CHEMISTRY

kinetic molecular model of

liquids and solids

Kinetic Molecular Theory

-describes gases as atoms or molecules that moves in random,
ceaseless motion. Moreover, these atoms or molecules move so
fast that attractive forces between them are negligible

kinetic molecular model of

liquids

Gases are characterized by having no definite volume, i.e. they can

be expanded or compressed.
When a gas is cooled and/or compressed to a smaller volume, gas
molecules have limited motion. Since these molecules become
"crowded", attractive forces between them become significant.
When the strength of attractive forces exceeds the kinetic energy,
the gas turns into a liquid.

Gas
Liquid
The attractive forces in liquid hold molecules together, causing
liquids to have a definite volume.

Liquids are almost incompressible as a result of close distance

between the molecules. Yet, these molecules can still move past each
other, enabling liquids to conform with the shape of the container
they occupy. Since molecules in liquids are more compact that those
in gases, liquids have higher densities compared to gases.

kinetic molecular model of

SOLIDS
When a liquid is brought to low temperature, the kinetic energy
also decreases, making the molecules to almost stay in place and
make vibrations in its position. When the attractive forces among
these barely-moving molecules exceed the kinetic energy, the
liquid starts to solidify.

Unlike liquids and gases that are fluid, solids are rigid as a result
of very compact and highly ordered arrangement of molecules.

Solid
Liquid
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Intermolecular Force
-refers to an attractive force between two molecules
-this attractive force is short-range, i.e. significant only at
moderately short distance between molecules.
-weaker than covalent and ionic bonds.

van der Waals Force

-weakest intermolecular forces arising from interaction between
two neutral atoms or molecules
-has two types
London dispersion force (LDF)
Dipole-dipole force (DDF)

London dispersion force (LDF)

-Consider an atom, a particle consisting of one or many electrons.
On the average, the electron cloud in the atom is considered
spherical.
-At any instant, electrons may move from one region in space
to another, causing distortion to the electron cloud. The portion
concentrated with electrons bears a negative charge while the
portion that lacks electrons bears a positive charge.

+ -

movement of electrons
-The separation of charges in atoms or molecules causes distortion of
electron clouds of adjacent atoms. The created dipole (body bearing
two opposite charges) is called an induced dipole. Such kind of
dipole is transient, i.e. exists only for a short period of time. The
intermolecular force arising from these induced dipoles is called the
London dispersion force (LDF)
-All atoms and molecules exhibit LDF. The strength of this
intermolecular force is affected by the ease of electron cloud distortion
in an atom or molecule. This property is called polarizability.

molecular size, polarizability, LDF

Dipole-dipole force (DDF)

-arises from electrostatic interaction between two molecules
having partial separation of charges, as observed in polar
molecules.
-DDF is stronger than LDF because of the permanent separation of
charges in polar molecules that creates a greater magnitude of
attractive force.

-The strength of DDF is affected by the magnitude of the

molecule's net dipole moment, i.e. its polarity.

polarity, DDF
Hydrogen Bond
-is a special type of DDF
exhibited by molecules
containing hydrogen attached to a
highly electronegative atom such
as fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen.

-This intermolecular force is stronger than a typical DDF

as a result of higher polarity of the bond between
hydrogen and a highly electronegative atom.

Interparticle Force
-Intermolecular forces, which deals only with attractive forces
between neutral particles (i.e. uncharged particles) are under a
more general type of forces called interparticle forces.

Ion- Dipole Force

-is an attractive force between an ion (cation or anion) and a
polar molecule.
-The strength of ion-dipole force is affected by the magnitude
of the ion's charge and the magnitude of net dipole moment of
the polar molecule.
 For organic molecules, which may contain two or more carbons, the presence of heteroatoms
(atoms other than carbon and hydrogen) contributes to the polarity of the molecule. If the
molecule contains only carbon and hydrogen, it is generally nonpolar.
For organic molecules, which may contain two or more carbons, the presence of heteroatoms
(atoms other than carbon and hydrogen) contiibutes to the polarity of the molecule. If the
molecule contains only carbon and hydrogen, It is generally nonpolar;
 EFFECTS OF
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Surface Tension
-is the energy accompanying one-unit increase in
surface area of a liquid.
-created due to net pull of liquid molecules on the
surface.
-When strong intermolecular forces exist among
molecules of a liquid, the net pull of surface molecules
is greater than molecules with weaker intermolecular
forces, requiring higher energy to increase the surface
area. Consequently, the liquid has higher surface
tension.
 Surface Tension
-The net inward pull in surface molecules makes liquids
appear like it has a thin film on the liquid's surface.
-Surface tension makes some insects like water striders
walk on water's surface.
-can also be illustrated in capillary action.

Capillary Action
-Here, water level rises in an open,
narrow tube or capillary. Two things
that interplay in capillary action are the
cohesive forces (intermolecular forces
among liquid molecules) and adhesive
forces (intermolecular forces between
liquid molecules and the material
making up the capillary.
-Example of capillary action is when a
doctor takes a blood sample from a
patient’s finger using a capillary tube.

Viscosity
-is a measure of liquid's consistency or resistance to flow. A way to
measure this property is by noting the time a liquid from a vertical
tube takes to flow from one point to another.
-is affected by how liquid molecules slide past one another or
entangle with each other. If the molecules are tightly held by
intermolecular forces, the flow becomes slow, and viscosity
becomes high.
Vapor Pressure
-At a certain temperature, some
molecules of a liquid escape into
the gas phase on top of the liquid.
This gas is referred to as vapor.
The pressure exerted by a vapor
in a closed container is called the
vapor pressure.
-Vapor pressure is affected by the ease with which liquid molecules
escape into the gas phase.
-Molecules in the liquid can go into the gas phase easily if
intermolecular forces among them are weak. Liquids that are readily
converted into gases are volatile. Volatile liquids have weaker
intermolecular forces than the less volatile ones; thus they are converted
into gas easily.
-For instance, ethyl alcohol is more volatile than water as a result of
weaker intermolecular forces. This explains why rubbing alcohol dries
faster on our hands than water does.
-As temperature increases, the vapor pressure also increases. Since kinetic
energy increases with temperature, molecules tend to have more energy to
go into the gas phase.
Boiling Point
-is the temperature at which a liquid starts to be converted into
a gas. For a liquid to boil, enough energy must be supplied to
disrupt intermolecular forces among its molecules.
-If intermolecular forces are strong, high energy input is needed
and the liquid will boil at a high temperature.
-At the boiling point, the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure.
-The boiling point of a liquid changes with pressure. One of the
most useful boiling points is the boiling point at 1 atmosphere
pressure, called the normal boiling point.

Molar Heat of Vaporization

-is the energy needed to be supplied in 1 mole of a liquid
to convert it into a gas without varying the temperature
-A liquid with strong intermolecular forces have higher molar
heat of vaporization than a liquid with weak intermolecular
forces since greater energy is required to disrupt the attractive
forces.
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
IN WATER
Among many liquids, water has special
properties. With its low molecular weight,
water can still exist as liquid at room
temperature. This peculiar property of
water is owed to strong intermolecular
forces among water molecules brought
about by extensive hydrogen bonding.
The strong intermolecular forces in water
leads to properties suitable for its various
applications.

Effect on Surface Tension

Water has high surface tension compared to many liquids, making some
insects like water striders walk on its surface.

Effect on Boiling Point

Water has high boiling point. It is liquid even though it is expected to be a
gas at room temperature, along with other hydrogen compounds of Group
16 elements.This deviant observation can be supported by hydrogen bonds
in water which require high amount of energy to break them
 Effect on Molar Heat of Vaporization
The high molar heat of vaporization of water is beneficial to us during
sweating or perspiration. We feel the cooling effect after we sweat
because every 1 gram of sweat absorbs 2.41 kJ of heat coming from our
body.

Effect on Specific Heat

Specific heat capacity, or simply specific heat, is the amount
needed by 1g of a substance to Increase its temperature by 1°C.
Water has a high specific heat (4.18 J/mol°C). This property of
water is very important in regulating our climate.

Effect on Boiling Point and Vapor Pressure

Water has a normal boiling point of 100°C its volatility is lower
compared to other liquids like ethyl alcohol and acetone. If its
boiling point were lower, living organisms would easily get
dehydrated and bodies of water would dry up faster.

Volume and Density of

Water in Different
Phases
However, water is a special case —it occupies greater volume in the
solid phase than the liquid state. The reason is due to an open-cage
structure of water molecules in ice that are stabilized by hydrogen
bonds. As ice melts, this ordered structure is disrupted and some
molecules enter the cage structure, resulting in decreased volume of
water
 Since volume of liquid water is
lower that that of ice, ice has
greater density than liquid water.
This explains why ice floats on
water and the mixture decreases
in volume as the ice completely
melts.

Structure of Solids

Crystalline Solids
-Fixed geometric patterns or lattices
-Ordered arrangement of their units
-Examples are ice, salt, and quartz

Arrangement
of Particles

Crystal Lattice Amorphous

-Regular repeating -Aggregate with
three dimensional no particular
long-range order
structure
-Considered supercooled
liquids where molecules are
arranged in a random manner
similar to the liquid state
-Glass, Rubber, Plastic
 Behavior of Solids

Crystalline Amorphous
-Becomes solid at a -Soften gradually when
specific temperature heated
-Physical properties -Melt over a wide range
change sharply Crystalline of temperature
-Has 4 types

TYPES of CRYSTALLINE
Solids

Mettalic
-simplest type of structure
-metallic crystal is easily deformed, explains why metals are malleable
and ductile
-made of atoms that readily lose electrons to form positive ions
(cations), but no atoms in the crystal would readily gain electrons

Ionic
-Made up of positive and negative ions and held together by electrostatic
interactions.
-very high melting points and brittleness and are poor conductors in the solid
state.
-table salt is an example
 Molecular
-Made up of atoms or molecules held together by London dispersion
forces, dipole-dipole forces, or hydrogen bonds
-low melting points and flexibility and are poor conductors
Example: sucrose

Covalent Network Crystals

-giant molecules of
macromolecules which consist
of very large numbers of atoms
linked by a network of covalent
bonds.
-Asbestos, mica, and graphite are good
examples of covalent network crystals.

-Aside from graphite, diamond is

another crystalline form of carbon
where its atoms are linked by covalent
bonds in three direction.
 Some substances which have molecules or ions that can assume more than one stable
arrangement in the solid state. This property is called as polymorphism. Allotropes are the
different molecular forms or various crystal modifications of a polymorphous element. The
element carbon has allotropic forms graphite, diamond and buckminsterfullerene.

PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER

AND CARBON DIOXIDE

Phase Diagram
-is a graphic summary of the physical state of substance as a function
of temperature and pressure in a closed system.

A typical phase diagram consists of discrete regions that represent the different
phases exhibited by a substance. Each region corresponds to the range of
combinations of temperature and pressure over which that phase is stable. The
combination of high pressure and low temperature corresponds to the solid phase,
whereas the gas phase is favored at high temperature and low pressure. The
combination of high temperature and high pressure corresponds to a supercritical
fluid.
 Figure 1: A Typical Phase
Diagram for a Substance That
Exhibits Three Phases Solid,
Liquid, and Gas and a
Supercritical Region

Water has an unusual phase

diagram: its melting point
decreases with increasing
pressure because ice is less
dense than liquid water.

Phase diagram for carbon dioxide

The phase diagram of carbon dioxide
shows that liquid carbon dioxide
cannot exist at atmospheric pressure.
Consequently, solid carbon dioxide
sublimes directly to a gas.
 HEATING CURVE
Heating Curve
-is a graph showing the
temperature of a substance
plotted against the amount of
energy it has absorbed. During
heating, the energy (potential or
kinetic) of the substance always
increases.

COOLING CURVE

The melting and

freezing occur at the
same temperature.
During freezing,
energy is removed and
during melting, energy
is absorbed.
 EXPRESSING
CONCENTRATION
Solution
-is a homogenous mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent

Solvent
-the substance in which a solute dissolve to produce a
homogenous mixture
Solute
-the substance that dissolves in a solvent to produce a
homogenous mixture
The Concentration of a Solution
-macroscopic property
-represents the amount of solute dissolved in a unit amount of
solvent or of solution, and
-can be expressed in a variety of ways (Qualitatively and
Quantitatively).
Qualitative Expressions of Concentration
A SOLUTION CAN BE QUALITATIVELY DESCRIBED AS

Dilute
-a solution that contains a small proportion of solute
relative to solvent, or

Concentrated
-a solution that contains a large proportion of solute
relative to solvent
Semi-Quantitative Expressions of Concentration
A SOLUTION CAN BE SEMI-QUANTITATIVELY DESCRIBED AS:

Unsaturated
-a solution in which more solute will dissolve, or
Saturated
-a solution in which no more solute will dissolve.

The solubility of a solute is the amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent
to produce a saturated solution. For example, at 0 degrees celsius, we can dissolve a maximum
of 35.7 g of solid NaCl in 100 ml of water (a saturated solution). Any additional solid NaCl that
we add to the saturated solution simply falls to the bottom of the container and does not
dissolve.

QUANTITATIVE
EXPRESSIONS OF
CONCENTRATION

PERCENT COMPOSITION (BY MASS)

WE CAN CONSIDER PERCENT BY MASS (OR WEIGHT PERCENT, AS IT IS SOMETIMES
CALLED) IN TWO WAYS:
• THE PARTS OF SOLUTE PER 100 PARTS OF SOLUTION.
• THE FRACTION OF A SOLUTE IN A SOLUTION MULTIPLIED BY 100

WE NEED TWO PIECES OF INFORMATION TO CALCULATE THE PERCENT BY MASS OF

A
SOLUTE IN A SOLUTION:
• THE MASS OF THE SOLUTE IN THE SOLUTION.
• THE MASS OF THE SOLUTION
 UNITS OF CONCENTRATION
PERCENT VOLUME EXAMPLE:
FIND THE PERCENT BY MASS IN WHICH
41.0 G OF NACL IS DISSOLVED IN 331
% Volume = GRAMS OF WATER.

PERCENT MASS
% Mass =

Solution = Solvent + Solute

VOLUME PERCENTAGE (V/V)

SOMETIMES WE EXPRESS THE CONCENTRATION AS A PERCENT OF ONE COMPO NENT IN THE
SOLUTION BY VOLUME, IT IS THEN CALLED AS VOLUME PERCENTAGE AND IS GIVEN AS:

Volume % of A =

UNITS OF CONCENTRATION EXAMPLES:

WHAT IS THE PERCENT BY VOLUME CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION IN WHICH 75.0 ML OF
ETHANOL IS DILUTED TO A VOLUME OF 250.0 ML?

WHAT VOLUME OF ACETIC ACID IS PRESENT IN A BOTTLE CONTAINING 350.0 ML OF A SOLUTION

WHICH MEASURES 5.00% CONCENTRATION?

MOLARITY
MOLARITY TELLS US THE NUMBER OF MOLES OF SOLUTE IN EXACTLY ONE LITER OF A
SOLUTION. (NOTE THAT MOLARITY IS SPELLED WITH AN "R" AND IS REPRESENTED BY
A CAPITAL M.)
WE NEED TWO PIECES OF INFORMATION TO CALCULATE THE MOLARITY OF A SOLUTE
IN A SOLUTION:
• THE MOLES OF SOLUTE PRESENT IN THE SOLUTION.
• THE VOLUME OF SOLUTION (IN LITERS) CONTAINING THE SOLUTE
 MOLALITY
•MOLALITY, M, TELLS US THE NUMBER OF MOLES OF SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN EXACTLY
ONE KILOGRAM OF SOLVENT. (NOTE THAT MOLALITY IS SPELLED WITH TWO "L“ 'S
AND REPRESENTED BY A LOWER CASE M.)
WE NEED TWO PIECES OF INFORMATION TO CALCULATE THE MOLALITY OF A SOLUTE
IN A SOLUTION:
• THE MOLES OF SOLUTE PRESENT IN THE SOLUTION.
• THE MASS OF SOLVENT (IN KILOGRAMS) IN THE SOLUTION.
 STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry
-a section of chemistry that involves using relationships
between reactants and/or products in a chemical
reaction to determine desired quantitative data. In
Greek, stoikhein means element and metron means
measure, so stoichiometry literally translated
means the measure of elements.

STEPS IN CALCULATING
STOICHIOMETRIC
PROBLEMS
STEP 1. Balance the equation.
STEP 2. Convert units of a given substance to
moles.
STEP 3. Using the mole ratio, calculate the moles
of substance yielded by the reaction.
STEP 4. Convert moles of wanted substance to
desired units.
PROBLEMS
Manong Juan and Manang Juana are hardworking farmers in the Province of La Union. Both of
them are aware that in order to produce ammonia, there is a need to react nitrogen and hydrogen
gas. But they wondered, how much urea fertilizer can be manufactured from the ammonia? Let’s
help them solve the problem by using the mole concept to get the amount of the substance to
balance, and interpret chemical equations.
 MASS
TO MOLE
CALCULATION
 MOLE TO MASS
CALCULATION

MASS TO MASS
CALCULATION

SAMPLE EXERCISE:
EXERCISES: