, saying he missed
the deadline because had to go home to visit his sick grand- 1-4 Characteristics of Behavior
mother. The professor accepts the paper without any penalty.
Lamont also missed a history test. He tells his history professor Modification
he missed the test because of his sick grandmother. The professor
lets him take the test a week late. • Focus on behavior. Behavior modification procedures are
designed to change behavior, not a personal characteristic or
Lamont’s behavior—lying about his visit to his sick grand- trait. Therefore, behavior modification de-emphasizes label-
mother—has all five characteristics of a behavior. It is an ing. For example, behavior modification is not used to change
action (something he said) that occurred twice (frequency), autism (a label); rather, behavior modification is used to
was observed by his professors, and resulted in an effect on his change problem behaviors exhibited by children with autism.
social environment (his professors let him hand in a paper and Behavioral excesses and deficits are targets for change with
take a test late without a penalty); it is lawful because there is behavior modification procedures. In behavior modification,
a functional relationship between the behavior (lying) and the the behavior to be modified is called the target behavior. A
outcome (getting away with a late paper and test). behavioral excess is an undesirable target behavior the person
wants to decrease in frequency, duration, or intensity. Smoking
Samantha is a 6-year-old with an intellectual disability who is an example of a behavioral excess. A behavioral deficit is a
attends special education classes. When the teacher is helping desirable target behavior the person wants to increase in fre-
other students and not paying attention to her, Samantha cries quency, duration, or intensity. Exercise and studying are possi-
and bangs her head on the table or floor. Whenever Samantha
bangs her head, the teacher stops what she is doing, picks her up, ble examples of behavioral deficits.
and comforts her. She tells Samantha to calm down, assures her • Guided by the theory and philosophy of behaviorism. The guid-
that everything is all right, gives her a hug, and often lets Saman-
tha sit on her lap. ing theoretical framework behind behavior modification is
behaviorism. Behaviorism’s core tenets are that behavior is
4 Chapter 1
lawful and controlled by environmental events occurring in related to the behavior. For the procedures to be effective
close temporal relation to the behavior (refer also to Baum, each time they are used, the specific changes in environ-
1994; Chiesa, 1994; Skinner, 1953a, 1974). mental events must occur each time. By describing proce-
• Procedures based on behavioral principles. Behavior modifica- dures precisely, researchers and other professionals make it
tion is the application of basic principles originally derived more likely that the procedures will be used correctly each
from experimental research with laboratory animals (Skin- time.
ner, 1938) and humans. The scientific study of behavior is • Treatment implemented by people in everyday life (Kazdin,
called the experimental analysis of behavior, or behavior 1994). Behavior modification procedures are developed
analysis (Skinner, 1953b, 1966). The scientific study of by professionals (board certified behavior analysts; board
human behavior to help people change behavior in mean- certified assistant behavior analysts; or other professionals,
ingful ways is called applied behavior analysis (Baer et al., such as licensed psychologists specifically trained in
1968, 1987). Behavior modification procedures are based behavior modification). However, behavior modification
on research in applied behavior analysis that has been con- procedures often are implemented by people such as
ducted for more than 60 years (Ullmann & Krasner, 1965; teachers, parents, job supervisors, or others to help
Ulrich et al., 1966). people change their behavior. People who implement
• Emphasis on current environmental events. Behavior modifi- behavior modification procedures should do so only after
cation involves assessing and modifying the current environ- sufficient training by a professional. Precise descriptions
mental events that are functionally related to the behavior. of procedures and professional supervision make it more
Human behavior is controlled by events in the immediate likely that parents, teachers, and others will implement
environment, and the goal of behavior modification is to procedures correctly.
identify those events. Once these controlling variables • Measurement of behavior change. One of the hallmarks of
have been identified, they are altered to modify the behavior. behavior modification is its emphasis on measuring the
Successful behavior modification procedures alter the behavior before and after intervention to document the
functional relationships between the behavior and the con- behavior change resulting from the behavior modification
trolling variables in the environment to produce a desired procedures. In addition, ongoing assessment of the behavior
change in the behavior. Sometimes labels are mistakenly is done well beyond the point of intervention to determine
identified as the causes of behavior. For example, a person whether the behavior change is maintained in the long run.
might say that a child with autism engages in problem If a supervisor is using behavior modification procedures
behaviors (such as screaming, hitting himself, and refusal to increase work productivity (to increase the number of
to follow instructions) because the child is autistic. In other units assembled each day), the supervisor would record the
words, the person is suggesting that autism causes the child workers’ behavior for a period before implementing the pro-
to engage in the behavior. However, autism is simply a label cedures. The supervisor would then implement the behavior
that describes the pattern of behaviors the child engages in. modification procedures and continue to record the behav-
The label cannot be the cause of the behavior because the ior. This recording would establish whether the number of
label does not exist as a physical entity or event. The causes units assembled increased. If the workers’ behavior changed
of the behavior must be found in the environment (includ- after the supervisor’s intervention, they would continue to
ing the biology of the child). record the behavior for a further period. Such long-term
• Precise description of behavior modification procedures (Baer observation would demonstrate whether the workers
et al., 1968). Behavior modification procedures involve spe- continued to assemble units at the increased rate or whether
cific changes in environmental events that are functionally further intervention was necessary.
Behavior Modification and Applied Behavior Analysis

Behavior modification (as described in this textbook) and applied behavior analysis are two terms used to identify virtually identical
fields. Although research on the application of behavioral principles to help people change their behavior (behavior modification)
had been published since the late 1950s, the term applied behavior analysis was introduced in 1968 in the first issue of the Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis with the publication of Baer, Wolf, and Risley’s article defining applied behavior analysis. In their article,
Baer et al. (1968) identified a number of characteristics of applied behavior analysis including (a) a focus on socially important
behavior; (b) demonstration of functional relationships between environmental events and behavior; (c) clear description of
procedures; (d) connection to basic behavioral principles; and (e) production of meaningful, generalizable, and long-lasting changes
in behavior. These defining features of applied behavior analysis also characterize the contemporary field of behavior modification
as described in this textbook.
Characteristics of Behavior Modification

• Focus on behavior • Implemented by people in everyday life
• Guided by the theory and philosophy of behaviorism • Measurement of behavior change
• Based on behavioral principles • De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior
• Emphasis on current environmental events • Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior
• Precise description of procedures
• De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior. As stated In his experiments, Pavlov presented the neutral stimulus
earlier, behavior modification places emphasis on recent (the sound of a metronome) at the same time that he presented
environmental events as the causes of behavior. However, food to a dog. Later, the dog salivated in response to the sound
knowledge of the past also provides useful information about of the metronome alone. Pavlov called this a conditioned reflex
environmental events related to the current behavior. For (Pavlov, 1927).
example, previous learning experiences have been shown to
influence current behavior. Therefore, understanding these
learning experiences can be valuable in analyzing current Figure 1–2
behavior and choosing behavior modification procedures. Four major figures who were instrumental in developing the scien-
Although information on past events is useful, knowledge of tific principles on which behavior modification is based. Clockwise
current controlling variables is most relevant to developing from top left: Ivan P. Pavlov, Edward L. Thorndike, B. F. Skinner,
effective behavior modification interventions because those John B. Watson. (Photo credits: SOV; Archives of the History of
variables, unlike past events, can still be changed. American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology—The
• Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior. University of Akron; Courtesy of the B. F. Skinner Foundation;
Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the
Although some fields of psychology, such as Freudian
History of Psychology—The University of Akron.)
psychoanalytic approaches, might be interested in
hypothesized underlying causes of behavior, such as an
unresolved Oedipus complex, behavior modification
rejects such hypothetical explanations of behavior. Skinner
(1974) has called such explanations “explanatory fictions”
because they can never be proved or disproved and are thus
unscientific. These supposed underlying causes can never
be measured or manipulated to demonstrate a functional
relationship to the behavior they are intended to explain.
1-5 Historical Roots of Behavior

Modification
A number of historical events have contributed to the devel-
opment of behavior modification. Let’s briefly consider some
important figures, publications, and organizations in the field.
Major Figures
Following are some of the major figures who were instrumental
in developing the scientific principles on which behavior modi-
fication is based (Figure 1-2) (Michael, 1993a).
Ivan P. Pavlov (1849–1936) Pavlov conducted experiments

that uncovered the basic processes of respondent conditioning Zuri Swimmer/Alamy Stock Photo; Photo courtesy of Humanities and Social Science
(refer to Chapter 8). He demonstrated that a reflex (salivation Library/NewYork Public Library/Science Photo Library; Bettmann/Getty Images;
in response to food) could be conditioned to a neutral stimulus. Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo
6 Chapter 1
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) Thorndike’s major conditioning, in which the consequence of behavior controls
contribution was the description of the law of effect. The law the future occurrence of the behavior (as in Thorndike’s law
of effect states that a behavior that produces a favorable effect of effect). Skinner’s research elaborated the basic principles of
on the environment is more likely to be repeated in the future. operant behavior (refer to Chapters 4–7). In addition to his
In Thorndike’s famous experiment, he put a cat in a cage and laboratory research demonstrating basic behavioral principles,
set food outside the cage where the cat could see it. To open Skinner wrote a number of books in which he applied the prin-
the cage door, the cat had to hit a lever with its paw. Thorndike ciples of behavior analysis to human behavior. Skinner’s work
showed that the cat learned to hit the lever and open the cage is the foundation of behavior modification (Skinner, 1938,
door. Each time the cat was put into the cage, it hit the lever 1953a).
more quickly because that behavior—hitting the lever—pro-
duced a favorable effect on the environment: it allowed the cat Early Behavior Modification Researchers
to reach the food (Thorndike, 1911). After Skinner laid out the principles of operant conditioning,
researchers continued to study operant behavior in the
John B. Watson (1878–1958) In his 1913 article laboratory (Catania, 1968; Honig, 1966). In addition, in
“Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,” Watson asserted that the 1950s, researchers began demonstrating behavioral
observable behavior was the proper subject matter of psychology principles and evaluating behavior modification procedures
and that all behavior was controlled by environmental events. with people. These early researchers studied the behavior
In particular, Watson described a stimulus-response psychology of children (Azrin & Lindsley, 1956; Baer, 1960; Bijou,
in which environmental events (stimuli) elicited responses. 1957), adults (Goldiamond, 1965; Verplanck, 1955; Wolpe,
Watson started the movement in psychology called behaviorism 1958), patients with mental illness (Ayllon & Azrin, 1964;
(Watson, 1913, 1924). Ayllon & Michael, 1959), and individuals with intellectual
disabilities (Ferster, 1961; Fuller, 1949; Wolf et al., 1964).
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) Skinner expanded the field of Since the beginning of behavior modification research with
behaviorism originally described by Watson. Skinner explained humans in the 1950s, thousands of studies have established
the distinction between respondent conditioning (the condi- the effectiveness of behavior modification principles and
tioned reflexes described by Pavlov and Watson) and operant procedures.
Figure 1–3
This timeline shows the major events in the development of behavior modification. Starting in the 1930s with Skinner’s basic research on the
principles of behavior, the timeline includes major books, journals, and professional organizations. SEAB, Society for the Experimental Analysis
of Behavior; JEAB, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, AABT, Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy; JABA, Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis.
Skinner's
basic research Skinner, SEAB Behaviour
on principles Skinner, Science and Research and
of behavior Walden Two Human Behavior JEAB Therapy
1930s 1948 1953 1958 1963
1938 1950 1957 1961 1966
Skinner, Keller and Skinner, Holland and AABT

The Behavior Schoenfeld, Verbal Behavior Skinner, The
of Organisms Principles of Analysis of
Psychology Behavior
Ferster and
Skinner,
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Major Publications and Events modification has been used to teach a variety of functional skills
to overcome these deficits (Repp, 1983). For example, behav-
A number of books heavily influenced the development of the
ior modification/applied behavior analysis procedures have
behavior modification field. In addition, scientific journals
been successful for teaching verbal behavior to children with
were developed to publish research in behavior analysis and
autism who have limited language abilities (e.g., Tincani et
behavior modification, and professional organizations were
al., 2021). In addition, people with developmental disabil-
started to support research and professional activity in behavior
ities may exhibit serious problem behaviors, such as self-in-
analysis and behavior modification. These books, journals, and
jurious, aggressive, and/or destructive behaviors. A wealth of
organizations are listed in the timeline in Figure 1-3. (For a more
research in behavior modification demonstrates that these
complete description of these publications and organizations,
behaviors often can be controlled or eliminated with behav-
refer to Cooper et al., 1987, 2007, 2020; and Michael, 1993a.)
ioral interventions (Barrett, 1986; Beavers et al., 2013; Repp &
1-6 Areas of Application Horner, 1999; Van Houten & Axelrod, 1993; Whitman et al.,
1983; Williams, 2004). Behavior modification procedures also
Behavior modification procedures have been used in many are used widely in staff training and staff management in the field
areas to help people change a vast array of problematic behav- of developmental disabilities (Reid et al., 1989, 2012, 2021).
iors (Carr & Austin, 2001; Fisher et al., 2021; Gambrill, 1977;
Lutzker & Martin, 1981; Vollmer et al., 2001). This section Mental Illness
briefly reviews these areas of application. Some of the earliest research in behavior modification demon-
strated its effectiveness in helping people with mental illness
Developmental Disabilities and Autism in psychiatric hospitals (Ayllon, 1963; Ayllon & Michael,
Spectrum Disorder 1959). Behavior modification has been used with patients with
More behavior modification research has been conducted chronic mental illness to modify such behaviors as daily living
in the field of developmental disabilities and autism spec- skills, social behavior, aggressive behavior, treatment compli-
trum disorder than perhaps any other area (Iwata et al., 1997; ance, psychotic behaviors, and work skills (Dixon & Holcomb,
Kodak et al., 2021). People with developmental disabilities 2000; Scotti et al., 1993; Wilder et al., 2001). One particu-
and autism often have serious behavioral deficits, and behavior larly important contribution of behavior modification was the
Journal of Journal of
Skinner, Ayllon and Behavior Therapy Organizational
Technology Azrin, The and Experimental Behavior
of Teaching Token Economy Psychiatry Management Continued
research and
Skinner, publications
Behavior About Behavior in behavior
JABA Therapy Behaviorism Modification modification
1980s–
1968 1970 1974 1977 2000s
1969 1971 1975 1978
Skinner, Skinner, Progress in The Behavior Emphasis on

Contingencies Beyond Freedom Behavior Analyst Functional
of Reinforcement: and Dignity Modification Analysis
A Theoretical
Analysis Association for
Behavior Analysis National
International Certification
in Behavior
Analysis
8 Chapter 1
development of a motivational procedure for patients called a conducted by a psychologist. Behavior modification in clinical
token economy (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). Token economies are psychology, often called behavior therapy, has been applied to
still widely used in a variety of treatment settings (Ivey et al., the treatment of a wide range of human problems (Hersen &
2017; Reitman et al., 2021). Bellack, 1985; Hersen & Rosqvist, 2005; Hersen & Van
Hasselt, 1987; Ortiz et al., 2022; Spiegler & Guevremont,
Education and Special Education 2010; Turner et al., 1981). Behavior modification procedures
Behavior modification procedures are used widely in have also been used to train clinical psychologists (Veltum &
education (Alberto & Troutman, 2003), and great strides Miltenberger, 1989).
have been made in the field of education because of behavior
modification research (Bijou & Ruiz, 1981; Martens et al., Business, Industry, and Human Services
2021). Researchers have analyzed student–teacher interactions The use of behavior modification in the field of business, industry,
in the classroom, improved teaching methods, and developed and human services is called organizational behavior modification
procedures for reducing problem behaviors in the classroom or organizational behavior management (Bailey & Burch, 2010;
(Bambara & Kern, 2005, 2021; Becker & Carnine, 1981; Daniels, 2000; Frederickson, 1982; Luthans & Kreitner, 1985;
Madsen et al., 1968; Martens et al., 2021; Sugai & Horner, Reid et al., 1989, 2012; Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997; Wilder &
2005; Thomas et al., 1968). Gravina, 2021). Behavior modification procedures have been used
Behavior modification procedures have also been used in to improve work performance and job safety and to decrease tardi-
higher education to improve instructional techniques and thus ness, absenteeism, and job-related accidents. In addition, behavior
improve student learning (Martens et al., 2021; Michael, 1991; modification procedures have been used to improve supervisors’
Saville & Zinn, 2009; Zayac et al., 2016). performances. The use of behavior modification in business and
In special education, that is, the education of people with industry has resulted in increased productivity and profits for orga-
developmental disabilities or other special needs, behavior nizations and increased job satisfaction for workers.
modification has played a major role (Rusch et al., 1988) in
developing teaching methods, controlling problem behaviors in Self-Management
the classroom, improving social behaviors and functional skills, People use behavior modification procedures to manage their
promoting self-management, and training teachers (DiGenna- own behaviors. They use self-management procedures to con-
ro-Reed et al., 2021). trol personal habits, health-related behaviors, professional
behaviors, and personal problems (Brigham, 1989; Epstein,
Rehabilitation 1996; Stuart, 1977; Watson & Tharp, 1993, 2007; Yates,
Rehabilitation is the process of helping people regain normal 1986). Chapter 20 discusses the application of behavior modi-
function after an injury or trauma, such as a head injury from an fication procedures for self-management.
accident or brain damage from a stroke. Behavior modification
is used in rehabilitation to promote compliance with rehabilita- Child Behavior Management
tion routines such as physical therapy, teach new skills that can There are numerous applications of behavior modification to
replace skills lost through the injury or trauma, decrease problem the management of child behavior (Durand & Hieneman,
behaviors, help manage chronic pain, and improve memory per- 2008; Friman, 2021; Hieneman et al., 2006; Miller, 1975;
formance (Bakke et al., 1994; Davis & Chittum, 1994; Heinicke, Patterson, 1975; Miltenberger & Crosland, 2014; Schaeffer
et al., 2009; O’Neill & Gardner, 1983; Tasky et al., 2008). & Millman, 1981). Parents, caregivers, and teachers can learn
to use behavior modification procedures to help children over-
Community Psychology come bed-wetting, nail-biting, temper tantrums, noncompli-
Within community psychology, behavioral interventions are ance, aggressive behaviors, bad manners, stuttering, and other
designed to influence the behavior of large numbers of people common problems (Christophersen & Mortweet, 2001; Gross
in ways that benefit everybody. Some targets of behavioral & Drabman, 2005; Watson & Gresham, 1998).
community interventions include reducing littering, increasing
recycling, reducing energy consumption, reducing unsafe driving, Prevention
reducing illegal drug use, increasing the use of seat belts, decreasing Behavior modification procedures have been applied to pre-
illegal parking in spaces for people with disabilities, and reducing venting problems in childhood (Roberts & Peterson, 1984).
speeding (Cope & Allred, 1991; Cox & Geller, 2010; Geller & Other applications of behavior modification include prevent-
Hahn, 1984; Ludwig & Geller, 1991; Silverman et al., 2021; Van ing child sexual abuse, child abduction, accidents in the home,
Houten & Nau, 1981; Van Houten et al., 2007). child abuse and neglect, poisoning, infections, and sexually
transmitted diseases (Beck & Miltenberger, 2009; Carroll et al.,
Clinical Psychology 1992; Dancho et al., 2008; Miltenberger et al., 2013, 2021;
In clinical psychology, psychological principles and proce- Montesinos et al., 1990; Poche et al., 1988). Using behavior
dures are applied to help people with personal problems. Typ- modification to prevent problems in the community is one
ically, clinical psychology involves individual or group therapy aspect of community psychology.
Sports Performance (Bailey & Burch, 2011, 2016; Carr et al., 2021; Shook,
Behavior modification is used widely to enhance sports perfor- 1993; Starin et al., 1993). The Behavior Analyst Certification
mance (Martin & Hrycaiko, 1983; Schenk & Miltenberger, Board™ (BACB) was established to provide certification for
2019). Behavior modification procedures have been used to individuals to practice behavior analysis as a profession. The
improve athletic performance in a wide variety of sports during BACB established education and training standards and
practice and in competition (Boyer et al., 2009; Brobst & developed an examination that individuals were required to
Ward, 2002; Hume & Crossman, 1992; Kendall et al., 1990; pass in order to become a board certified behavior analyst
Luiselli et al., 2011; Quinn et al., 2020; Wack et al., 2014; or board certified assistant behavior analyst (refer to BACB.
Wolko et al., 1993; Zeigler, 1994). Behavior modification com for complete details). In addition, the Association for
procedures have been shown to result in better athletic perfor- Behavior Analysis International™ developed a set of ethical
mance than do traditional coaching procedures. guidelines for the practice of behavior analysis (Bailey &
Burch, 2016). Often, individuals using behavior modification
Health-Related Behaviors procedures to help people change their behavior must be
certified by the BACB to assure that they are engaging in the
Behavior modification procedures are used to promote
competent and ethical practice of applied behavior analysis.
health-related behaviors by increasing healthy lifestyle behav-
iors (such as exercise and proper nutrition) and decreasing
unhealthy behaviors (such as smoking, drinking, and overeat-
ing). Behavior modification procedures are also used to promote 1-8 New Directions in Behavior
behaviors that have a positive influence on physical or med-
ical problems—such as decreasing frequency and intensity of
Modification
headaches, lowering blood pressure, and reducing gastrointes- In recent years, there have been two new developments in the
tinal disturbances (Blumenthal & McKee, 1987; Dallery et al., field of behavior modification and applied behavior analysis:
2008, 2013; Gentry, 1984; Heinicke et al., 2020; Reynolds 1) an evaluation of behavior modification procedures imple-
et al., 2008; Sivaraman et al., 2021; Van Camp & Hayes, 2012; mented via telehealth; and 2) a focus on diversity, equity, and
Van Wormer, 2004)—and to increase compliance with medi- inclusion.
cal regimens (Levy, 1987). Applying behavior modification to
health-related behaviors is also called behavioral medicine or Treatment Implementation Via Telehealth Telehealth
health psychology. describes a doctor visit conducted through videoconferenc-
ing in which the doctor and patient are in two different
Gerontology locations. In addition, telehealth has been used for service
Behavior modification procedures are applied in nursing homes delivery by other professionals, such as psychologists, social
and other care facilities to help manage the behavior of older workers, and behavior analysts. Although telehealth appli-
adults (Hussian, 1981; Hussian & Davis, 1985). Behavior cations of behavior modification procedures are not new
modification procedures are used to help older adults deal with (Shieltz & Wacker, 2020; Wacker et al., 2013), with the
their declining physical abilities, help them adjust to nursing onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, more research
home environments, promote health-related behaviors and has emerged evaluating the remote implementation of behav-
appropriate social interactions, and decrease problem behaviors ioral assessment and intervention procedures (e.g., Anderson
that may arise from Alzheimer’s disease, other types of demen- et al., 2021; Bergman et al., 2021; Nohelty et al., 2021). A
tia, or institutional demands (Baker et al., 2021; Carstensen & number of researchers showed that behavior modification
Erickson, 1986; Dwyer-Moore & Dixon, 2007; Moore et al., assessment and intervention procedures could be imple-
2007; Stock & Milan, 1993). mented with fidelity through video conferencing and that
the procedures resulted in positive outcomes for clients (e.g.,
Awasthi et al., 2021; Belisle et al., 2021; Bloomfield et al.,
1-7 Professional Practice, 2021; Yi & Dixon, 2021). Researchers also demonstrated
that supervisors could conduct remote supervision effectively
Certification, and Ethics through video conferencing technology (e.g., Ninci et al.,
As more research was published over the years establishing the 2021; Simmons et al., 2021).
effectiveness of behavior modification procedures to change
a wide range of socially significant behaviors, the practice Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion A greater focus on
of behavior modification became more widespread and diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) of individuals with varied
synonymous with the discipline of applied behavior analysis racial and ethnic backgrounds as well as LGBTQIA+ individ-
(Baer et al., 1968; Fisher et al., 2021). With more and more uals has also occurred in recent years in behavior modification
individuals working as applied behavior analysts, the field and applied behavior analysis. This focus on DEI is valuable
began to focus on professional practice, certification, and for the field, as it results in a greater diversity of practitioners
ethics to regulate the use of behavior modification procedures and practitioners who can work more effectively with diverse
10 Chapter 1
clients. Researchers focusing on DEI have discussed a variety of research in behavior analysis. The behavior modification pro-
topics, including ways to talk with children with autism about cedures discussed in the remainder of the book are based on
racism (Melendez et al., 2021), how to create more antiracist the basic behavioral principles reviewed in this section, which
and multicultural graduate training programs in applied behav- include reinforcement, extinction, punishment, stimulus
ior analysis (Najdowski et al., 2021), the role that non-Black control, and respondent conditioning. Once you understand
people can take in promoting racial equity (Li, 2021), and these basic principles, it will be easier to understand and
the importance of leadership in creating inclusive and equita- apply the behavior modification procedures described in later
ble cultural practices (Esquierdo-Leal & Houmanfor, 2021). sections.
Researchers are also evaluating cultural variables when design-
ing assessment and intervention approaches (e.g., Banerjee Procedures to Establish New Behaviors
et al., 2022; Beaulieu et al., 2019; Dennison et al., 2019). In
addition, researchers are beginning to focus more on the ethical One goal of behavior modification is to establish desirable new
practice of behavior modification with LGBTQIA+ individu- behaviors or skills. The four chapters in Part 3 of this textbook
als and with sexual and gender minority issues (Capriotti & discuss behavior modification procedures used to establish new
Donaldson, 2022; Conine et al., 2022; Morris et al., 2021) behaviors: shaping, prompting and transfer of stimulus control,
chaining, and behavioral skills training procedures.
1-9 The Structure of This

Procedures to Increase Desirable
Textbook Behaviors and Decrease Undesirable
This textbook is divided into five major sections. These sec- Behaviors
tions discuss the following topics: Another goal of behavior modification procedures is to decrease
1. Measurement of behavior and behavior change the occurrence of undesirable behaviors and increase the occur-
2. Basic principles of behavior rence of desirable behaviors that are not occurring frequently
3. Procedures to establish new behaviors enough. The occurrence of undesirable behaviors is a behav-
4. Procedures to decrease undesirable behaviors and ioral excess. Desirable behaviors that occur too infrequently
increase desirable behaviors are behavioral deficits. The seven chapters in Part 4 describe
5. Other behavior change procedures how to analyze events that influence behavior and how to apply
The book is designed so that the information presented in reinforcement, extinction, stimulus control, and punishment
earlier sections is applied in later sections. to decrease excess behaviors while increasing more desirable
behaviors.
Measurement of Behavior and Behavior
Change Other Behavior Change Procedures
There are two chapters in Part 1 of this textbook. Chapter 2 The six chapters in Part 5 of this textbook describe more com-
teaches you how to observe and record behaviors that are to plex behavior modification procedures. Chapter 20 discusses
be modified in a behavior modification program. Chapter 3 self-management procedures. Chapter 21 discusses habit dis-
teaches you how to construct graphs, evaluate graphed data to orders and procedures for decreasing these excess behaviors.
analyze behavior change resulting from a behavior modification Chapter 22 on token economies and Chapter 23 on behavioral
program, and evaluate functional relationships from graphs contracting discuss procedures that extend the reinforcement
depicting within subject research designs. and punishment procedures described earlier. Chapter 24
applies procedures based on respondent conditioning to
Basic Principles of Behavior decrease fear and anxiety. Chapter 25 discusses behavior mod-
The five chapters in Part 2 of this textbook discuss the basic ification procedures to change cognitive behaviors, a type of
principles of behavior modification derived from scientific covert behavior.
Chapter Summary
1. Human behavior is defined as what people say and do. It is 2. Behavior modification procedures involve analyzing and manipu-
characterized by an individual’s actions that have one or more lating current environmental events to change behavior. A behav-
dimensions that can be observed and recorded. Behaviors have ioral excess or behavioral deficit may be targeted for change
an impact on the physical or social environment. Behavior is with behavior modification procedures. Behavior modification
lawful; its occurrence is influenced by environmental events. A procedures are based on behavioral principles derived from
behavior may be overt or covert. scientific research. B. F. Skinner conducted the early scientific
research that laid the foundation for behavior modification. He Skinner, who identified a number of basic principles of behavior
also published a number of books demonstrating the application and wrote about applying the principles of behavior analysis to
of behavioral principles to everyday life. Behavior modification human behavior.
procedures often are implemented by people in everyday life.
4. Behavior modification procedures have been applied success-
Behavior is measured before and after the behavior modification
fully to all aspects of human behavior, including developmental
procedures are applied to document the effectiveness of the pro-
disabilities; mental illness; education and special education;
cedures. Behavior modification de-emphasizes past events and
rehabilitation; community psychology; clinical psychology;
rejects hypothetical underlying causes of behavior.
business, industry, and human services; self-management;
3. The historical roots of behavior modification can be found in child behavior management; prevention; sports performance;
the work of Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and especially B. F. health-related behaviors; and gerontology.
Key Terms
applied behavior analysis, 4 controlling variable, 4 intensity, 1
behavior, 1 covert behavior, 2 latency, 1
behavior modification, 3 dimension, 1 law of effect, 6
behavioral deficit, 3 duration, 1 overt behavior, 2
behavioral excess, 3 experimental analysis of behavior, 4 target behavior, 3
behaviorism, 3 frequency, 1
Practice Quiz 1
1. Behavior is defined as what people ______________ and ______________.
2. Behavior has an impact on the ______________ and/or ____________ environment.
3. Behavior modification is the field of psychology concerned with the ___________ and ___________ of human behavior.
4. Too much of a particular behavior is called a behavioral ___________.
5. Too little of a particular behavior is called a behavioral ___________.
6. Frequency, duration, intensity, and latency are called ___________ of behavior.
7. Match the following individuals with their contribution to behavior modification.
a. Skinner b. Watson c. Pavlov d. Thorndike
___________ First to describe the conditioned reflex
___________ Demonstrated the law of effect
___________ Conducted research on basic principles of operant behavior and laid the foundation for behavior modification
8. ________________ started the movement in psychology called behaviorism.
9. A(n) ______________ behavior is a behavior that can be observed and recorded by another person.
10. A(n) ________________ behavior is not observable by others.
Practice Quiz 2
1. ________________ is what people say and do.
2. Four dimensions of behavior that can be measured include _______________, _______________, _______________, and
_______________.
3. ___________ is the field of psychology concerned with analyzing and modifying human behavior.
4. Charlie drinks too many cups of coffee each day. This behavior would be considered a behavioral ___________ (deficit/excess).
5. Claire does not eat enough fruits and vegetables each day. This behavior would be considered a behavioral ___________ (deficit/excess).
6. John Watson started the movement in psychology called ___________________
12 Chapter 1
7. Edward Thorndike’s major contribution to psychology was the description of the _________________________.
8. _________________ conducted laboratory research demonstrating basic behavioral principles.
9. An overt behavior is defined as _________________________________________.
10. A covert behavior is defined as _________________________________________.
Practice Quiz 3
1. Behavior is defined as ________________________________.
2. Raul eats too much candy each day. Is this an example of a behavioral deficit or behavioral excess? __________________
3. Asha does not exercise enough. Is this an example of a behavioral excess or behavioral deficit? ____________________
4. Match the term to the definition.
a. Frequency b. Duration c. Intensity d. Latency
_______________ How long a behavior lasts
_______________ How many times a behavior occurs
_______________ How much physical force is involved in the behavior
5. An example of an overt behavior is ________________________________________.
6. An example of a covert behavior is ________________________________________.
7. ___________________ discovered the law of effect.
8. ___________________ conducted research on respondent conditioning.
9. Behavior modification is guided by the theory and philosophy of _______________.
10. Behavior modification emphasizes _______ (current/past) environmental events.
Practice Test
1. What is behavior? (p. 1) 10. Why is it important to describe behavior modification
procedures precisely? (p. 4)
2. Provide an example of a description of behavior and the label
applied to that behavior. (p. 1) 11. Who implements behavior modification procedures? (p. 4)
3. Identify and describe the four dimensions of behavior that can 12. Why is it important to measure behavior before and after
be observed and recorded. (p. 1) behavior modification procedures are used? (p. 4)
4. Provide an example of how a behavior has an impact on the 13. Why doesn’t behavior modification focus on the past as the
physical environment. Provide an example of how a behavior cause of the behavior? (p. 5)
has an impact on the social environment. (p. 2)
14. Identify nine defining characteristics of behavior modification.
5. What does it mean to say that behavior is lawful? What is a (p. 5)
functional relationship? (p. 2)
15. Briefly describe the contributions of Pavlov, Thorndike,
6. Describe the distinction between overt behavior and covert Watson, and Skinner to the development of behavior
behavior. Provide an example of each. Which type of behavior modification. (pp. 5, 6)
is the focus of this book? (p. 2)
16. Identify at least one way in which behavior modification has
7. Identify the five characteristics of human behavior. (p. 2) been applied in each of the following areas: developmental
disabilities; education; community psychology; business,
8. What does it mean to say that behavior modification
industry, and human services; self-management; prevention;
procedures are based on behavioral principles? (p. 4)
health-related behaviors; mental illness; rehabilitation; clinical
9. What causes human behavior? Describe how a label might be psychology; child management; sports performance; and
mistakenly identified as a cause of a behavior. (p. 4) gerontology. (pp. 7-9)
Observing and Recording
Behavior 2
L e a r n i n g O bjectives
2-1 Describe how you define a target behavior in a behavior modification program
2-2 Describe different methods you can use to record a target behavior
2-3 Describe how continuous recording differs from interval and time sample recording
2-4 Describe reactivity of behavior recording and how can you minimize it
2-5 Describe interobserver agreement and why it is important
One fundamental aspect of behavior modification is measuring • Measuring the target behavior before and after treatment
the behavior that is targeted for change. Measurement of the allows you to determine whether the behavior changed after
target behavior (or behaviors) in behavior modification is called the treatment was implemented.
behavioral assessment. Behavioral assessment is important for
Consider the following example.
a number of reasons.
A supervisor in a manufacturing plant believed the
• Measuring the behavior before treatment provides information company had a problem with workers showing up late for
that can help you determine whether treatment is necessary. work. Before taking any remedial action, the supervisor
• Behavioral assessment can provide information that helps recorded the arrival times of the workers for a number of
you choose the best treatment. days (Figure 2-1). The assessment showed that there were
Figure 2–1
The supervisor collects data on the number of workers who arrive late.
13
14 Chapter 2
few instances of tardiness. In this case, behavioral assess- The remainder of this chapter discusses direct assessment
ment demonstrated that there was not a problem and that methods for observing and recording the target behavior in a
intervention was not necessary. behavior modification program, specifically the steps needed
If the measurement of the workers’ arrival times showed that to develop a behavior recording plan. These steps include the
there was a problem, the supervisor would develop a behavior following:
modification plan to help the workers arrive on time more
1. Defining the target behavior
consistently. The supervisor would continue to record arrival
2. Determining the logistics of recording
times as the intervention was implemented. The measurement of
3. Choosing a recording method
the workers’ arrival times before, during, and after intervention
4. Choosing a recording instrument
would demonstrate whether the workers arrived on time more
consistently once intervention had been implemented.
2-2 Defining the Target Behavior
2-1 Direct and Indirect The first step in developing a behavior recording plan is to define
the target behavior you want to record. To define the target
Assessment behavior for a particular person, you must identify exactly what
There are two types of behavioral assessment: direct and indi- the person says or does that constitutes the behavioral excess or
rect (Iwata et al., 1990; Martin & Pear, 1999; O’Neill et al., deficit targeted for change. A behavioral definition includes
1997). Indirect assessment involves using interviews, ques- active verbs describing specific behaviors that a person exhibits.
tionnaires, and rating scales to obtain information on the A behavioral definition is objective and unambiguous. As an
target behavior from the person exhibiting the behavior or from example of defining a target behavior, poor sporting behavior for
others (e.g., parents, teachers, or staff ). Indirect assessment a particular baseball player may be defined as yelling obscenities,
does not occur when the target behavior occurs but relies on an throwing the bat or batting helmet, and kicking the dirt while
individual’s recall of the target behavior (Gadaire et al., 2021). walking back to the bench after striking out.
With direct assessment, a person observes and records the Note that the example does not refer to any internal states,
target behavior as it occurs (Thompson & Borrero, 2021). To such as being angry, upset, or sad. Such internal states cannot
observe the target behavior, the observer (or a video camera, in be observed and recorded by another person. The behavioral
some cases) must be in close proximity to the person exhibiting definition does not make inferences about a person’s intentions.
the behavior so that the target behavior can be seen (or heard). Intentions cannot be observed, and inferences about intentions
In addition, the observer must have a precise definition of the often are incorrect. Finally, a label (“a bad sport”) is not used to
target behavior so that its occurrence can be distinguished from define the behavior because labels do not identify the person’s
occurrences of other behaviors. To record the target behavior, actions.
the observer must register the occurrence of the behavior when Labels are not behavior. Labels for behaviors are
it is observed; various methods of recording are described later ambiguous; they can mean different things to different people.
in this chapter. When a school psychologist observes a socially For example, to one person, poor sporting behavior might mean
withdrawn child on the playground and records each social fighting with a member of the other team, whereas another
interaction with another child, the psychologist is using direct person considers it to mean cursing, throwing a bat, and kick-
assessment. When the psychologist interviews the student’s ing dirt. Specific behaviors can be observed and recorded; labels
teacher and asks the teacher how many times the child usually for the behavior cannot. In addition, labels can be used incor-
interacts with other children on the playground, the psycholo- rectly as explanations of a behavior. For example, if a person
gist is using indirect assessment. is observed to repeat syllables or words when they talk, we
Direct assessment is preferred. Direct assessment is might label them a stutterer. To then say that the person repeats
usually more accurate than indirect assessment. This is because syllables or words because they are a stutterer is an incorrect use
in direct assessment, the observer is trained specifically to of the label as a cause of the behavior. Repeating words or sylla-
observe the target behavior and record its occurrence immedi- bles is not caused by stuttering; it is a behavior called stuttering.
ately. In indirect assessment, information on the target behavior The main value of labels is that they may be used as convenient
depends on people’s memories. In addition, the people provid- shorthand when referring to a target behavior. However, the
ing information may not have been trained to observe the target behavior must always be defined before it can be observed and
behavior and may not have noticed all the occurrences of the recorded.
behavior. Furthermore, an individual may be biased in present- Will two observers agree? One characteristic of a good
ing information (e.g., trying to present the problem as worse behavioral definition is that after seeing the definition, differ-
than it actually is or to make the problem appear less severe). ent people can observe the same behavior and agree that the
As a result, indirect assessment may be based on incomplete behavior is occurring. When two people independently observe
or inaccurate information about the target behavior. Therefore, the same behavior and both record that the behavior occurred,
most research and application in behavior modification relies it is called interobserver agreement (IOA), interobserver
on direct assessment (Miltenberger & Cook, 2021). reliability, or interrater reliability (Bailey, 1977; Bailey
Observing and Recording Behavior 15
Table 2–1 Behavioral Definitions and Labels for Common Problems

Behavioral Definition Label
When Bobby cries, lies on the floor, kicks the floor or walls, and/or pounds toys or other objects on the floor, it is defined
Tantrumming
as a tantrum.
Studying for Rae involves reading pages from a textbook, underlining sentences in the text, completing math Studying
or physics workbook exercises, reading notes from class, and outlining chapters from the text.
When Pat says no to someone who asks her to do something that is not part of her job, when she asks coworkers Assertiveness
not to play music loudly while she is working, and when she asks coworkers to knock before entering her office, it
is defined as assertiveness.
Stuttering is defined for Joel as repeating a word or a word sound, prolonging the sound when saying a word, or Stuttering
hesitating more than 2 seconds between words in a sentence or between syllables in a word.
Any time Mark’s finger is in his mouth and his teeth are closed together on the fingernail, cuticle, or skin around the Nail-biting
nail, it is defined as nail-biting.
For Further Reading

Social Validity
When using behavior modification procedures to help people change their behavior, it is important to choose target behaviors that are
socially significant: behaviors that the client agrees are important targets for change. One way to make sure you are choosing import-
ant (socially significant) target behaviors is to assess the opinions of the client or other important individuals (parents, teachers, etc.).
When such individuals agree that the target behaviors are important and acceptable, they are establishing the social validity of the
target behaviors. Kazdin (1977a) and Wolf (1978) discussed the importance of social validity in behavior modification and methods for
assessing social validity.
& Burch, 2002, 2018). IOA, which is reported in behavior a stationary object (e.g., desk, floor, wall)” (p. 13). In another
modification research, is discussed in more detail later in this example, Rogers-Warren and colleagues (1977) used behav-
chapter. ior modification procedures to increase sharing in preschool
Table 2-1 lists behavioral definitions for common target children. They defined sharing as occurring “when one subject
behaviors and the labels associated with those behaviors. The passed or handed a material to a second subject, when subjects
behaviors that are described could be observed and agreed on exchanged materials, or when two or more subjects simultane-
by two independent observers. The labels, in contrast, are gen- ously used the same material (e.g., two subjects coloring on the
eral names that are commonly used for these types of behaviors. same piece of paper)” (p. 311).
Labels such as these may also be used to refer to behaviors other
than those defined here. For example, in contrast with the defini- 2-3 The Logistics of Recording
tion given for Bobby in Table 2-1, a tantrum could be a label for
the behavior of screaming, cursing at parents, slamming doors, The Observer
and throwing toys on the floor. You must develop a specific We have defined the target behavior to be recorded for a client,
behavioral definition that fits the target behavior of the person that is, a person who exhibits the target behavior and with whom
you are observing. the behavior modification program will be implemented. The
Researchers in behavior modification carefully define the next step is to identify who will observe and record the behavior.
target behaviors of people for whom they provide treatment. In a behavior modification program, the target behavior typi-
For example, Iwata and his colleagues (1990) used behavior cally is observed and recorded by a person other than the one
modification procedures to decrease self-injurious behavior in exhibiting the target behavior (i.e., an independent observer).
children with intellectual disabilities. Their definitions for three The observer may be a professional, such as a behavior analyst
types of self-injurious behavior were as follows: “arm biting— or a psychologist, or a person routinely associated with the client
closure of upper and lower teeth on any portion of the skin in the client’s natural environment, such as a teacher, parent,
extending from fingers to elbow; face hitting—audible contact staff member, or supervisor. The observer must have proxim-
of an open or closed hand against the face or head; and head ity to the client to observe the target behavior when it occurs.
banging—audible contact of any portion of the head against The exception would be when the target behavior is observed
16 Chapter 2
via video. The observer must be trained to identify the occur- representative sample of the target behavior. The target behavior
rence of the target behavior and to record the behavior imme- may be influenced by the analogue setting, and observation in
diately. They also must have the time to observe and record the this setting may provide a sample that is not representative of
behavior and must be willing to function as an observer. For the behavior under normal circumstances. However, there are
example, a teacher may be asked to observe and record the tar- benefits of observing in an analogue setting: it is more con-
get behavior of one of their students but may not agree to do so trolled than a natural setting, and the variables that influence
because the demands of teaching do not allow them the time to the behavior are easier to manipulate.
function as an observer. In most cases, it is possible to develop Observation of the target behavior can be structured or
a behavior recording plan such that a person can observe and unstructured. When observations are structured, the observer
record the target behavior of the client without too much dis- arranges for specific events or activities to occur during the obser-
ruption of their normal routine. vation period. For example, when observing child behavior prob-
In some cases, the observer is the person exhibiting the lems, the observer may ask the parent to make specific requests
target behavior. When the client observes and records their own of the child during the observation period. During unstructured
target behavior, it is called self-monitoring. Self-monitoring is observations, no specific events or activities are arranged and no
valuable when it is not possible for another observer to record the instructions are given during the observation period.
target behavior, as when the target behavior occurs infrequently When self-monitoring is used, the client may be able to
or when it occurs only when no one else is present (Stickney & observe and record the target behavior throughout the day and
Miltenberger, 1999; Stickney et al., 1999). Self-monitoring may may not be constrained by a specific observation period. For
also be combined with direct observation by another observer. example, clients who are self-monitoring the number of cigarettes
For example, a psychologist might directly observe and record they smoke each day can record each cigarette smoked regard-
the behavior of a person who is receiving treatment for a nervous less of when they smoke it. However, some behaviors may occur
habit such as hair-pulling. In addition, the client might be asked with such frequency that the client could not record continuously
to self-monitor the target behavior outside the therapy sessions. throughout the day; for example, a client who stutters may engage
If self-monitoring is used in a behavior modification program, in stuttering hundreds of times throughout the day. In cases such
the client must be trained to record their own behavior in the as this, the client would be instructed to record the behavior during
same way that an observer would be trained. observation periods agreed on in advance with the psychologist.
In behavior modification research, the people observing
When and Where to Record and recording the target behaviors are trained research
The observer records the target behavior in a specific period called assistants. They study the behavioral definition of the target
the observation period. It is important to choose an observation behavior and then practice recording under the supervision of
period at the time when the target behavior is likely to occur. the researcher. When they can record the behavior reliably
Indirect assessment information from the client or others (e.g., during practice sessions (after they have good IOA with the
from an interview) may indicate the best times to schedule the researcher), they record the target behavior during actual
observation period. For example, if staff members report that a observation periods as part of the study. The observation
patient in a psychiatric wing of a hospital is most likely to engage periods used in behavior modification research often are brief
in disruptive behavior (defined as screaming, pacing, and curs- (say, 15–30 minutes). When observations occur in natural
ing at other residents) around mealtimes, the observation period settings, researchers usually choose observation periods that are
would be scheduled around meals. The timing of the observation representative of the usual occurrence of the target behavior.
periods is also determined by the availability of the observer(s) For example, observations may take place in a classroom, work-
and the constraints imposed by the client’s activities or prefer- place, hospital, or other setting in which the target behavior
ences. Note that the client or the client’s parent or guardian must usually occurs. In a study using behavior modification to
give consent before you can observe and record their behavior. improve children’s behavior during trips to the dentist, Allen
This is particularly important when observation occurs without and Stokes (1987) recorded children’s disruptive behavior
the client’s knowledge. In such cases, the client must provide con- (defined as head and body movements, crying, gagging, and
sent for observations to occur, with the understanding that some moaning) while they were in the dentist’s chair and the dentist
observations may occur at times unknown to them (e.g., Wright was performing dental procedures on them. In another study,
& Miltenberger, 1987). Durand and Mindell (1990) taught parents how to use behav-
Observation and recording of behavior take place in natural ior modification procedures to decrease nighttime tantrum
settings or in analogue settings. A natural setting consists of the behavior (defined as loud screaming and hitting furniture) in
places in which the target behavior typically occurs. Observing their young child. In this study, the parents recorded the target
and recording a target behavior in the classroom is an example behaviors for an hour before the child’s bedtime because this
of a natural setting for a student. Observing a target behavior in was the time when the tantrum behaviors occurred.
a physician’s waiting room is an analogue setting because being When observations occur in analogue settings, researchers
in the waiting room is not part of the child’s normal daily rou- often simulate events that are likely to occur in natural settings.
tine. Observation in a natural setting is likely to provide a more For example, Iwata et al. (1982) observed and recorded the
self-injurious behavior of children with intellectual disabili- sessions in the hospital. You will use a duration measure when
ties in therapy rooms in a hospital. During their observation the most important aspect of the behavior is how long it lasts.
periods, they simulated different events or activities that the Duration may be reported as percentage of time, which is dura-
children were likely to experience at home or at school. For tion divided by the time of the observation period (Miltenberger
example, the researchers observed the children as they played et al., 1999).
with toys, as teachers gave them instructions, and during times Some researchers use a real-time recording method in
they were receiving no attention from the teacher. Iwata and which the exact time of each onset and offset of the target
his colleagues also responded to each instance of the behav- behavior is recorded (Miltenberger et al., 1998, 1999).
ior in specific ways such as by providing attention or provid- With real-time recording, the researchers have a record of
ing a break from an academic task. They found that for each the frequency and duration of the target behavior, as well as
child, the self-injurious behavior occurred at different rates in the exact timing of each occurrence of the behavior. Real-time
observation periods that simulated different events or activities recording can be carried out after video recording the target
before and after the behavior. behavior in the observation period. The observer then plays
the video and records the time indicated on the timer at the
onset and offset of each occurrence of the behavior on a data
2-4 Choosing a Recording sheet developed for real-time recording (Rapp et al., 2001).
Method Alternatively, smart phones, tablets, or laptop computers with
software that permits recording of the exact timing of events
Different aspects of the target behavior may be measured using can be used for real-time recording (Kahng & Iwata, 1998;
different recording methods. These methods include continu- Miltenberger & Cook, 2021).
ous recording, product recording, interval recording, and time The intensity of a behavior is the amount of force, energy,
sample recording. Each method is described here. or exertion involved in the behavior. Intensity (also called
magnitude) is more difficult to measure than frequency or dura-
Continuous Recording tion because it does not involve simply counting the number
In continuous recording, the observer observes the client con- of times the behavior occurs or recording the amount of time
tinuously throughout the observation period and records each the behavior occurs. Intensity often is recorded with a measure-
occurrence of the behavior. To do so, the observer must be able ment instrument or by using a rating scale. For example, you
to identify the onset and the offset (or beginning and end) of each could use a decibel meter to measure the loudness of someone’s
instance of the behavior. In continuous recording, the observer can speech. A physical therapist might use an instrument to mea-
record various dimensions of the target behavior, particularly its sure the strength of a person’s grip to judge recovery from an
frequency, duration, intensity, and latency. Continuous record- injury. Parents might use a rating scale from 1 to 5 to measure
ing is also called event recording (Cooper et al., 2020) because the the intensity of a child’s tantrum. The parents would have to
observer records the occurrence of every behavioral event. define the behavior associated with each point on the rating
The frequency of a behavior is the number of times the scale so that their ratings were reliable; their ratings would be
behavior occurs in an observation period. You measure the reliable if they both observed a tantrum and recorded the same
frequency of a behavior simply by counting each time that it number on the rating scale. Intensity is not used as often as
occurs. One occurrence is defined as one onset and offset of frequency or duration, but it is a useful measure when you
the behavior. For example, you can count the number of ciga- are most interested in the force or magnitude of the behavior
rettes someone smokes. For this target behavior, the onset may (Bailey, 1977; Bailey & Burch, 2002; 2018).
be defined as lighting the cigarette and the offset as putting it The latency of the behavior is the time from some stimu-
out. In this same example, it would be a frequency measure lus or event to the onset of the behavior. You measure latency
if you recorded the number of times the individual inhaled by recording how long it takes the person to initiate the behav-
smoke when smoking the cigarette. You will use a frequency ior after a particular event occurs. For example, you could
measure when the number of times the behavior occurs is the record how long it takes a child to start putting toys away after
most important information about the behavior. Frequency being asked to do so. The shorter the latency, the sooner the
may be reported as rate, which is frequency divided by the time child initiates the behavior after the request. Another example
of the observation period. Rate is often reported as responses of latency is the time it takes a person to answer the phone after
per minute. it starts ringing.
The duration of a behavior is the total amount of time
occupied by the behavior from start to finish. You measure ? How does latency differ from duration?
the duration of a behavior by timing it from its onset to its
offset. For example, you might record the number of minutes Latency is the time from some stimulus or event to the onset
a student studies per day, the number of minutes a person of the behavior, whereas duration is the time from the onset of the
exercises, or the number of seconds a patient who has had a behavior to its offset. That is, latency is how long it takes to start
stroke stands up without assistance during rehabilitation the behavior and duration is how long the behavior lasts.
18 Chapter 2
Consider the following example in which all four dimen- Figure 2–2a
sions of behavior can be measured. When Serena goes to the
weight room to do her bench presses (laying on a bench and The frequency of tantrums during baseline and treatment phases.
pushing a barbell of weights up from her chest), we could During the baseline phase, the target behavior is recorded, but
record frequency (number of times she pushed the barbell up), treatment is not yet implemented. Tantrums decreased from an
average of more than six per day during baseline to fewer than
duration (amount of time she spends doing bench presses),
two per day during treatment.
latency, (the time from when she lays on the bench until she
pushes up the barbell), and intensity (amount of weight on the Baseline Treatment
barbell that she is pushing up). 8 •
As referenced in the bench pressing example, when using
continuous recording, you can choose one or more dimensions •
to measure. The dimension you choose depends on which aspect 6 • •
of the behavior is most important and which dimension is most
Number of Tantrums
sensitive to change in the behavior after treatment. For exam- •
ple, if you want to record a person’s stuttering, frequency may be
4
the most important dimension because you are interested in the
number of stuttered words. You can then compare the number of •
stuttered words before, during, and after treatment. If treatment
is successful, there should be fewer stuttered words. However, 2 • •
duration may also be an important dimension of stuttering if
there are long speech blocks or prolongations of word sounds. In
• • • •
this case, you would expect the duration of stuttering to decrease 0
after treatment. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Days
? If you were recording a child’s tantrum behavior (screaming,
throwing toys, slamming doors), which dimension of the behavior
would you measure?
The example of a child’s tantrum behavior presents a num- Figure 2–2b

ber of possibilities. You may be interested in the number of The duration of tantrums during baseline and treatment phases.
tantrums per day (frequency), or how long each tantrum lasts Tantrums increased from an average duration of 1 minute each or
(duration). Alternatively, you may be interested in how loud a total of 5 to 8 minutes per day during baseline to about 6 minutes
the child screams or how forcefully the child throws toys or each or a total of 6 to 18 minutes per day during treatment. There-
slams doors (intensity). We hope that after treatment, the tan- fore, the duration of tantrum behavior per day did not decrease
trums will decrease in frequency, duration, and intensity; that even though the frequency of tantrums decreased.
is, they will occur less often, will not last as long, and will not
be as loud or violent. Baseline Treatment
Unless you measure the right dimension of a behavior, you 20
may not be able to judge the effectiveness of treatment. If you
are in doubt, or if multiple dimensions of the behavior seem 18 •
relevant, the best course of action is to measure more than one 16
Minutes of Tantrum Behavior
dimension. Go back to the example of the child’s tantrums. 14

Figure 2-2a shows that, from an average of more than six per •
12 •
day during baseline, the frequency of tantrums decreased to
10
less than two per day during treatment. (Baseline is the period
• • • •
• •
8
during which the target behavior is recorded before treatment
is implemented.) It appears that treatment was effective. How- 6 • •
ever, Figure 2-2b shows the duration of tantrums before and 4 •
during treatment. Before treatment, each of the five to eight 2
tantrums per day lasted about 1 minute, for a total of 5 to 8
0
minutes of tantrum behavior per day. During treatment, the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
duration of each tantrum was much longer, resulting in more Days
minutes of tantrum behavior per day. Therefore, accord-
ing to the duration measure, the tantrums got worse during
treatment. This underscores the importance of measuring more problems). One drawback of product recording is that you
than one dimension of a target behavior because more than one cannot always determine who engaged in the behavior that led
dimension can change after treatment. to the product you recorded. For example, the teacher cannot
Note also that to demonstrate the effectiveness of treat- determine whether the students completed their own home-
ment, you must use established research methods and an exper- work, whether someone else helped them, or whether someone
imental design. Simply measuring the behavior before, during, did it for them.
and after treatment demonstrates whether the target behavior
changed but does not demonstrate that the treatment caused Sampling Methods
the behavior change. Chapter 3 discusses research methods and Unlike continuous recording in which you observe and record
experimental designs used to demonstrate that the treatment some dimension of every instance of the behavior, sampling
caused the behavior change. methods (also called discontinuous recording methods) do not
Percentage of opportunities (percentage of trials or require you to record every behavioral event. Rather you sample
percentage correct) is one final way in which event recording the behavior by recording its occurrence or nonoccurrence in
may be conducted. In this method, the observer records the consecutive intervals of time within the observation period. There
occurrence of a behavior in relation to some other event, such are two sampling methods: interval recording and time sample
as a learning trial or a response opportunity, and reports the recording.
results as the percentage of opportunities in which the behavior
occurred. To say that a student complied with a teacher’s Interval Recording Interval recording is a method for
requests 11 times during the observation period or got 13 words recording behavior in which you record whether the behavior
correct on a spelling test is inadequate information because occurred during consecutive time periods or intervals. To use
there is no mention of response opportunities. Reporting the interval recording, the observer divides the observation period
results as the number of times the behavior occurred divided by into a number of smaller time periods or intervals, observes the
the number of opportunities provides more useful information. client throughout each consecutive interval, and then records
If the teacher made 12 requests and the student complied with whether the behavior occurred in that interval. At the end of the
the teacher’s requests 11 times, the percentage of compliance is observation period, the observer reports the percentage of inter-
11/12, or 92%. However, if the teachers made 25 requests and vals in which the behavior was observed (the number of intervals
the student complied 11 times, the percentage is only 44%, in which behavior occurred divided by the number of intervals
a much less acceptable level of the behavior. Further, getting 13 in the observation period).
spelling words right out of 15 chances (or 87%) is far different There are two ways to conduct interval recording:
than getting 13 words right out of 50 (or 26%). partial-interval recording and whole-interval recording. With
partial-interval recording, the observer scores the interval
Product Recording as an occurrence if the behavior occurred during any part of
Another aspect of a behavior that may be recorded is its product. the interval. You are not interested in the number of times the
Product recording, also called permanent product recording behavior occurs (frequency) or how long it lasts (duration). You
(Cooper et al., 2020; Marholin & Steinman, 1977), is an indi- do not have to identify the onset and offset of the behavior;
rect assessment method that can be used when a behavior results rather, you simply record whether the behavior occurred at
in a certain tangible outcome that you are interested in. It is some time during each interval. It does not matter if the behav-
an indirect measure because you are not observing and record- ior occurred once or many times in the interval, you simply
ing the behavior as it occurs. For example, a supervisor could score the interval as an occurrence if you observed any occur-
count the number of units assembled in a factory as a product rence of the behavior at any time in the interval. The term
measure of a worker’s job performance, or a teacher could interval recording is synonymous with partial-interval recording.
record the number of correctly completed homework problems Suppose that a teacher is recording whether a child disrupts
or workbook pages as a product measure of students’ academic the class during each 15-minute interval in the class period. The
performance (Noell et al., 2000). In their research on student teacher sets a timer to vibrate every 15 minutes. When the dis-
behavior problems and academic performance, Marholin and ruptive behavior occurs, the teacher marks the corresponding
Steinman (1977) looked at the math worksheets of students and interval on a data sheet. Once an interval is marked, the teacher
recorded the number of math problems completed correctly as does not have to observe the child or record the behavior until
permanent products of the students’ academic performance. the next interval begins. If the behavior does not occur in an
One benefit of product recording is that the observer interval, the interval is left blank on the data sheet. Thus, one
does not have to be present when the behavior occurs. benefit of partial-interval recording is that it takes less time and
The teacher probably will not be present when students com- effort: the observer records the behavior only once during the
plete their homework assignments, but the teacher can still interval, regardless of how many times the behavior occurs or
measure the product of the behavior (completed homework how long it lasts.
20 Chapter 2
With whole-interval recording, the occurrence of the

behavior is marked in an interval only when the behavior Recording Methods
occurs throughout the entire interval. If the behavior occurs in
only part of the interval, the behavior is not scored as occurring Continuous recording Record every instance of the
in that interval. For example, if a behavior analyst were record- behavior occurring during the
ing on task behavior in the classroom using whole-interval observation period. May record
recording with 10-second intervals, the behavior analyst would frequency, duration, intensity,
score the interval for the occurrence of the on-task behavior latency, or percentage of
only if the behavior occurred throughout the entire 10-second opportunities
interval. Whole-interval recording typically is used for behav- Product recording Record the tangible outcome
iors that are expected to have a long duration of occurrence; it or permanent product of the
is used infrequently in research and practice. occurrence of the behavior
When researchers use interval recording, they often Interval recording Record the occurrence or
choose short intervals, such as 6 or 10 seconds (Bailey & nonoccurrence of the behavior in
Burch, 2002, 2018). In this way, they make many recordings consecutive intervals of time during
of the behavior during the observation period and obtain a an observation period
more representative sample of the target behavior than they Time sample recording Record the occurrence or
could derive from longer intervals. For example, Iwata et al. nonoccurrence of the behavior in
(1990) used 10-second intervals to record the occurrence of discontinuous intervals of time (time
self-injurious behavior (e.g., head-banging, slapping, and samples) during an observation
scratching) in children with intellectual disabilities. Milten- period
berger et al. (1985) used 6-second intervals to record the
occurrence of motor tics (e.g., jerking movements of the
head or facial muscles, rapid eye-blinking) in adults. In this
study, the researchers video recorded the adults in the obser-
vation sessions and then recorded the number of intervals posture only if the client’s posture is bad when the timer
containing motor tics from the videos. Every 6 seconds, vibrates at the end of the interval. This variation of time sam-
the researchers recorded the presence or absence of the tic ple recording is called momentary time sample recording,
behavior. or MTS. With MTS, the behavior is recorded only if it occurs
In some cases, frequency recording and interval record- at the exact instant the interval ends. Time sample recording
ing can be combined to produce frequency-within-interval is valuable because the person does not have to observe the
recording. With this method, the observer records the behavior for the entire interval. Rather, the observer records
frequency of the target behavior but does so within consecutive the behavior that occurs during only a portion of the interval
intervals of time in the observation period (Bailey & Burch, or at a specific time in the interval.
2002, 2018). Frequency-within-interval recording shows you In interval recording or time sample recording, the level of
the frequency of the behavior and the specific intervals in the behavior is reported as the percentage of intervals in which
which the behavior occurred. Because the observer is scoring the behavior occurred. To calculate the percentage of intervals,
every instance of the behavior in each interval throughout you divide the number of scored intervals by the total number
the observation period, frequency-within-interval recording of intervals during the observation period. A scored interval is
is a continuous recording method that just happens to occur an interval in which the behavior was recorded.
within consecutive intervals. Figure 2-3 is an illustration of the difference between time
sample recording and interval recording. The observation period
Time Sample Recording When using time sample is 1 minute, and each vertical bar indicates one response. The data
recording, you divide the observation period into intervals of show that 20 responses occurred in the 1-minute observation. In
time but observe and record the behavior during only part of time sample recording, there are ten 10-second intervals, but the
each interval. The observation periods are separated by peri- behavior is recorded only if it occurs at the end of the interval
ods without observation. For example, you might record the (e.g., in the 3 seconds at the end of each 10-second interval).
behavior for only 1 minute during each 15-minute interval If the behavior occurs in the first 7 seconds of the 10-second
or record the behavior only if it is occurring at the end of interval, it is not recorded. In interval recording, the behavior
the interval. Consider an observer who is using time sample is recorded if it occurs at any time during the entire 10-second
recording to record a client’s poor posture (defined as slouch- interval. In this example, the behavior was recorded in 40% of
ing, bending the back forward). The observer sets a timer the intervals with time sample recording, but it was recorded in
to vibrate every 10 minutes and records an instance of bad 90% of the intervals with interval recording.
Figure 2–3
Comparison of Time Sample and Interval Recording
60 seconds
Responses: rate = 20 responses per minute
X X X X
Time sample recording: 4 intervals marked with occurrence divided by 10 intervals (4/10) = 40% of intervals
X X X X X X X X X
Interval recording: 9 intervals marked with occurrence divided by 10 intervals (9/10) = 90% of intervals
For Further Reading

Choosing Continuous Recording or Discontinuous Recording1
Researchers and practitioners in behavior modification have a choice whether to use continuous recording methods or discontinu-
ous recording (sampling) methods in any particular situation. Although continuous recording methods, such as frequency recording
or duration recording, are more rigorous and should be chosen when possible, sampling methods can be used when continuous
recording is too time consuming or impractical because the observer has competing responsibilities (Miltenberger & Cook, 2021).
Sampling methods can also be preferred for high-rate behavior that may be hard to count accurately or when it is difficult to identify
the onset and offset of the behavior (e.g., Meidinger et al., 2005). Fortunately, partial interval recording (PIR) and momentary time
sample recording (MTS) can produce strong correspondence with continuous recording procedures in specific circumstances. In
particular, research shows that there is strong correspondence between PIR and frequency recording when PIR using short intervals
such as 10 seconds is conducted in brief observation periods such as 10 minutes (Devine et al., 2011; Meany-Daboul et al., 2007; Rapp
et al., 2007, 2008; Schmidt et al., 2013). Research also shows that there is a strong correspondence between MTS recording with short
intervals (e.g., 10 seconds) and duration recording conducted in short observation sessions (Devine et al., 2011; Meany-Daboul et
al., 2007; Rapp et al., 2007, 2008; Schmidt et al., 2013). Fortunately, research also shows that the results of MTS recording with longer
intervals, such as 1 minute, correspond with duration and frequency recording when observation sessions are 30 minutes or longer
(Devine et al., 2011; Sharp et al., 2015; Wirth et al., 2014). This finding is important because Kolt and Rapp (2104) reported that practi-
tioners preferred MTS recording with longer intervals (e.g., 1 minute) because it is easier to use.
1
Thanks to John T. Rapp for contributing to this section.
2-5 Choosing a Recording The data sheet in Figure 2-4 is used to record the
frequency of a target behavior. Each time the behavior occurs
Instrument on a particular day, the observer marks an X in one of the boxes
The final step in developing a behavior recording plan is to for that day. The number of boxes with Xs filled in for each day
choose a recording instrument. The recording instrument is what signifies the frequency (the number of times) that the behavior
the observer uses to register or make a permanent product of occurred on each day.
the occurrence of the behavior. Paper and pencil are used most The data sheet in Figure 2-5 is used to record the dura-
often to record behavior. Put simply, the observer makes a note on tion of a target behavior. On each day, there are places to
the paper each time they observe the behavior. To record behav- record the times the behavior started (onset) and ended
ior most effectively, the observer uses a data sheet prepared in (offset). By recording the onset and offset of each instance
advance for the particular behavior. The data sheet helps organize of a behavior, you end up with a recording of how long the
the recording process by making it clear what the observer is to behavior occurred (duration), as well as how often it occurred
write down when the behavior occurs. (frequency).
22 Chapter 2
Figure 2–4
This data sheet is used to record the frequency of a behavior. You put an X into a box each time the behavior occurs. If more than 12 instances of
the behavior occur per day, continue recording on the next line.
Frequency Data Sheet
Name:
Observer:
Definition of behavior being recorded:
Date Frequency Daily Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 2–5
This data sheet is used to record the duration of a behavior. You record the onset and offset time for each instance of the behavior. If there are
more than three instances of the behavior per day, continue recording on the next line.
Duration Data Sheet
Name:
Observer:
Date Duration Daily Duration

Onset Offset Onset Offset Onset Offset
An example of a data sheet used for 10-second interval listens to a recording that signals the start of each interval.
recording is shown in Figure 2-6. Notice that there are six boxes When the target behavior occurs, the observer puts a check
on each line and 15 lines of boxes. Each box represents one mark in the corresponding interval box. If the target behav-
10-second interval, for a total of 90 intervals in 15 minutes. ior does not occur during an interval, the observer leaves that
To use the 10-second interval recording method, the observer interval box blank. Alternatively, each interval box could have
Figure 2–6
This is an interval recording data sheet. Each box corresponds to an interval, and a check mark is placed in a box when the behavior occurs
during that interval. When the behavior does not occur during an interval, the box is left blank.
Interval Data Sheet
Name:
Observer:
Date and time of observation:
Ten-second intervals
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Minutes of observation
one or more codes. The observer circles or puts a check mark Not all instruments for recording behavior depend on
through the code that represents the behavior observed in that paper and pencil. Anything you can use to register each occur-
interval. For example, the codes AT and RP could be used to rence of a behavior can be considered a behavior recording
signify the behaviors of attention and reprimand, respectively, instrument. The following are some common examples.
when observing a parent’s behavior while interacting with a
• Use a golf stroke counter to record the frequency of a behavior.
child. If the parent pays attention to the child or reprimands
The golf stroke counter is worn on the wrist like a wristwatch.
the child in an interval, the observer would circle AT or RP,
Each time the behavior occurs, you push the button on the
respectively, for that interval.
counter (Lindsley, 1968). A small hand-held counter could be
Other procedures for recording behavior involve writing
used in a similar fashion.
the behavior down each time it occurs. For example, a person
who wants to count the number of cigarettes she smokes each • Use a stopwatch to record the cumulative duration of a
day may keep a note card tucked into the cellophane wrapper behavior. You start and stop the stopwatch each time the
on the cigarette pack. Each time she smokes a cigarette, she behavior starts and stops. Runners and joggers often wear
makes a check mark on the note card and counts the check watches with a stopwatch function that allows them to
marks at the end of each day. record the duration of their workouts.
Likewise, a person who is recording their rude behavior • Use a laptop, smartphone, or other handheld electronic
might keep a small note pad in their shirt pocket; every time devices with an app for data recording to record the fre-
the person makes a rude remark, they pull out the note pad and quency and duration of many behaviors at once. You push
make a note of it. different keys on the computer or handheld device each
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ovat sille yhtä tervetulleita, yhtä hyvin ahkera mehiläinen kuin
kevytmielinen sudenkorento.
Valtamerilaivojen matkustajat näkevät usein ihmeekseen eräitten

kalojen lentävän ylös laivankannelle. Näitä kutsutaankin
lentokaloiksi. On otaksuttu niiden tällä tavalla tahtovan pelastua niitä
takaa-ajavien delfiinien eli pyöriäisten saaliinhimolta; toiset taas
arvelevat niiden lentelevän vain huvikseen. Niiden rintaevät ovat
kasvaneet erinomaisen pitkiksi, joten ne voivat käyttää niitä kuten
linnut siipiään. Niiden on laskettu voivan lentää lähes 200 metriä ja
voivan pysyä ilmassa puolen minuutin ajan. Ne tavallisesti lentävät
noin metrin korkeudella vedenpinnasta, ja monesti näkee
tuhansittain tällaisia kaloja kohoavan ilmaan yhtä aikaa.
Jotkut toiset kalat voivat kävellä maalla, jopa kiivetä puihinkin.

Muuan tällainen kiipijäkala vangittiin kerran palmunrungolta noin 1 ½
metrin korkeudessa vedenpinnasta; se oli juuri kiipeämässä aika
nopeasti pyrstönsä ja piikkieväinsä avulla vielä korkeammalle. Sen
pään sisäpuolella on omituinen elin, joka muistuttaa kiheräkaalin
lehteä, ja kalan otaksutaan voivan siinä säilyttää vettä niin paljon
kuin se tarvitsee hengittääkseen kävelymatkoillaan kuivassa
ilmassa. — Toinen omituinen kala on imukala, joka päässään
olevalla imulevyllä voi imeytyä kiini isompain kalojen ruumiiseen.
Sen sanotaan myöskin hidastuttavan laivojen kulkua, ne kun
suurissa joukoissa imeytyvät kiini niiden kupeisiin ja siten lisäävät
niiden hankausta vedessä. Japanilaiset käyttävät niitä
kalastukseenkin siten, että kiinnittävät pitkän nuoran niiden pyrstöön
ja päästävät ne veteen muiden kalojen joukkoon; täällä ne pian
valitsevat uhrinsa ja imeytyvät kiini siihen, jolloin kalastaja vetää ylös
kummankin, irroittaa pyydetyn kalan veneeseen ja päästää imukalan
uutta saalista kokemaan.
Alinomaa keksitään uusia kalamuotoja valtamerten syvyyksistä,
Eriskummallisimpia kaikista kaloista on eräs Atlannin valtamerestä
tavattu, jonka syvien merten eläimistön tutkijana tunnettu Monakon
ruhtinas eräällä tutkimusmatkallaan nosti merenpohjasta. Se on
aivan pieni kala, jolla on kokoonsa nähden tavattoman suuri suu ja
isot, tuijottavat silmät. Mutta kenties merkillisintä siinä on kaksi riviä
loistavia pilkkuja kummallakin kupeella, jotka hohtavat fosforimaisella
valolla. Sitä voisi sen takia kutsua meren tulikärpäseksi tahi
kiiltomadoksi, mutta harvinaisen ruman ulkomuotonsa takia sitä on
ruvettu nimittämään Pikku paholaiseksi. Sen tieteellinen nimi on
Photostomias Guerni.
18. Kiviaika.
Kun ennen vanhaan maasta tavattiin nuolenkärjen tai kirveenterän

muotoisia piikiven palasia, luultiin niitä kauvan tavallisiksi "luonnon"
esineiksi, s.o. etteivät ne lainkaan olleet ihmisten valmistamia; jotkut
luulivat niiden ukkosilmalla pudonneen taivaalta ja kutsuivat niitä sen
vuoksi "ukonvaajoiksi"; toiset luulivat keijukaisten ja muun sellaisen
haltijaväen olleen niiden seppinä ja sanoivat niitä "keijukaiskirveiksi".
Älykkäät ja oppineet miehet ovat kuitenkin huolellisesti

tarkastelleet näitä karkean näköisiä kivipalasia ja ovat päätelleet
niiden olevan ihmiskätten valmistamia. Ja todella onkin niiden
huomattu olevan ikivanhoina aikoina eläneiden ihmispolvien
tarvekaluja tai sellaisten osia.
Tutkijat ovat päässeet selville siitä, että jokaisen kansan historia

jakautuu kolmeen suureen ajanjaksoon — kiviaikaan, jolloin ihmisten
aseet ja työkalut tehtiin kivestä; pronssiaikaan, jolloin ne valmistettiin
pronssimetallista eli vasken ja tinan sekoituksesta; ja rauta-aikaan,
jolloin tätä metalleista kestävintä ja käytännöllisintä ruvettiin
käyttämään. Puhuessa esim. kiviajasta ei sillä välttämättömästi
tarvitse tarkottaa mitään määrättyä vuosisataisjaksoa
menneisyydessä, sillä jotkut kansat — esim. pohjoisten
napaseutujen eskimot ja monet kuuman ilmanalan villikansat —
elävät vieläkin kiviajassaan.
Europan kansat sen sijaan ovat jo ammoisina aikoina sivuuttaneet

tämän ajanjakson historiassaan. Se oli aika, jolloin maanosassamme
eli monellaisia eläimiä, jotka sittemmin ovat hävinneet tykkänään
sukupuuttoon, kuten esim. luolajalopeura, luolakarhu,
sapelihampainen tiikeri, mammutti ja hirviösarvikuono, joita sen ajan
ihmiset pyysivät ja paloittelivat kivisillä aseillaan.
Paljon kiviaseita ja niiden kappaleita on löydetty, jotka ovat

peräisin tältä ajalta. Vanhemmat niistä ovat paljon
kömpelötekoisempia kuin myöhemmät, joten valmistustaidossa ja
kätevyydessä voi huomata asteettaista kehittymistä; vanhemmat sen
lisäksi ovat yksinomaan piikivestä, kun nuoremmat sitävastoin ovat
tehdyt monista muistakin kivilajeista.
Kun piikivimöhkälettä isketään määrätyllä tavalla, niin lohkeaa se

kappaleiksi, jotka jo sellaisinaan tahi hyvin vähällä hiomisella
kelpaavat veitsiksi, raastimiksi j.n.e. Tällaisia olivatkin kiviaseet
vanhimmassa muodossaan; joissakin tapauksissa ne ovat muovaillut
kielen tai mantelin muotoon; onpa niille toisinaan annettu
soikiomainen veitsen muoto, jonka syrjät on erittäin huolellisesti
hiottu teräviksi.
Myöhemmin kuitenkin kiviaseiden laatu parani; ihmisten
kekseliäisyys ilmeisesti yhä lisäytyi. Kirveitä, tapparoita, sahoja,
talttoja ja peitsiä näiltä ajoilta on löydetty. Muitakin kiviaineita kuin
piitä on niihin käytetty, ja kiviterä tuli yhä huolellisemmin hiotuksi ja
kiinnitetyksi puuvarteen.
Sen ajan ihmiset asuivat kuten silloiset petoeläimetkin luolissa, ja

näistä luolista ovat useimmat kivikauden muinaisjäännökset löydetyt.
Eräässä ranskalaisessa luolassa löydettiin harvinaisen suuri
kokoeima luita, joiden joukossa oli maapallon tiettävästi vanhin
kuvapiirros. Tuntuu tosin omituiselta puhua kuvasta luulöydön
yhteydessä, mutta tämä kuva on tosiaankin luuhun veistetty.
Tämän ikivanhan aikakauden taiteilijalla ei ollut käytettävänään

sivellintä eikä kynää, ei paperia eikä liinakangasta; hän sai tulla
toimeen sillä ainesvarastolla mikä hänellä oli, kaivertaessaan luuhun
mammutin tahi alkuhevosen kuvan. Yllä olevassa kuvassa nähdään
silloisen poroeläimen piirteet.
Kivikauden jätteitä on löydetty muualtakin kuin luolista; parhaita

löytöpaikkoja ovat olleet ruokailupaikkain jätteet Ruotsin ja varsinkin
Tanskan rannikoilla, n.s. "kjökken-möddingit". Nämä ovat
suunnattoman laajoja raakku- y.m. hylkytunkioita. Senaikaisilla
ihmisillä ei ollut samoja siisteyden-käsityksiä kuin nykypäiväin
eläjillä, he viskasivat tyhjentämäinsä simpukkain ja muiden
merieläinten kuoret syrjään, missä näistä karttui vähitellen aikojen
kuluessa korkeita kasoja, joita penkoen meidän aikamme tutkijat
voivat tehdä päättelyjään kivikauden ihmisten elintavoista.
Samallaista siivotonta syöntitapaa on huomattu monilla nykyajankin
villeillä kansoilla.
Omituista on ajatella, että nuo muinaisten aikojen ihmiset ovat
kadonneet jäljettömiin, jättämättä muita näkyviä muistoja itsestään
kuin suuria tunkioita ateriainsa jäännöksistä.
19. Kameleontti.
"Se pitää aina päänsä pystyssä ja suunsa ammollaan, ja se on

ainoa eläin, joka saa ravintonsa, ei ruuasta eikä juomasta, vaan
ilmasta yksinomaan."
Tällainen oli vanhain kirjailijain mielipide kameleontista; mutta

tarpeetonta lienee sanoa, että he erehtyivät tämän eläimen ravinnon
suhteen, sillä pelkästä ilmasta se ei sentään elä.
Kameleontti on kuitenkin siksi omituinen eläin, että helposti voi

käsittää vanhain kirjailijain erehdyksen; sitä tarkastellessa on kyllä
taipuvainen asettamaan sen eri osastoon matelijain luokassa. Se on
hyvin hidas liikkeissään; ja aluksi tuntuu vaikealta uskoa että sen
ravintona ovat hyönteiset, sillä miten voi tämä kuhnija oikeastaan
pyydystää sukkelia ja siivillä varustettuja hyönteisiä?
Mutta vaikka tämä ystävämme itse onkin hidasliikkeinen, on sillä

sukkela apukeino kielessään. Se on vallan eriskummallinen kieli —
eläin voi sitä venyttää omaa kokoaan pitemmäksi, ja se on ontto ja
päässään varustettu imuelimellä. Kameleontin silmätkin ovat
ainokaiset laatuaan, sillä ne voivat liikkua aivan toisistaan
riippumatta; milloin oikea silmä tähystää sinitaivasta, tuijottaa toinen
jäykästi maahan.
Kameleontin merkillisin ominaisuus on kuitenkin sen värivaihtelu.
Sen istuessa varjoisessa kohdassa on sitä vaikea erottaa, sillä se on
yhtä harmaa ja väritön kuin sitä ympäröivä varjo; mutta annappa
auringon paistaa sen päälle, niin välkkyy se sinervänviheriäisenä ja
on sillä ruumiissaan ruskeita tai punaisia pilkkuja. Silloin se näyttää
aivan samallaiselta kuin oksa jolla se istuu.
Kameleontin veri ei ole punaista vaan melkein sinistä, ja sen

ihossa on kaksi värikerrosta, heleänkeltainen ja tumman-ruskea,
joiden kohoamisesta pinnalle ja sekoittumisesta toisiinsa tuo
merkillinen värivaihtelu riippuu. Eräs tämän eläimen luonnetta ja
elintapoja tarkastellut henkilö kertoo niistä seuraavasti:
"Kun suuri algerialainen kameleonttini huomaa lähistössään

käärmeen, pullistaa se äkkiä ruumiinsa, heiluttelee itseään
edestakaisin tahi käy nopeasti käärmettä kohti, avaten samalla ison
suunsa selko selälleen ja päästäen viheltävän äänen. Yhtä haavaa
näiden liikkeiden kanssa sen ruumis vähitellen vaihtaa väriään ja
peittyy pienillä tummanruskeilla pilkuilla. Omituista on nähdä, että
samallaiset pelon oireet näkyvät sisiliskon tahi puusammakon
ilmautuessa. Hullunkurisinta kuitenkin oli huomata samaa
hermostumista eläimen nähdessä lapseni nuken; arvatenkin tämän
kiiltävät silmät herättivät kameleontissa kauhua, se kun luuli nukkea
eläväksi olennoksi."
Monellaisia hauskoja kokeita on tehty kameleontin värivaihdoksen

suhteen; se pantiin esim. värilliseen päivänvaloon, niin että punaista
valoa lankesi sen eturuumiille ja sinistä takaruumiille. Silloin näytti
sen ruumis jakautuneen kahteen eriväriseen puoliskoon: etuosa
hohti vaalean-viheriänä ja punaisilla pilkuilla, mutta takapuoli
tumman-viheriänä.
Jos kameleontti kävelee pitkin tiiliaitaa, jonka tiilet ovat eriväriset,
niin muuttaa se väriään tiilien mukaan.
Kameleontin toinen puoli on aina erilainen kuin sen toinen puoli.

Sen vuoksi me nimitämmekin kameleontiksi ihmistä, joka tavantakaa
vaihtaa luonnettaan.
20. Kaloja, jotka rakentavat pesiä.
Rautakala-pariskunta oli kovassa puuhassa. Isä Rautakala hankki

kokoon ruovonpalasia ja pieniä mutamöykkyjä, ja valittuaan sopivan
paikan pienessä pohjakolossa hän rupesi perustamaan pesää.
Äiti Rautakala ei ottanut osaa rakennushommiin; se tyytyi vain

rauhallisesti katselemaan puolisonsa toimia sekä silloin tällöin
haukkaamaan pieniä mätihiukkasia, jotka sattuivat tulemaan suun
seutuville; sillä oli näet aina tavaton ruokahalu.
Isä Rautakala työskenteli tällävälin voimainsa takaa; saatuaan

perustuksen valmiiksi, muurasi se seinät ja kattoi lopuksi pesän,
käyttäen savena suustansa valuvaa limaa; sivulle se jätti pienen
oviaukon, josta voi kulkea sisälle ja ulos. Se oli erittäin sievän
näköinen ja taitava kala ja samalla mitä pelottavin vihollinen; sillä
vaikka pienikin, ei se arkaillut ketään. Piikit sen selässä olivat
ankaria aseita.
Heti kun talo oli tullut valmiiksi, sai äiti Rautakala kohteliaan
käskyn käydä sisään, minkä tämä tekikin vähän aikaa kursailtuaan.
Se laski pesään mätimunansa — sieviä pikku hiukkasia, eivät
unikukan siemeniä isompia — ja sitten se koputti vastapäiseen
seinään aukon, josta ui tiehensä. "Hän ei joutanut hoitamaan munia",
sanoi se, "sillä hänellä oli yllin kyllin muutakin työtä; mutta jos isä
Rautakala ottaisi niistä huolehtiakseen — niin olkaa hyvä vain!"
Isä Rautakalalla ei ollut mitään sitä vastaan; se tarkasteli

huolellisesti mätikasaa, siirsi sen turvalliseen nurkkaan ja liikutteli
sitten eviään edestakaisin, niin että raikas vesivirta alinomaa kulki
pesän lävitse ja kallisarvoisten mätimunien yli. Sitten se rupesi
vartioimaan niitä.
Voisi luulla ettei kenkään olisi välittänyt vähääkään noista

mitättömistä pikku hiukkasista, mutta isä Rautakala tiesi asian
paremmin. Se oli varma siitä, että pesän ulkopuolella uiskenteli
paljon ahnaita kaloja väjymässä hänen aarrettaan; ja pianpa hän
saikin puolustaa sitä paria vihollista vastaan, jotka tulla törmäsivät
oviaukoille katselemaan oliko sisällä mitään syötävää.
Isä Rautakala karkotti ne tuimasti takaisin, iskien niitä vasten

kasvoja ja liikutellen uhkaavasti eväsiään. Joka päivä sillä oli
kestettävänä hirvittävä taistelu kotinsa ja sen aarteen puolesta; ja
surullista on sanoa, että sen karkottamien ahnaiden vihollisten
joukossa oli myös äiti Rautakala itse!
Tämä luonnoton äiti, joka ei ainoastaan ollut hylännyt lapsiaan ja

jättänyt ne yksinomaan puolisonsa hoivaan, näytti olevan yhtä
himokas kuin toisetkin käymään pesän kimppuun ja syömään
suuhunsa sen sisällyksen. Isä Rautakala piti kuitenkin tarkasti
silmällä uskottoman aviopuolisonsa toimia ja suojeli kotiaan sen
epäilyttäviltä hellyyden osotuksilta.
Säännölliseen aikaan munat kuoriutuivat; ja voisipa luulla että isän
huolet silloin jo olisivat olleet lopussa. Mutta niin ei ollut laita: nuoret
kalat tarvitsevat yhtä paljon jolleivät enemmänkin hoitoa kuin munat.
Ne ovat pieniä heikkoja olentoja, jotka tuskin vielä ollenkaan
kykenevät uimaan. Isä Rautakala oli toimessaan innokkaampi kuin
koskaan ennen: se ui pienokaisparvensa ympäri, ja jos joku niistä
erehtyi menemään liian pitkälle, toi isä sen suussaan takaisin.
Vihdoin viimein nuoret kalat olivat kasvaneet niin suuriksi, että

kykenivät itse pitämään huolen itsestänsä; ja silloin pääsi isä vihdoin
rauhaan.
Rautakala ei ole ainoa kala, joka rakentaa pesiä; sillä on

sukulaisia, kivikala ja merihärkä, jotka samoin elävät sekä makeassa
että suolaisessa vedessä. Niillä on myöskin isien tehtävänä varjella
hautuvia munia ja hoitaa poikasia. — Kaukaisten maiden virroissa ja
merissä elää muitakin pesiä rakentavia kaloja, niin kuin hassarkala
Etelä-Amerikan joissa, jonka kummatkin sukupuolet osottavat
vanhemmanhellyyttä, ja gourami, jota tavataan Javassa, Borneossa
ja Sumatrassa.
21. Siivetön lintu.
Uuden Seelannin ihmemaassa on tavattu lintu, jolle tiedemiehet

ovat antaneet nimen Apteryx, mikä merkitsee siivetöntä.
Maanasukkaat kutsuvat sitä kivi'ksi, linnun äänen mukaan. Tosin ei
ole vallan totta että se aivan siivetön olisi, mutta sen siipityngät ovat
niin peräti pienet ettei se niitä voi ollenkaan käyttää, ja sen ohessa
ovat ne niin höyhenten peitossa ettei niitä näykään.
Kivi kuuluu samaan ryhmään kuin Afrikan kamelikurki ja sen
australialainen serkku emu-lintu ja on ikävä kyllä kuolemaisillaan
sukupuuttoon. Maan asukkaat, maorit, pyydystävät sitä tulisoihtujen
valossa — se näet samoin kuin meidän huuhkajamme liikkuu vain
öisin — sen höyhenten takia, ja sen lihaa himoitsevat kullankaivajain
ja uudisasukkaiden kissat, jotka täällä ovat käyneet villeiksi kuin
metsänpedot. Tällainen lintu, jonka siivet eivät sitä kannata, käyttää
sen sijaan jalkojaan; ja kivi onkin, kuten sen serkku kamelikurki,
erinomainen juoksija. Sen elintavat ovat hyvin yksinkertaiset. Se
nukkuu päivin ja etsii öisin ruokaansa. Se elää etupäässä madoista
ja toukista, joita etsii pitkällä nokallaan, työntäen tämän väliin
maahan aina juurta myöten. Matoa se ei tempaa ylös äkillisellä
nykäisyllä, vaan hyvin hitaasti ja varovaisesti, aivan kuin mairitellen.
Kertomus, että se voimakkailla jaloillaan potkii maata pyrynä tieltään
matojen kimppuun päästäkseen, ei ole totta, yhtä vähän kuin että se
niillä kykenisi potkaisemaan koiran kuoliaaksi. Päivällä häirittynä se
haukottelee ja siristelee silmiään aivan kuin kesken untaan herätetty
ihminen. Se on aivan viaton ja hyödyllinen lintu, ja surkeata on että
sellainen on tuomittu perikatoon.
22. Muurahaisten sodankäynti.
Pienten, heikkojen hyönteistenkin keskuudessa voi vallita väkeviä

intohimoja. Ahkeruudestaan ja älykkäisyydestään kiitetyt
muurahaiset ovat sotaisimpia ja nautinnonhimoisimpia ryövärejä mitä
koko luomakunnassa tavataan. Tyydyttääkseen vihaansa ja
saaliinhimoaan ne käyvät keskenään mitä tuimimpia sotia; ja
nautinnonhimoaan ja mukavuuttaan tyydyttääkseen ne panevat
toimeen varsinaisia orjainmetsästyksiä.
Kauvan aikaa oltiin huomattu, että jotkut muurahaislajit

sotaretkillään kantoivat suussaan toisia muurahaisia, mutta syytä
siihen ei tiedetty, Muuan luonnontutkija vihdoin paljasti salaisuuden.
Hän keksi näet, että nämä hyönteiset yhteiskuntaansa
hyödyttääkseen käyvät oikeita partioretkiä hankkiakseen itselleen
väkisin orjia. Päästäkseen itse hyville päiville ne tarvitsevat itselleen
palvelevan yhteiskuntaluokan, joka ryövätään jonkin uutteran
muurahaislajin keskuudesta.
Pahimpia orjainmetsästäjiä mitä tunnetaan on punainen eli n.s.

"amatsoonimuurahainen". Se käy niin usein sotia, että milloin
hyvänsä voi sen nähdä tällaisessa toimessa.
Kun punainen muurahainen lähtee orjia ryöstämään, niin

noudattaa se mitä älykkäintä sotasuunnitelmaa. Ryöstöretki
alotetaan aina yön tullessa. Heti kun "amatsoonit" ovat tulleet ulos
asunnoistaan, asettuvat ne sulettuihin riveihin ja sotajoukko suuntaa
kulkunsa sitä muurahaiskekoa kohti, joka yhteisessä
sotaneuvottelussa on päätetty ryöstettäväksi. Turhaan koettavat
jälkimmäisen soturit tukkia pesänsä sisäänkäytäviä; kaikista niiden
ponnistuksista huolimatta tunkeutuvat viholliset aina linnoituksen
sydämmeen ja nuuskivat kaikki suojat valitakseen uhrinsa: toukat ja
kotelot. Ne työmuurahaiset, jotka koettavat estää ryöstöä,
paiskataan yksinkertaisesti syrjään, mutta vihollinen ei huoli ottaa
niitä mukaansa, sillä se tietää että ne tuskin alistuisivat orjan iestä
kantamaan. Se tahtoo ainoastaan nuoria yksilöjä, joita se voi mielin
määrin kasvattaa palvelijoikseen. Kun vieras keko on perusteellisesti
ryövätty, ottaa kukin valloittaja varovaisesti toukan tai kotelon
pihtiensä väliin ja varustautuu kotimatkalle. Ne jotka eivät ole voineet
löytää toukkia eikä koteloita, ottavat kaatuneitten vihollisten silvotulta
ruumiita käytettäväksi kotona ravinnoksi. Saaliilla kuormitettu
sotajoukko lähtee sitten marssimaan kotiin samassa järjestyksessä
kuin oli tullutkin, muodostaen toisinaan aina 40-50 metrin pituisiakin
jonoja. Ryövärien asunnossa alkavat siellä ennestään löytyvät orjat
antaa uusille vangeille mitä hellintä hoitoa. Ne antavat niille ravintoa,
siistivät niitä ja lämmittävät niiden kylmentyneitä ruumiita.
Muurahaisyhteiskunnissa, jotka pitävät orjia, tulevat isännät

kumminkin pian itse riippuvaan asemaan. Niin pian kun ne ovat
tuoneet saaliinsa kotikekoon, rupeavat ne etsimään lepoa sodan
rasituksista laiskuuden nautinnoissa. Mutta tällä tapaa ne pian
heikontuvat ja joutuvat itse vuorostaan orjuuden ikeen alle. Niiden
riippuvaisuus orjistaan on niin suuri, että jos jälkimmäiset riistetään
niiltä pois, niin kukistuu hyvin pian koko yhteiskunta puutteeseen ja
toimettomuuteen. Ryövärit näet kammovat kaikkea kotityötä ja
osaavat vain tapella. Jos yhteiskunnan jostain syystä on pakko jättää
vanha asuntonsa ja rakentaa uusi, niin on tämä työ tykkänään orjain
tehtävä, jopa täytyy näiden saksiensa välissä kantaa isäntänsä
uuteen asuntoon. Näin syvälle saattaa sortamishalu ja
nautinnonhimo vajottaa viisaat muurahaisetkin.
23. Käynti Mammuttiluoiassa.
Kun korkeat vuoriselänteet ammoisina aikoina maanalaisen tulen

vaikutuksesta kohosivat ilmaan, syntyi niiden kupeille usein syviä ja
kiemurtelevia rotkoja ja luolia. Kenties laajin kaikista tunnetuista
luolista maan päällä on kuuluisa Mammuttiluola Amerikan
Yhdysvaltain Kentucky-valtiossa. Se on vielä verraten vähän
tunnettu, ja sen sisään ollaan tunkeuduttu vasta n. 4-5 peninkulmaa.
Sisäänkäytävä on ahdas ja matala, mutta kuljettua jonkun matkaa
tulisoihdun valossa pitkin maanalaista käytävää muuttuu näyttämö,
ja mitä vaihtelevimpia ja suurenmoisimpia näköaloja avautuu
katsojan silmäin eteen. Välistä nähdään tarumaisia tippukivisaleja,
joita kannattavat tuhannet erimuotoiset pylväät ja koristavat
lasinkuultavat haavemaiset patsaat; toisin paikoin näkee ihmeellisiä
temppeleitä, jotka tulisoihtujen väräjävässä valossa hohtavat
jalokivien hehkussa.
Tässä synkässä sokkelossa on kullakin paikalla oma nimensä ja

historiansa. Muuatta niistä kutsutaan "aavekammioksi", koska se
tavattiin täynnä ihmisluurankoja, jotka arvatenkin olivat tätä Amerikan
osaa muinoin vallinneiden intiaaniheimojen. Mitähän kolkkoja
murhenäytelmiä tässä paikassa aikoinaan lienee tapahtunutkaan!
Toisaalla tarjoutuu vielä valtavampi nähtävä, nim. "jättiläiskirkko",
jonka tavaton suuruus täyttää katsojan ihmetyksellä. Sitä verhoo
ikuinen pimeys, ja huolimatta saattajien sytyttämien nuotioiden
valosta ei silmä saata erottaa kupuholvin huippua, joka kohoo n. 150
metrin korkeuteen katsojan pään päällä.
Etempänä vyöryttelee Styx-virta (Tuonelan joki) mustia vesiään

hämäräin holvien alitse, joista riippuu alaspäin lukemattomia
kallionjärkäleitä. Tässä maanalaisessa virrassa, jota myöten
kuletaan veneellä, elää eräs hyvin omituinen kalalaji, Cyprinodon,
jonka sanotaan olevan aivan sokea ja jonka todella täytyy sitä
ollakin, sillä mitäpä se tekisi silmillä tässä vedessä, johon ei
milloinkaan päivän valo pilkistä?
Yhä kauvempana tässä suunnattomassa, jokien, koskien ja
maanalaisten lampien halkomassa luolassa katsoja ihmeekseen
kohtaa avaran vedenpinnan, jolla hitaasti liukuu muutamia veneitä,
kokassaan tulisoihdut, joiden hämärä kumotus häipyy utumaiseen
etäisyyteen, voimatta valaista järven rantoja ja kalliotöyräitä. Tämä
tumma ja liikkumaton vesiuoma on saanut nimen "kuollut meri".
Kuten useimmissa muissa maapallon suurissa

luolamuodostuksissa on Mammuttiluolassakin muutamia kuiluja,
jotka tuntuvat olevan aivan pohjattomia. Oppaat viskaavat niihin
palavia aineita, jotka kierrellen kaarrellen putoavat alaspäin katsojan
mielestä tavattoman pitkän ajan ja vihdoin sammuvat tiellään,
ennenkun ovat päässeet pohjaan saakka.
24. Kolme ääntä.
Ensimmäinen ääni.
Minut tunnetaan kaikkialla maan päällä. Lukemattomia vuosia olen

vyöryttänyt mahtavia vesiäni, ja ihmiset ovat matkustaneet tuhansien
peninkulmain päästä näkemään minua ja kuulemaan minun ääntäni.
Minä olen hevosenkengän muotoinen, ja voin nähdä pienen
pikkuruisia höyryveneitä tulevan minua niin lähelle kuin uskaltavat,
kannellaan uteliaita ihmisiä, jotka ovat tulleet minua katsomaan.
Minä sallin heidän tulla enkä tee heille mitään pahaa, mutta minä en
suvaitse kenenkään rankaisematta leikitellä minun kanssani. Kerran
koetti eräs kuuluisa uija seurata juoksuani alaspäin, mutta häntä ei
sitten enää elossa nähty.
Minun veteni putoavat viidenkymmenen metrin korkeudelta, ja
putouksen alla käyvät hirvittävät hyrskyt ja syntyy kaunis
sateenkaari.
Monia vuosia sitten eräs ranskalainen pappi minut keksi ja kirjoitti

minusta seuraavasti: "Ontario ja Erie-järvien välillä on suunnaton ja
hirvittävä vesiputous, jonka vertaista ei löydy maan päällä. Tämän
ihmeellisen putouksen muodostaa kaksi väkevää ristikkäin kulkevaa
vesivirtaa, ja jakautuu se kahteen osaan, joiden välille jää pitkin
putouksen rintaa kulkeva saari. Tästä putouksesta kulkevat vedet
ryöppyävät ja kiehuvat hirvittävällä tavalla ja pitävät pauhinaa, joka
voittaa ukkosenkin jylinän. Kun tuuli käy etelästä, voi pauhun kuulla
lähes 75 kilometrin päähän."
Minä olen vesiputousten kuningatar, sillä minulla ei ole vertaistani

maailmassa — minä olen kuuluisa Niagara.
Toinen ääni:
Minä olen "jylisevä sauhu". Olen kahta vertaa leveämpi ja kahta

vertaa korkeampi kuin Niagara; ja kaukaisessa Afrikassa on kotini.
Vetteni suihku saa maat ympärilläni viheriöimään ja metsän puut
pukeutumaan juhla-asuunsa koko juoksuni matkan.
Vuosisatoja ja tuhansia eivät valkoiset miehet minua tunteneet,

mutta kerran tuli suuri tutkimusretkeilijä, (David Livingstone) joka
virtaa alas purjehtiessaan näki peninkulmien päästä sakeita sauhuja,
mitkä näyttivät nousevan joistakin suunnattomista ruohoaavikon
paloista. Näitä sauhuja oli viisi, ja kun tuuli niitä paisutti, näyttivät
niiden huiput sekautuvan pilviin. Alhaalta ne olivat valkeat, mutta
ylempänä tummentuivat mustiksi kuin sakea savu. Ja ilman täytti
syvä, kumiseva jylinä, joka kuului yhtä kauvas kuin sauhu voitiin
nähdä. Valkoinen mies tuli lähemmäksi, ja hän näki minut —
"jylisevän sauhun!"
Pudottuaan alas näistä jyrkistä koskista veteni juoksevat liki 7

peninkulman matkan syvän kanavan pohjalla, ja ken niitä tahtoo
nähdä, saa laskeutua pitkäkseen kuilun reunalle ja katsella alas
jyrkkien kallioiden yli. Joitakuita vuosia sitten tuli taas valkoisia
miehiä, jotka hinasivat rannalleni köysiä ja vipukoneita — he
tahtoivat rakentaa rautaisen sillan kuilun yli putouksen alapuolella.
Tuhannet vuodet olin ollut vapaa herrani, ja minä nauroin noille
miekkosille, jotka halusivat säilyttää ikeen niskoilleni; mutta minä en
tuntenut valkoisen miehen älykkäisyyttä ja taitoa. Monia kuukausia
he ponnistelivat ja voittivat paljon vaikeuksia, ja vihdoin oli silta
valmis, yhtenä maailman ihmeistä.
Minä olen Victoria-putous Zambesi-virrassa!
Kolmas ääni:
Minun kotini on Kaliforniassa, missä minä sisarusteni kanssa

asustan suurenmoisessa laaksossa.
Muuan sisarputouksista lankee alas 313 metrin korkeudesta,

peittyen suloiseen sumuhuntuun; mutta on toinen, jonka korkeus on
kokonaista 873 metriä — siis paljon, paljon enemmän kuin Niagaran
ja Victoria-putouksen, mutta se ei ole läheskään niin leveä eikä syvä
kuin nämä. Leveys on vain 5 metriä, ja ennenkun vesi on ennättänyt
pohjaan, on se tässä suunnattomassa hyppäyksessään suurimmaksi
osaksi haihtunut usvana ilmaan.
Eräs toinen sisaruksista saa juurellaan koristuksekseen
huikaisevan kirkkaita sateenkaaria, jotka muodostavat täydellisiä
ympyröitä.
Laakso, jossa minut löydettiin, on maailman ihmeellisimpiä;

kaikkialla kohoaa jylhiä kalliotöyräitä, jotka katsojassa herättävät
samalla kertaa kauhua ja ihastusta.
Minä olen Nevada-putous, ja minä asun Yosemiittilaaksossa.
25. Mammutti.
Enemmän kuin sata vuotta sitten sattui Pohjois-Siperiassa, että

kun muuan sikäläinen heimopäällikkö miehineen oli etsimässä
norsunluuta erään joen rantamilla, kohtasi häntä ihmeellinen näky.
Keskellä jäätä, siihen kiini kangistuneena, seisoi norsuntapainen
eläin, 3 metriä korkea ja yli 5 metriä pitkä sekä varustettu
suunnattomilla torahampailla, jotka olivat n. 3 metrin pituiset ja
käyristyneet taaksepäin. Päinvastoin kuin norsu, oli tämä eläin
karvainen; pitkä, paikoin musta, paikoin punertava karva peitti sen
ruumista.
Viisi vuotta päällikkö katseli tuota merkillistä eläintä, joka oli

muuttunut jäälohkareeksi jäitten keskellä, ja odotteli että sen vankila
sulaisi. Tämän ajan kuluttua jää vähitellen sulikin ja mammutti sillä
se oli sen nimi — esiytyi vapaana hämmästyneiden alkuasukkaiden
silmäin edessä. Mutta pian nämä tointuivat ällistyksestään ja
rupesivat hävittämään kummitusta: torahampaat katkaistiin ja myytiin
ja väki koirineen herkutteli sen lihalla.
Onneksi tuli kuitenkin sanoma tästä löydöstä erään
luonnontutkijan korviin, joka saapui paikalle ja kokosi luut ja karvojen
jätteet sekä osti torahampaat takaisin siltä henkilöltä, jonka haltuun
ne olivat joutuneet. Sitten vei hän nämä aarteensa Pietarin
museoon.
Lähes puolen sataa vuotta myöhemmin oli muuan insinööri

kartoitustöissä samoilla seuduilla. Hän nousi miehineen maihin ja
katseli vuolasta virtaa, joka kohisi ohitse merta kohti, vieden
muassaan suuria jääröykkiöitä sekä multa- ja mutalohkareita.
Äkkiä he huomasivat vedessä ison tumman esineen — se oli taas

mammutti! Tuhansia vuosia sitten se oli mahtanut tallustella nevalla,
joka ei jaksanut kannattaa sen tavatonta painoa; kykenemättä
selviämään pulasta oli se vajonnut yhä syvemmälle ja saanut
kuolemansa. Sitte tuli jääkauden ankara pakkanen, joka oli
jäädyttänyt koko suunnattoman suoseudun ja kaikki mitä siinä eli ja
oli, niin että mammutti oli säilynyt jäätyneessä tilassa arvaamattomat
ajanjaksot, kunnes vesi nyt vihdoin oli tuonut sen jälleen
päivänvaloon.
Insinööri käski miestensä kiinnittää köysiä jättiläisen kaulaan ja

vitjat sen torahampaiden ympärille; mutta eläimen takajalat olivat niin
painuneet virran pohjaan, että heidän täytyi jäädä odottamaan
kunnes vesi irrottaisi sen tykkänään.
Sitte vihdoinkin saatiin hevosten ja köysien avulla raskas ruumis

hinatuksi rannalle.
Torahampaat sahattiin poikki, ja sitte alkoi eläimen nylkeminen.

Mutta silloin, heidän paraikaa ollessaan tässä työssä, huomattiin
äkkiä että maa, jolla he seisoivat, alkoi vajota. He säntäsivät
veneillensä ja onnistuivat nipin näpin pelastumaan niihin; mutta
katsellessaan harvinaista saalistansa he saivat mielikarvaudekseen
nähdä, että väkevät aallot olivat nielaisseet sen mukaansa.
Mammutti oli nykypäiväin norsua paljon suurempi ja oli hyvin

varustettu elämään kylmässäkin ilmanalassa. Se eli ylipäänsä
sellaisissa seuduissa, missä virrat säännöllisesti tulvivat ja missä
löytyi paljon soita; on otaksuttu että se usein joutui laineitten saaliiksi
ja hukkui. Edelleen täytyy olettaa, että noiden ammoisten aikojen
ihmiset sitä mielellään metsästelivät; vaikka pyynti silloisilla
alkuperäisillä aseilla oli erinomaisen vaarallista, oli saalis sitä
suuriarvoisempi, sen lihalla kun kokonainen heimokunta voi elää
monet ajat.
Mammutin syömähampaat olivat jykevämmät kuin norsun, ja se

söi järeämpää ruokaa; erään viimeisimmäksi löydetyn eläimen
vatsassa tavattiin männyn- ja kuusenhavuja ja pureskeltuja käpyjä.
Samaan aikaan, jolloin mammutti kierteli Europaa (joka silloin oli

muodostukseltaan hyvin toisellainen kuin nykyään), eli täällä
muitakin outoja eläimiä: suunnaton, "sapelihampainen" tiikeri,
villakarvainen sarvikuono, jättiläislaiskiainen, jättiläishyeena ja
monenlaisia karhuja. Kaikkien näiden luurankoja on löydetty ja usein
samoista paikoista kuin ihmisten valmistamia piikiviaseita, niin että
tiedämme ihmissuvun ja näiden kadonneiden jättiläiseläinten silloin
jakaneen maan keskenään.
26. Kääpiöpuita.
Japanissa ja myöskin Kiinassa on tapana kasvattaa kaikenlaisia
kääpiöpuita keskeyttämällä mahlan juoksu nuorissa taimissa. Muuan
Japanissa matkustellut englantilainen kasvientutkija kertoo siitä:
"Koska japanilaisten talojen ja myymälöiden alakerta on avoin
edestä ja takaa, voin katuja kulkeissani tuon tuostakin vilkaista
heidän sieviin pikku puutarhoihinsa; ja huomatessani jonkun toisia
paremmaksi en suinkaan laiminlyönyt käydä sitä lähemmältä
tarkastamassa. Monet näistä puutarhoista ovat erittäin pienet, jotkut
tuskin europalaista ruokasalia suuremmat; mutta niiden pinta on
saatu vaihtelevaksi pienillä turvepenkereillä, joille on istutettu
omituisiin muotoihin leikeltyjä kääpiöpuita, sekä pienoislammikoilla,
joissa kulta- ja hopeakalat pulahtelevat."
Hän huomasi näissä peukaloisen-puutarhoissa kasvavan mäntyjä,

azaleoja, sananjalkoja ja monenlaisia bambulajeja.
Jos nämä harvinaiset puut ovat kasvatetut vesasta — mikä on

tavallisinta — kierretään niiden runko jo taimena mitä merkillisimpiin
muotoihin; tämä tietysti tyrehyttää mahlan juoksun ja saa aikaan,
että sivuhaaroja putkahtaa esiin juuri niistä kohdista, joista niitä
toivotaan kasvavan. Yksipuoliseksi kasvaneella kääpiöpuulla ei
katsota olevan suurtakaan arvoa, sen täytyy olla tasasuhtainen.
Jos niitä taas kasvatetaan siemenestä, niin valitaan kaikkein

pieninten puiden pienimmät siemenet; nuorille taimille annetaan
mahdollisimman vähän vettä, ja sitä mukaa kuin uusia oksia tulee,
tukahutetaan niiden kasvu kaikilla mahdollisilla keinoilla.
Tulokset ovatkin aivan erinomaisia, vaikka niitä ei voi juuri

kauniiksi sanoa. Eräs kääpiöpetäjä, jonka ikä tiedetään ainakin
sadaksi vuodeksi, kasvaa laatikossa, jonka läpimitta on ½ metriä, ja
on sen oma korkeus ainoastaan 1 ½ metriä. Myöskin hedelmäpuita

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Part 1 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

Part 2 Basic Principles

Part 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior

Part 4 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease Undesirable Behavior

Part 5 Other Behavior Change Procedures

1 Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

1-1 Defining Human Behavior 1 Prevention 8

Part 1: Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

2-1 Direct and Indirect Assessment 14 2-6 Reactivity 24

3 Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 31

3-1 Components of a Graph 32 Alternating-Treatments Design 44

3-4 Graphing Data to Demonstrate a Functional Practice Test 49

Part 2 Basic Principles

4-1 Defining Reinforcement 52 Variable Ratio 63

4-4 Conditioned and Unconditioned Reinforcers 57 4-8 Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 65

5-1 Defining Extinction 71 5-6 Factors That Influence Extinction 77

Chapter Summary 79 Practice Quiz 3 80

6-1 Defining Punishment 82 Emotional Reactions to Punishment 92

7 Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 97

7-1 Examples of Stimulus Control 97 7-6 Generalization 102

8 Respondent Conditioning 112

Part 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior

10 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 137

10-1 An Example of Prompting and Fading: Teaching Echoic 148

11-1 Examples of Behavioral Chains 154 Self-Instructions 164

12 Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 169

12-3 Enhancing Generalization after Behavioral Skills Practice Quiz 2 180

Part 4: Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease

13 Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional Assessment 183

Automatic Negative Reinforcement 186 Key Terms 200

14 Applying Extinction 205

15 Differential Reinforcement 221

15-1 Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Variations of DRL 233

15-3 Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Misapplications 240

16 Antecedent Interventions 242

16-1 Examples of Antecedent Interventions 242 Manipulating Motivating Operations 250

17 Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 262

17-1 Time-Out 262 Research Evaluating Response Cost

18 Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics of Punishment 277

18-1 Punishment by Application of Aversive Physical Restraint 280

18-3 Positive Punishment: Treatment of Last Peer Review 286

19 Promoting Generalization 290

19-1 Examples of Generalization Programming 290 Incorporating Self-Generated Mediators of

Part 5: Other Behavior Change Procedures

3-4 Graphing Data to Demonstrate a Functional Practice Test 49

10-1 An Example of Prompting and Fading: Teaching Echoic 148

12-3 Enhancing Generalization after Behavioral Skills Practice Quiz 2 180

15-1 Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Variations of DRL 233

15-3 Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Misapplications 240

18-1 Punishment by Application of Aversive Physical Restraint 280

18-3 Positive Punishment: Treatment of Last Peer Review 286