D R R R
V O L C A N O E S A N D V O L C A N I C
FACTS
The Philippines is geographically located in
the Pacific Ring of Fire or also known as the
circumPacific Belt.
This region is characterized by active
volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Its
length is approximately 40,000 kilometers
and borders the Pacific Ocean.
Around 75% of the world’s volcanoes,
comprised of more than 450 volcanoes, are
in the Pacific Ring of Fire.
In the Philippines, there are 23 active
volcanoes based on the records of
PHIVOLCS. These volcanoes erupted within
the last 600 years.
Why does the Philippines have many
volcanoes?
The Philippines sits on a unique tectonic
setting ideal to volcano formation. The
archipelago is surrounded by subducting plates
as manifested by the trenches that are related
to volcano formation.
ACTIVE VOLCANOES IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Mayon Volcano - Since July 2006, Mayon
Volcano has had four eruptive phases
(2008, 2009, 2013, 2014), bringing the total
number of historical eruptions to 52.
Kanlaon Volcano - Kanlaon Volcano had
renewed volcanic activity towards the end
of 2015
Bulusan Volcano - After 2011, an eruptive
phase occurred in May-July 2015, with
more activity in February 2016.
WHAT IS A VOLCANO?
The term volcano signifies a vent, hill, or
mountain from which molten or hot rocks
with gaseous materials are or have been
ejected.
H A Z A R D S
The term also applies to craters, hills or
mountains formed by removal of pre-
existing materials of by accumulation of
ejected materials.
A volcanic eruption is a process wherein
molten rock materials are emitted or
ejected in the form of flowing masses of
lava or fragmental particles called
pyroclastic with gas from a crater, vent or
fissure.
The Philippines, because of its tectonic
setting, has around 300 named and
unnamed volcanoes all over the
archipelago. (PHIVOLCS)
At present, PHIVOLCS classifies volcanoes
into 3 categories: active, inactive, and
potentially active. (PHIVOLCS)
ACTIVE VOLCANO
A volcano is classified as active based on the
following:
(1) if it has had eruptions in historic times
supported by numerous historical accounts;
(2) if it has oral folkloric history which suggests
an eruption that is remembered by our
ancestors;
(3) if it has shown indications of seismic
activity and
(4) if it has volcanic deposits less than 10,000
years as determined by radiometric dating.
INACTIVE VOLCANO
A volcano is said to be inactive if it has no
record of eruptions and its form has been
changed by agents of weathering and erosion
with the formation of deep gullies.

POTENTIALLY ACTIVE
In 1997, PHIVOLCS introduced a third
category-that of potentially active.
A volcano is said to be potentially active if it
is geologically younglooking, which
suggests it possibly erupted in less than FORMS OF VOLCANOES
10,000 years.
A volcano is said to be geomorphologically
young as suggested by very little vegetation
cover.

LIFE CYCLE OF VOLCANOES

1. Active: Has, is or showing signs that it will
erupt
2. Dormant: Show signs or predicted to erupt
3. Extinct: Unlikely to erupt again

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
There are different types of volcanoes based
on the form or shape of their edifice, which are
dependent upon the type of eruptions a
volcano is capable of and ultimately the
chemical composition of the magma it erupts
1. Monogenetic cones (tuff/cones, cinder
cones, maars)
2. Volcanic domes/Domes complexes
3. Strato-volcanoes
4. Calderas
5. Shield volcanoes
There are three basic types of magma: basaltic,
andesitic, and rhyolitic, each of which has a
different mineral composition. All types of
magma have a significant percentage of silicon
dioxide.
Basaltic magma is high in iron, magnesium,
and calcium but low in potassium and
sodium. It ranges in temperature from
about 1000oC to 1200oC (1832oF to 2192oF).
Composed of the least Silicon dioxide
content which is about 45% to 55%,
contributes to least viscosity.
Andesitic magma has moderate amounts of
these minerals, with a temperature range
TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
from about 800oC to 1000oC (1472oF to
Volcanic eruptions are generally classified as
1832oF). Composed of an intermediate
wet or dry eruptions depending on the role of
Silicon dioxide content which is about
water. More popularly however, volcanic
55% to 65%, contributes to noderate
eruptions are characterized according to the
viscosity.
behavior or styles of activity. The most
Rhyolitic magma is high in potassium and
common types of eruptions are:
sodium but low in iron, magnesium, and
Phreatic or hydrothermal eruptions
calcium. It occurs in the temperature range
Phreatomagmatic eruptions
of about 650oC to 800oC (1202oF to
Strombolian eruptions
1472oF). Both the temperature and mineral
Vulcanian eruptions
content of magma affect how easily it
Plinian eruptions
flows. Composed of the highest Silicon
dioxide content which is about 65% to
75%, contributes to greatest viscosity.

TYPES OF VOLCANOES

Monogenetic cones (tuff/cones, cinder

cones, maars) – low symmetrical
accumulations of cinder (scoria) and or tuff
(ash). These volcanoes are usually
associated with low silica or basaltic
magma, usually for during just one
eruption, and may be lateral vents
associated with bigger volcanic complexes.
Volcanic domes/ Domes complexes –
mound-shaped or convex volcanoes
formed by repeated slow extrusion of
viscous magma. Domes are associated with
low- to high silica magma e.g. Hibok-hibok
Volcano
Strato-volcanoes – cone-shaped volcanoes
typically having one or several summit
craters and formed by repeated alternate
deposition of lava and pyroclastic. Phreatic eruption - Steam-driven
Stratovolcanoes are usually formed by eruptions caused by contact of
intermediate silica or andesitic magma . e.g. groundwater with hot country rocks (no
Mayon Volcano. magma involved). Usually precursory to
Calderas – large volcanic edifices typically magmatic eruptions. Short ash columns,
composed of several volcanic centers ashfall.
around a central 2 km wide crater. Calderas Phreatomagmatic eruption - Very violent
are formed by highly explosive eruptions in eruption generated by the explosive
between long periods of dormancy and are contact of erupting magma with water.
typically associated with high-silica or Voluminous, slightly tall ash columns,
rhyolitic magma, e.g. Taal Caldera laterally-projected pyroclastic currents
(base surges) & blasts.
 Strombolian eruption - Weak to violent
eruption of gas-charged fluid magma
characterized by lava fountaining &
flowing. Lava flows.
Vulcanian eruption - Canon-like
explosions produced by the detonation of a
solidified magma plug in the vent by gas
accumulated beneath it. Ca. 20km tall
eruption column; pyroclastic flows, ashfall
Plinian eruption - Very explosive,
energetic release of voluminous magmatic
gas, fragmented magma w/c propel w/
great force high in the air, forming huge
mushroom clouds; Tall eruption column
>40 km high, penetrating stratosphere ;
Well-defined umbrella cloud; Extensive
ashfall; Pyroclastic flows; Large volcanic
calderas
VOLCANIC HAZARDS
Volcanic hazards are phenomena arising from
volcanic activity that pose potential threat to
persons or property in a given area within a
given period of time. Below is a list of volcanic
hazards common in Philippine active
volcanoes.
Pyroclastic Flow
Lava Flow
Ashfall or Tephra fall
Lahar
Volcanic gases
Debris avalanche or volcanic landslide
Tsunami or seiche
Secondary explosions
Ground fissuring
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA DIRECTLY
ASSOCIATED WITH ERUPTION
Lava flow, dome growth
Pyroclastic flow, pyroclastic surge, lateral
blast
Tephra fall - ash fall, volcanic bomb
Volcanic gas
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA INDIRECTLY
ASSOCIATED WITH ERUPTION
Lahar, flooding
Debris avalanche, landslide
Tsunami, seiche
Subsidence, fissuring
Secondary/hydrothermal explosion
Secondary pyroclastic flow.
MEANINGS
Pyroclastic flow
A pyroclastic flow is a hot (typically >800 °C,
or >1,500 °F ), chaotic mixture of rock
fragments, gas, and ash that travels rapidly
(tens of meters per second) away from a
volcanic vent or collapsing flow front.
Pyroclastic flows can be extremely destructive
and deadly because of their high temperature
and mobility
Lava flow
Lava flows are streams of molten rock that
pour or ooze from an erupting vent. Lava is
erupted during either nonexplosive activity or
explosive lava fountains.
Ash fall or Tephra fall
The term tephra defines all pieces of all
fragments of rock ejected into the air by an
erupting volcano. Most tephra falls back onto
the slopes of the volcano, enlarging it. But,
billions of smaller and lighter pieces less than 2
mm diameter (less than one tenth of an inch),
termed ash, are carried by winds for thousands
of miles.
Lahar
(an Indonesian term), sometimes called
mudflows or volcanic debris flows, are flowing
mixtures of volcanic debris and water. Lahars
are classfied into: Primary or hot lahar -
associated directly with volcanic eruption and
Secondary or cold lahar - caused by heavy
rainfall.
Rapidly flowing thick mixture of volcanic
materials and water, usually generated along
river channels by extreme rain fall.
 Volcanic gases
Gases released to the atmosphere in the form
of water vapour, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride,
hydrogen fluoride.
Gases emitted by the volcano that can be
harmful to the health.
Debris avalanche or volcanic landslide
A massive collapse of a huge portion of a
volcano usually triggered by an earthquake or
volcanic eruption.
Tsunami or seiche
Waves or wave trains that are generated by
the sudden dispalcement of the water during
volcanic eruptions. These could also be
generated by undersea eruptions or debris
avalanche.
Secondary explosions
Non-eruption explosive events generated
when ground water comes in contact with still
hot pyroclastic fall deposits the stage of a
volcano and converted into stream.
Ground fissuring
Movement/adjustments along faults
accompanied by earthquake.
Hydrothermal explosions
Explosions from instantaneous flashing of
steam upon contact with hot rocks
Subsidence
Is a ground deformation resulting from the
downward adjustment of surface materials to
the voids caused by volcanic activity. This may
result also from mine workings or geothermal
water or oil extraction.
SIGNS OF IMPENDING VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
AND MONITORING TECHNIQUES FOR RISK
MITIGATION
Volcanologists rely on several indirect
methodologies in order to detect and evaluate
the precursory signs that may warn of volcanic
activity. The following are some of the telltale
signs of impending volcanic unrest, and the
corresponding volcano monitoring techniques
that are employed to detect these signs:
1. Seismicity
2. Ground deformation
3. Sulphur dioxide flux and other gas emissions
4. Geophysical anomalies
5. Hydrology
6. Volcanic plumes
MEANINGS
Seismicity – Volcanic earthquakes are
monitored by a network of seismographs
around the volcano, and the characteristics
of frequency, location, magnitude and type
of earthquakes recorded can show ongoing
magmatic processes beneath the volcano
especially those that can lead to an
eruption.
Ground deformation – Ground
deformation is monitored by geodetic
surveys such as EDM surveys or Precise
leveling which measure the lengthening or
shortening of established baseline on the
volcanic slopes. Ground tilt is also
measured remotely and in real-time with
an instrument called a tiltmeter
permanently installed on the volcanic
slopes.
Sulphur dioxide flux and other gas
emissions – the output of sulphur dioxide,
a principal magmatic gas, as well as of
other gas species, is measured as an
indication of the volume and state of the
magma near or approaching the surface of
a volcano. Sulphur dioxide emission is
indirectly measured using a Correlation
Spectrometer or COSPEC, a fly
spectrometer or FlySpec, or a Differential
Optical Absorption Spectrometer or DOAS.
Spectrometers measure gas flux as a
function of how much ultraviolet to visible
light is absorbed or blocked in the
atmosphere.
Geophysical anomalies – in some
volcanoes geophysical parameters such
gravimetric potential, magneto-telluric and
self-potential have been proven to show
precursory changes before and during an
eruption, due to changes in the density and
electromagnetic fields of the erupting
magma. These parameters are measured by
geophysical instruments such as
gravimeters and magnetometers.
 Hydrology – the water in wells and springs
SIX VOLCANOES WITH ALERT LEVEL
are also monitored for pH, chemistry and
WARNING SYSTEM
temperature for changes that may be
caused by the influx of new magma. In Bulusan
some volcanoes, water levels are also Hibok-hibok
constantly measured for significant non- Kanlaon
seasonal fluctuation that may result from Mayon
ground deformation. Taal
Volcanic plumes – The plumes of active Pinatubo
volcanoes are regularly monitored for
volume, intensity and color which may
change due to varying amounts of steam,
gas or ash. Space-borne satellite images
also measure volcanic plume chemistry by
analysing the spectral properties of the
plumes.
PRECURSORS OF AN IMPENDING VOLCANIC
ERUPTION
Increase in the frequency of volcanic
quakes with rumbling sounds; occurrence
of volcanic tremors
Increased steaming activity; change in
color of steam emission from white to gray
due to entrained ash.
Crater glow due to presence of magma at
or near the crater.
Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and
ground fissuring due to magma intrusion.
Localized landslides, rockfalls and
landslides from the summit area not
attributable to heavy rains.
Noticeable increase in the extent of drying
up of vegetation around the volcano's
upper slopes.
Increase in the temperature of hot springs,
wells (e.g. Bulusan and Canlaon) and crater
lake (e.g. Taal) near the volcano.
Noticeable variation in the chemical
content of springs, crater lakes within the
vicinity of the volcano.
Drying up of springs/wells around the
volcano.
Development of new thermal areas and/or
reactivation of old ones; appearance of
sulfatases