Kensiu Language Preservation: An Analysis Based On The Typological Framework of Language Threats

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Kensiu Language Preservation: An Analysis Based on the Typological

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Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology Research Article
Published online 2022 January Vol. 15, No.1 (2022)
Kensiu Language Preservation: An Analysis Based on the

Typological Framework of Language Threats
Nur Faaizah Md Adam1*, Nur Farahkhanna Mohd Rusli2, Noor Saadah Salleh3, Wan
Khairulhusna Wan Mokhtar4, Santrol Abdullah5, Ciptro Handrianto6
1,2,6
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia
3
Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.
4
INTI International University, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.
5
Language and Library Board Academy, Language Board Road, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
*
Corresponding email: nurfaaizah@fbk.upsi.edu.my
Received 2021 October 25; Revised 2021 December 20; Accepted 2021 December 24
Abstract
The Kensiu Orang Asli community is a minority group in Malaysia with population about 208, living
in Kampung Lubuk Legong, Kedah. The extinction of the indigenous language is a matter of great
concern today. Therefore, a study on language preservation needs to be done so that the language of
minorities can be saved from disappearing. The study aims to describe the preservation of the Kensiu
language based on the framework of Language Threats Typology. It useda simple qualitative and
statistical approachby using random sampling techniqueto select 150 respondents in Kampung
Lubuk Legong, Baling, Kedah. The direct questionnaire techniques were used to obtain more
accurate and have high reliability data. Data was analysed based on backgrounds and the
demographics of the respondents. The results showed four factors that describe the preservation of
the Kensiu language, namely gender, age group, parental ancestry, place of birth and language
ability. Currently, the Kensiu language is also in a safe situation because 100% of the respondents
say they are fluent in the Kensiu language. This study has contribution for policymakers in the
country to do a perfect and orderly language planning to preserve the culture and language of
Kensiu.
Keywords: Conservation, resilience, Kensiu language, Language Threat Typology
INTRODUCTION
The Ethnologue report states that there are a total of 6912 languages in the world. Of that number,
516 face the threat of extinction (Romaine, 2007). Statistics show that the world's endangered and
most likely to extinct are 200 languages in Europe, 1000 languages in America (North and South),
2400 languages in Africa, 231 languages in Australia, and in Asia and the Pacific 3200 languages
and of that number, 800 languages are found in Papua New Guinea.Crystal (2002) said that the
Aboriginal language will become extinct every two weeks and a language will die when its speakers
die. The extinction of the Indigenous language is a matter of great concern. Therefore, a study on
language preservation needs to be done so that the language of minorities can be saved from
disappearing just like that. Dressler (1989) says that language extinction is the state that a language is
no longer spoken by its last native speaker because it has died.
2640
Kensiu are the Indigenous people of the Semang-Negrito ethnic group(Masron et al., 2013;
Christopher & Dzakiria, 2014). These communities that use languages similar to Mon-Khmer are
sometimes also known as Kensiu or Kenseu, while early scholars refer to them as West Semang.
Most of them are found in Kedah, especially in the south-eastern part of the country. In addition, the
Kensiu people are found in Hulu Perak and Southern Thailand(Ahmad et al., 2021; Jaafar &
Khairuddin, 2021). This society is divided into small groups. Each is a nomadic group or tribe. At
least four Kensiu sub-groups were identified namely Mos, Makil (or Dalem), Hetat and Tanjen.In
ancient times, the Kensiu people had a vast Kensiu province, which stretched as far as Thailand.
They often moved south to Kedah. Yet this movement only took place in their territory. In the late
1950s, the Kensiu people who were still nomadic and scattered in small groups in Sik district along
with the Kintak people and Kupang and Siong districts were relocated to a Resettlement Plan in
Pokok Sena near Baling town.
The small number of Kensiu communities also raises concerns in terms of language and culture
given the existence of a process of the dominance of major languages, especially Malay(Benjamin,
1985; Andaya, 2002; Rahman et al., 2021). Furthermore, these native speakers are only found in
Kampung Lubuk Legong, Baling, Kedah. Therefore, research needs to be done on the preservation of
the Kensiu language because the fear of the extinction of the Kensiu language is a threat. Stokhaf
(2012) argued that minority languages in Malaysia will become extinct if serious efforts towards
preservation are not done from now on due to the rise in science and technology that is sweeping the
world today which brings with it a wave of modern mindset change, especially among the youth
generation.Therefore, the aspect that needs to be done immediately on the Kensiu language so that
this language can be preserved is to describe the preservation of the Kensiu language based on the
typology of language threat. According to Asmah (1989), this aspect is a step towards the
maintenance and preservation of a language that needs to be done that is under threat of extinction.
Abd-Ghani and Lah(2015) present 225 words of Kensiu based on the Swadesh list. The
approach used in their study was an ethnographic qualitative approach that involved interview
techniques with Kensiu native speakers. Questionnaire techniques were also used to obtain data on
language choice and Kensiu language shift. The sample of the study is a total of 15 respondents
consisting of the age of 40 years and above. They found that the Kensiu language was heavily
influenced by the Malay language. 67% of the Kensiu language lexicon was obtained using
Malayloanwords. Apart from that, there are Kensiu lexicons that have experienced a mixture of
codes with the Malay language such as the words 'kutip kebek' (pick fruit), 'kumpul awei' (collect
rattan), 'tom bungak' (flower tree) and 'bilik betew' (bathroom). The findings of the study also
showed that the lexical items associated with modern life and technology are all Malay loans.
Lexical examples are ‘pencil’ (pencil), ‘radio’ (radio), ‘mobile phone’ (mobile phone), ‘bus’ (bus),
‘doctor’ (doctor). The lexical borrowing of the Malay language among the Kensiu Indigenous people
is due to their continuous interaction with the Malays due to their proximity to the Malay villages.
The findings of their study also showed that Kensiu Semang Kensiu speakers began to shift their
language to Malay in their daily interactions. Their final results showed that the Kensiu language has
been threatened with extinction as the Semang language and culture are under pernicious pressure
due to the rapid changes of the modernization process affecting society. Their study is more on the
extinction of the Kensiu language, while in this study, the researcher will display the preservation of
the Kensiu language based on lexical and language use of the Kensiu community in Kampung Lubuk
Legong.
2641
The extinction and preservation of isolated minority languages that are still new and beginning
to grow among language researchers in Malaysia (Masleh, 2011). Bhuket and Lahanan languages are
isolated minority languages in the Sungai Asap settlement area, Belaga. The Bhuket ethnic group
numbered only 469 people and the Lahanan ethnic group numbered 585 people were the focus of the
study. Both ethnic groups are sub-ethnic groups of the Kajang race that are only found in Belaga
District, Sarawak. The first objective of the study was to analyse attitudes towards the selection and
preservation of the Bhuket and Lahanan languages. The second objective was to explain the lexical
and phonological aspects of the Bhuket and Lahanan languages. The third objective was to describe
the typology of the threat of the Bhuket and Lahanan ethnic languages to the preservation of their
language. An ethnolinguistic approach was used to identify and explain the selection and attitudes of
the Bhuket and Lahanan ethnic languages. An ethnolinguistic approach is used based on the
framework of domain or mandala theory, structural phonetic theory and typological theory of
language vulnerability to answer and explain the objectives of the study. The researcher selected 120
respondents from the Bhuket ethnic group and 180 respondents from the Lahanan ethnic group.
Qualitative and quantitative methods were used in data collection. Several data collection techniques
were used including question and answer method, observation, interview, pronunciation method and
storytelling method. The results of the study showed that all the Bhuket and Lahanan ethnic age
groups managed to maintain their cultural and linguistic heritage in their daily lives. Positive
attitudes managed to avoid feelings of inferiority and suspicion towards their language even among a
minority of language speakers (Banseng et al., 2021). Living in groups in longhouse circles has made
their language immune from all other language influences. The Bhuket language and the Lahanan
language will continue to take root and survive as life in the longhouse has succeeded in shaping a
positive attitude and a strong national identity. Their mother tongue is the main medium in all
aspects of life as well as the existence of respect and obedience to the rules of inter-ethnic language.
This study was conducted to describe the preservation of Kensiu language based on the
framework of Language Threat Typology by Edward (1992) and The Theoretical Model of
Language Death by Sasse (1992). Based on the framework of Language Threat Typology, the factors
of Kensiu language preservation can be described. This study is important to describe the resilience
of a language and its preservation as well as to make predictions about the use of the Kensiu
language. The resilience and strength of a language are determined by the extent to which the value
of identity among its people continue to defend their mother tongue communication. In addition, this
study needs to be done for future Kensiu language planning.
METHODOLOGY
The researchers used a simple qualitative and statistical approach to answer the objectives of the
study. Qualitative data were used to elaborate on the typological description of language
vulnerability based on questionnaires and interview questions (Hijmans, 1996; Gilgun, 2005). Simple
statistics were analysed using manual methods in the form of percentages and presented using tables
and diagrams. A description of each finding was made based on a table referring to the sections in
the questionnaire. Percentages were used to look at language risk factors through the demographic
characteristics of Kensiu Indigenous respondents towards their mother tongue (Trautman et al., 1990;
Handrianto et al., 2021). A simple statistic is to obtain the percentage of demographic characteristics
of the Kensiu community based on the typology of language vulnerability.
2642
Therefore, the researcher has selected 150 respondents to analyse the data related to the
background of the respondents and the demographics of the respondents. The targeted respondents
were comprised of three age categories namely 6 years to 17 years, 18 years to 39 years, 40 years
and above. The researcher used the direct questionnaire technique to obtain more accurate data and
have high reliability. This technique requires the researcher to go to Kampung Lubuk Legong to
distribute the questionnaires. The researcher used random sampling to select respondents in
Kampung Lubuk Legong, Baling, Kedah. Simple random sampling was used to ensure that every
subject in the population has an equal chance of being selected. The researcher identified the
respondents to be selected before the questionnaire was distributed. Lebar (2009) says a randomly
selected sample can increase the likelihood that the sample will more accurately represent the study
population and allow generalizations to be made to a larger population.To describe the Kensiu
language vulnerability typology, the researcher used the Edwards and Sasse Language Threat
Typology Framework(1992).
John Edward Framework

Table 1: Edward’s Minority Language Typology Framework (1992)
Category A Category B
Speaker Language Background
Demography 1 2 3
Sociology 4 5 6
Linguistic 7 8 9
Psychology 10 11 12
History 13 14 15
Politic 16 17 18
Geography 19 20 21
Education 22 23 24
Religion 25 26 27
Economy 28 29 30
Technology 31 32 33
In describing the level and resilience of a language, the following questions were the aspects
used to analyse the resilience of a language. The following questions were comprehensive and
suitable for studying the preservation of a language because Edward's typological framework takes
into account not only the speaker aspect but also the language and background aspect.
1 The number of speakers who can still speak a language, the place with most speakers
2 Language development
3 Place of origin of language
4 Socio-economic statuses of the speaker
5 Forms of language transmission
6 Efforts made to preserve the language then and now
7 Level of fluency of the speaker
8 Stages of language standardization
9 Forms of speaker mobility
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10 The speaker's attitude towards his mother tongue
11 The relationship of language to identity
12 The attitude of the dominant language speaker towards the language
13 Period of residence in a language location
14 History of language
15 History of the settlement of language speakers
16 The rights of speakers of the language and recognition of them
17 Level of language recognition
18 Levels of autonomy and the special status of speaker settlements
19 Nearby cities
20 Other language areas
21 The state of the language environment
22 Level of speaker education
23 Forms of support for language
24 The educational level of the public in the language environment
25 Religion of speakers
26 Forms of language relationship with religion/belief
27 The importance of religion in the study area
28 Level of health
29 The relationship between language and economic achievement and mobility
30 Economic statuses of the study area
31 Language used in certain media
32 The position of language in the media
33 Attitudes and views of the public about the study area.
Based on the above theoretical framework, Edward chose the minority language situation to
produce a typology of a minority language. This selection is based on the reality that minority
languages are facing serious threats and leading to obsolescence, stigma and death.
According to Edward(1992), there are too many variables that can affect the position of
minority languages and he arranged them in two parameters called Category A and Category B.
Category A involves human aspects namely demographics, sociology, linguistics, psychology,
history, politics, geography, education, religion, economics and technology. While Category B
presents three scopes that allow aspects in Category A to be examined, namely the speaker, language
and background of these two parameters published 33 specific questions (Refer to Table 1) which are
used to describe the resilience of a language and make predictions about the use of the language.
Edward’s model makes a distinction between the characteristics of an individual’s speech
community (speaker and language) and the characteristics of the broader context in which the
community is located (background).
Edward (1992) also said that the two aspects that are the basis of research in the sociological
variables of language risk typology are the background of respondents and social parameters that
affect their language behaviour. Items such as age, gender, place of birth, parental ancestry,
education, occupation, marital statuses and language ability are social parameters that influence the
death of a language. Sasse (1992) stated that the selection of the following aspects as variables can
influence the pattern of language selection and see the potential for preservation of a language. The
questions were constructed based on the typology of language risk, namely regarding the
2644
demographics of the respondents and language preservation. There are 11 questions related to the
demographics of the respondents to look at the preservation of the Kensiu language.
According to Edward (1992), the two aspects that are the basis of research in the sociological
variables of language risk typology are the background of the respondents and the social parameters
that affect their language behaviour. Sasse (1992) statedthat the selection of this aspect as a variable
can influence the pattern of language selection and see the potential for the preservation of a
language. This view is also supported by Chambers and Trudgill (1999) who explained that social
status such as education, employment, income and residence are important indices in the study of
language. A study conducted by Ajip Rosidi (2008) also strengthened the statement that the
extinction or destruction of language is not only with the death or loss of speakers but the transfer of
speakers to other languages due to various reasons including economic factors, social factors and
political factors.
Ten variables were chosen as a platform to examine the level of vulnerability of a minority
language based on what is found in the Typological Theory of Language Threats of Edward and
Sasse. These variables can also be used to describe the resilience of a language and its preservation
as well as make predictions about the use of the Kensiu language. The resilience and strength of a
language are determined by the extent to which the value of identity among its people continue to
defend their mother tongue communication.
Sasse Model
According to Yusop (2007), Sasse produced a theoretical model of language death based on two
important studies. First, based on his (1991) research on Arvanitika, one of the variations of
Albanian spoken in Greece. The language was in a dying stage. However, the researcher used this
model to look at the preservation of the Kensiu language based on background aspects and analysed
based on observations of the life patterns of the Kensiu Indigenous people. Sasse divided the social
variables that influence the status of the language into three premises, namely external factors,
language behaviour and the structural consequences of language. The questions raised are as per
Table 2.
Table 2 Sasse's Theoretical Model of Language Death (1992)
Variable Problem
External factors Historical data causes an imbalance of the power of influence
between languages.
The pressures faced by minority language community groups.
Negative attitudes towards minority languages.
Neglect of minority languages
Language Language selection based on the mandala
behaviour The issue of second language proficiency
The issue of language inheritance to the new generation
Structural Loss of lexicon
Consequence Failure to create terms for use in new mandalas
Shift to a dominant language
Loss of linguistic features
2645
Yusop (2007) in his study entitled Obsolescence and Difficulty of Proto Malay Language,
Sociological Study of Language on Duano Dialect and Kanaq Dialect in Johor also used these two
theories as a platform for information collection. Santrol (2016) also used both in his study entitled
Ethnolinguistics of Vaie Language in Sarawak, Malaysia which discussed the issue of the threat of
ethnic minority languages in Sarawak that needs to be addressed immediately.
FINDINGS
Typological Characteristics of Language Threats Based on Demographics
Analysis and discussion on the data collected are based on questionnaire responses obtained from
150 respondents in Kampung Lubuk Legong Kedah. The questions of the questionnaire submitted
were related to the background of the respondents and the demographics of the respondents. Based
on the framework of Edward and Sasse, the researcher analysed the background of the respondents
and made modifications to suit the current situation and reality to answer the objectives of the study.
The variables collected were related to age, gender, place of birth, maternal lineage, paternal lineage,
education, occupation, religious beliefs, marital statuses and language ability. King (1989), Romaine
(2007), and Arafani et al. (2021) outlined the similar variables for looking at the level of language
obsolescence and making predictions of the future of the language.
The researcher used random sampling to select 150 respondents in Kampung Lubuk Legong to
obtain data related to the background of the respondents. The complete information of all
respondents based on the 10 variables stated by Edward and Sasse (1992) is as shown in the table
below.
Table 1: Kensiu Respondents’ Demography
Bil Respondent (80 people) OAK Percentage (%)

1 Gender
Male 68 43.33%
Female 82 54.67%
2 Age Group
6- 17 years 52 34.67%
18-39 years 67 44.67%
40 years above 31 20.66%
3 Birthplace
Baling 128 85.33%
Bukit Asu 6 4.00%
Sg Petani 10 6.67%
Alor Setar 1 0.67%
Banun 1 0.67%
Bidor 1 0.67%
Sawa 1 0.67%
Kelantan 1 0.67%
Thailand 1 0.67%
4 Paternal lineage
Kensiu 124 82.67%
Kintak 16 10.67%
Jahai 4 2.66%
Temiar 4 2.66%
2646
Semnam 2 1.34
5 Maternal lineage
Kensiu 131 87.33%
Kintak 10 6.66%
Lanoh 1 0.67%
Semnam 1 0.67%
Kensiu Thailand 2 1.33%
Temiar 1 0.67%
Jahai 3 2.00%
Siam 1 0.67%
6 Have lived outside of this place
Yes 36 24%
No 114 76%
7 Education
Did not attend school 56 37.33%
Primary school 70 46.67%
Secondary school 23 15.33%
Training center/institute/college 1 0.67%
University 0 0%
8 Occupation
Not working/housewife 50 33.33%
Self-employed 59 39.33%
Government employee 0 0
Private employee 1 0.67%
Retired 0 0
Still studying 40 26.67%
9 Religious Beliefs
Islam 129 86%
animism 6 4%
Christian 15 10%
10 Marital status
Single 64 42.67%
Married 76 50.67%
Widowed (Female) 3 2%
Widowed (Male) 7 4.66
11 Language ability
Kensiu language
Fluent 150 100%
Less fluent
Malay language
Fluent 144 96%
Less fluent 6 4%
Gender
Various opinions arose about gender. Some opinions say the language of men is better than that of
women because the form of speech is more consistent and more authentic than women. But
according to Walter A. Wolfram (1968), it was found that men are better than women because
female informants are more similar to standard forms of language in their use.Studies in Scotland
showed that there is no evidence that men or women have a good knowledge of the language.
2647
Samarin (1967) said that although there is no difference between men and women, it is better if a
person is of the same gender as the researcher in order to make the study process more pleasant so
that there is no suspicion among the language community. According to Hendon Rufus (1996) if you
want a more conservative form in the Malay dialect female informants are better.
Dorian (1989) in the findings of Taylor's (1982) study on Gros Ventre language which showed
that women have more ability to preserve their mother tongue than men. This suggests that there is a
relationship between gender variables and language. Dorian also says that apart from style and social
class, gender variables should also be considered in the evaluation of a language.Ajid Che Kob
(1985), in a study in Pasir Mas found that the form of speech of older women is more original when
compared to the form of speech of men of the same age. The original meaning here is that the form
of female speech is more a conservative form that is least influenced by the form of speech from
outside, either from the form of speech from other areas or the Malay language.
Meanwhile, according to Santrol Abdullah (2016), the social circle of women is more limited
than men causing a lack of mixing and acceptance of other vocabulary and language structures from
other languages. This causes the structure of women's language to be more consistent. Based on
Edwards and Sasse's theory of threat typology, women are considered better at language retention
because they still maintain a conservative form in their mother tongue. This can be seen in the study
that has been done on the Kensiu Indigenous people in Kampung Lubuk Legong.
Table 2: Gender Distribution of Kensiu Respondents

Social variable Total Percentage (%)
Gender:
Male 68 43.33
Female 82 54.67
Based on the data obtained, 68 respondents are male representing 43.33% while 82 respondents
are female representing 54.67%. Linguistic data on phonology and lexical can be obtained in full
because the male and female informants are very responsive and provide good cooperation
throughout the research process. The first day they might have felt uncomfortable but after a few
meetings, they have been able to adjust to the researcher and chat as usual especially the women.
Marital Status
Table 3: Marital Status Distribution of Kensiu Respondents

Marital Status
Single 64 42.67
Married 76 50.67
Widowed (Female) 3 2
Widowed (Male) 7 4.66
In terms of marital status, 64 (42.67%) respondents were single, 76 (50.67%) were married, 3
(2%) were widowed (female) and 7 (4.66) were widowed (male). According to Yusop (2007),
2648
marital status plays an important role in intercultural episodes. The influence of paternal descent has
always been dominant in terms of inheritance of values and norms. From the questionnaire, the
researcher found that there was intermarriage among the Kensiu indigenous people in Kampung
Lubuk Legong. Non-Kensiu marriages take place with Kintak, Jahai, Temiar, Semnan, Lanoh, and
Thai Kensiu couples.
Age Group
Table 4: Age Distribution of Kensiu Respondents

Age group
6- 17 years 52 34.67
18-39 years 67 44.67
40 years above 31 20.66
To see the process of inheritance and the level of language ability, the researcher has classified
the respondents into three categories, namely age 6 to 17 years, 18 to 39 years and over 40 years.
From the study data obtained for the category aged 6 to 17 years, a total of 52 people were recorded,
which is equivalent to 34.67%. Based on the number, the researcher found that 34 people had
secondary school education, 14 people were from primary school and 4 people did not go to school.
Some of them are still in school and some have stopped halfway. The schools are in Baling, namely
Siong National Primary School and Siong Secondary School. There are hostels in both schools and
most Aboriginal people commute from home to school.Meanwhile, the age group of 18 to 39 years
old recorded 67 respondents which are 44.67%. The third group is 40 years and above. They consist
of 31 people which is 20.66%.
Descendants of Kensiu Respondents’ Parents

Table 5: Distribution of Descendants of Kensiu Respondents’ Parents
Social Variable Total Percentage (%)

Paternal lineage
Kensiu 124 86.67
Kintak 16 10.67
Jahai 4 2.66
Temiar 4 2.66
Semnam 2 1.34
Maternal lineage
Kensiu 131 87.33
Kintak 10 6.67
Lanoh 1 0.67
Semnam 1 0.67
Kensiu Thailand 2 1.33
Temiar 1 0.67
Jahai 3 2
Siam 1 0.67
2649
The data showed that 124 (82.67%) respondents were of Kensiu descent, 16 (10.67%) were of
Kintak descent, 4 (2.66%) were of Jahai and Temiar descent and 2 (1.34%) were of Semnam descent.
While a total of 131 (87.33%) mothers are of Kensiu descent, 10 (6.67%) are of Kintak descent, 1
(0.67%) are of Lanoh and Semnam, Temiar and Siam descent, 2 (1.33%) are of Thai Kensiu descent
and 3 are of Jahai descent (2.00%).
Birthplace
Table 6: Distribution of Kensiu Respondents’ Birthplace
Birthplace
Baling 128 85.33
Bukit Asu 6 4.00
Sg Petani 10 6.67
Alor Setar 1 0.67
Banun 1 0.67
Bidor 1 0.67
Sawa 1 0.67
Kelantan 1 0.67
Thailand 1 0.67
From the data obtained, a total of 128 people were born in Baling which is 85.33%, 6 people in
Bukit Asu village which is 4.00%, 10 people in Sungai Petani which is 6.67%and one in Alor Setar,
Bannon, Bidor, Sawa village, Kelantan and Thailand which are respectively -each 0.67%.
Table 7: Distribution of Kensiu Respondents who have lived in other places

Have lived outside of this place
Yes 36 24
No 114 76
Table 7 shows the total number of respondents who have lived outside of Kampung Lubuk
Legong, Baling Kedah. 36 respondents have lived outside of the settlement while 114 respondents
have never done so.
Religious Beliefs
Table 8: Distribution of Kensiu Respondents’ Religious Beliefs

Religious Beliefs
Islam 129 86
Animism 6 4
Christian 15 10
2650
The results of the questionnaire found that 129 respondents are Muslims, which is 86%. 6
respondents believe in Animism which is 4%. Meanwhile, 15 respondents are Christians which is
10%. For the Muslims, the Lubuk Legong respondents practised wedding feasts, circumcision
ceremonies, breaking fast ceremonies, Hari Raya Aidil Adha and Aidilfitri celebrations. Apart from
that, they also study religious knowledge in the surau with the designated Ustazah and Ustaz.
Education
Table 9: Distribution of Kensiu Respondents’ Education

Education
Non-schooling 56 37.33
Primary school 70 46.67
Secondary school 23 15.33
IPT/IPTS/IPG 1 0.67
Table 9 shows the division of 4 main categories in the education level of the respondents,
namely non-schooling, primary school,secondary school and tertiary education (IPT/IPTS/IPG). The
results of the questionnaire found that 56 (37.33%) respondents were not in school, 70 (46.67%)
were primary school students, 23 (15.33%) were secondary school students and one (0.67%) was
pursuing higher education in the field of counselling diploma.
Occupation
Table 10: Distribution of Kensiu Respondents' Occupation

Occupation
Not working/housewife 50 33.33
Self-employed 59 39.33
Government employee 0 0
Private employee 1 0.67
Retired 0 0
Still studying 40 26.67
Based on the data obtained, a total of 50 respondents (33.33%) do not work because they are
either still in school, housewives or the elderly. A total of 59 respondents are self-employed
respondents or 39.33%, and one or 0.67% work in the private sector. While the respondents who are
studying consist of 40 people which is 26.67%.
2651
Language ability
This variable aims to assess the level of language proficiency of respondents in their mother
tongue. With this data, the researcher can find out the extent to which the ability of native speakers in
Lubuk Legong to use the Kensiu language as well as languages that are considered disruptive to
strengthen their mother tongue.
Table 11: Distribution of Kensiu Respondents’ Language Ability

Language ability
Kensiu language
Fluent 150 100
Less fluent - -
Malay language
Fluent 144 96
Less fluent 6 4.6
There are four levels of language ability that have been set by the researcher to see the
respondents' proficiency, namely fluent, less fluent, not fluent and do not know. The first level of
fluency shows the respondent's ability to converse in a language that involves the ability to listen,
understand and respond to speech and communicate effortlessly and understand each other. The
second level is less fluent where the speaker can hear and understand but is not able to converse
fluently due to lack of vocabulary and cause the communication to not happen smoothly and spoken.
The third level, which is not fluent, shows that the speaker only understands and can say only a few
words. They only know how to pronounce certain words and cannot converse, but are only able to
interrupt the conversation of a more fluent speaker. The last level, which is not knowing, shows that
the speaker does not know the meaning at all and is not used to hearing or using words in a
language.Language proficiency data showed that 150 respondents were 100% fluent in Kensiu. 144
respondents or 96% are fluent in Malay and 6 respondents or 4.6% are less fluent in Malay. While
there are also respondents aged 40 and above who can speak in other native languages including
Kintak, Temiar, Jahai and Semai.
DISCUSSION
Edward (1992) said that the two aspects that are the basis of research in the sociological
variables of language risk typology are the background and social parameters that affect their
language behaviour. Sasse (1992) said that the selection of this aspect as a variable can influence the
pattern of language selection and see the potential for the preservation of a language. Sasse (1992)
proposed a Theoretical Model of Language Death after examining the Arvanithic language in Greece
and subsequently, several other scholars and researchers such as Collins (1997) and Yusop (2007),
Masleh (2011) and Santrol (2016) confirmed that the study of language obsolescence should focus
on these variables.
2652
Gender
On the researcher’s observation, when asked about the lexical of the Kensiu language, female
informants were more proficient in their language than males. This is because there are some words
that men cannot answer when asked. As for the word ‘taboo’, women and men aged 40 and above
refrained from saying it. Thus, the researcher obtained the word taboo from the younger group of
women. This shows that the elderly keep their speech etiquette from uttering bad words.
The interview process while answering the questionnaires submitted to the respondents also
went well. Respondents consisted of school students, housewives, self-employed and men who did
not work due to old age. The data collection of this questionnaire was assisted by several Kensiu
Indigenous people who are also members of the village office and one of the informants of the study.
The research assistants are Syamsiah who is a housewife and Siti who works as a factory production
operator. For respondents who are not good at reading and writing the questionnaire questions were
asked one by one and filled in by the researcher and the research assistant. For respondents who can
read the researcher will first explain the requirements of the question and they will fill in the
questionnaire. Of the total respondents, 56 people did not go to school, especially those aged 18 and
above.
Meeting sessions were arranged with the mindset to make it easier for the researcher to meet
the informant at the time, place and day set. The appointment of this meeting session is important so
that the informants can be prepared and spend their time with the researcher at the appointed time.
The study with the informants was conducted over a period of one year from 12 December 2016 to
15 December 2017. During the interview session, the men and women spoke in Malay and only
spoke their mother tongue with their race. In the researcher's study, male and female respondents
were more comfortable being treated in groups because they still have a shy nature when dealing
with outsiders.
In conclusion, this study found that women have more potential to preserve their mother
tongue. Villages close to the Malays do not seem to affect their mother tongue. Mixing with the
Malays and sales activities that take place in their settlements are also not a problem for the mother
tongue because, within the group, they still speak the language well. There are Malays who can
understand some vocabulary in the Kensiu language.The Kensiu language can also be maintained in
the future because most women spend a lot of time in their settlements and are not affected by the
globalization that occurs outside the village. So, their vocabulary is still original and not influenced
by the Malay language. This causes the role of women as a stronghold of the Kensiu language and is
still effective in Kampung Lubuk Legong.
Status
Based on the variables of Sasse's Theoretical Model (1992), marriage is also a factor that threatens
the stability of a language that is categorized in the behavioural variables. Thus, marriage in a family
can determine the preservation or extinction of a language. According to Sasse (1992), the issue of
language inheritance to generations will occur if a person marries not among the speakers of the
same language because there will be language conflict in a family.
Janaun (1998) in his study on the Garoh community showed that the language will become
extinct because of intermarriage and the process of assimilation to a more important language. A
study by Asib (2011) showed that intermarriage has a relationship with the extinction of the Bajau-
Samah language in the Kota Belud district of Sabah. He also said that intermarriage caused a
2653
decrease in respondents' mother tongue proficiency, while respondents who were not involved in
intermarriage (inter-racial marriage) had better Bajau-Samah language proficiency than
intermarriage respondents.
Intermarriage inevitably results in a multilingual situation in the household, and this has a
direct impact on the retention of the Kensiu language among the next generation. Based on the
interviews and observations conducted with the respondents, especially the respondents who are
intermarried, they will communicate using the language understood by both couples. According to a
Kensiu respondent who is married to a wife of Kintak descent, he will speak the Kensiu language
with his wife because the two languages are almost the same.However, intermarriage is not
happening rapidly in KLL. Only 45 people were found to be married to other races. 26 of them are
the Kintak people who have a language that is almost the same as the Kensiu language. This does not
affect the Kensiu indigenous people because the number of Kensiu people is larger than other
indigenous people in their settlement.
Age Group
According to Sasse (1992), age grouping was found to be very appropriate to show the process of
inheritance and the level of language ability. This is agreed by Dorian (1989) who said that the age
level variable is the only one that is consistently used as a basis for assessing the life stage of a
language. Mertz (1989) in his study of the Scottish Gaelic language found that the age of 40 is a
benchmark that can be used as a measure of the life expectancy of a language.
In two of Merz's study areas namely Cape Briton and Mabou in Scotland, Merz found that
good speakers were those aged 40 and over. The older a person is, the closer to the language of his or
her ancestors. On the other hand, the younger ones are getting further away and not inheriting the
cultural characteristics. The Merz study showed that respondents aged 40 and over had entered
maturity and began to determine their movements. The choice made is either to continue living in the
village and accept the ancestral heritage in the form of their respective dialects or migrate abroad
leaving that heritage. It is this group that determines the process of dialect inheritance. If they
become good intermediaries, accept the dialect from their parents and practice and pass it on to the
younger generation, then both dialects can be preserved. If the opposite happens, the dialects will be
obsolete, doomed and eventually extinct.
Similarly, Kamila Ghazal(2005) conducted a study on 67 Mah Meri people in Bukit Bangkong,
Selangor. The findings of Kamila's study showed that age factors play an important role in the
language selection aspect of the Mah Meri community, where the Mah Meri community aged 45 and
above are more likely to use the Mah Meri language compared to the younger races. However, in the
religious and cultural mandala, the Mah Meri community still adheres to maintaining the use of the
Mah Meri language. Although the use of the Mah Meri language is limited and more dominant to
religious and cultural mandalas, what is gratifying is that the Mah Meri community is still positive
towards the Mah Meri language.
According to Puan Rohana Bt Md Ali who is the ustazah in this settlement, there are 12
students who attend Sekolah Menengah Agama Rakyat Kenang located in Lasah Sungai Siput,
Perak. From the results of questionnaires and observations, this age category communicates in Malay
when in-school sessions. This shows that they have been exposed to the Malay language while at
school. Even so, the results of the interviews found that this group would speak the Kensiu language
at home if their parents were of Kensiu descent. Meanwhile, if their parents are of different lineage,
2654
their children will speak the Kensiu language or a mixture of the Kensiu language with the language
of their parents' lineage. This shows that this age group can still speak and understand the Kensiu
language.
The 18- to 39-year-old group is also considered as a group that is in the process of maturation
and becoming adults. This group also serves as a medium for channelling the Kensiu language from
the elderly to the young. The task of these language channelers is not easy as they are faced with the
symptoms of language shift. The social mobility that occurs in their settlements causes them to have
to use Malay as the language of communication when in a situation. Even so, the Kensiu language
lexicon is still spoken to this day in their group. Most of these age groups do not continue their
studies at a higher level. From the results of the interviews, only two people continued their studies
to the diploma level, namely Ubal Bin Kulim who is studying at Sultan Azlan Syah University in the
field of counselling, and another is studying at a private college. 25 of this group are housewives and
40 are self-employed.
Based on the interviews, most respondents from the age group of 40 years and above
remember the origins of their village and the cultural customs of the Kensiu indigenous people.
Respondents aged 70 and above are more in-depth knowledgeof the socio-cultural aspects of Kensiu
such as customs, traditional medicine, myths and others. Encik Kulim and his wife Puan Syarifah
Binti Kunyit sais the origin of the Kensiu people is from Kampung Rai, Thailand. The loss of
cultural knowledge and customs indicates that the process of cultural inheritance was not done well
by the previous parents. This can also reduce the lexicality of the language because it is in customs
and culture that there are many original words. In the situation in KLL, they still know the customs
and culture of the past Kensiu community. The proof can be seen in chapter one which tells about the
socio-culture of the Kensiu people.
The lineage of Kensiu Respondents’ Parents

Sasse (1992) also said that parental lineage is a factor in determining the resilience of a language.
According to Santrol (2016), this hereditary factor also affects the issue of language inheritance to
the new generation and the issue of second language use. Dimmendaal (1989) in his study on tribal
languages in East Africa found that many of the languages became extinct due to intermarriage
which is difficult to curb. The study also found that the worst affected race is a large number of
women because when they marry men of other races, the couple's children will follow the lineage of
the paternal family. In KLL, the residents still have many Kensiu mothers who still pass on their
language to their children.
Birthplace
Yusop (2007) in his study on the Mandailing language stressed that the Mandailing language can be
preserved in the settlement of its native speakers in Kampung Kerangai, Kuala Pilah, Negeri
Sembilan which is separated from the threat of the dominant language. From the interviews, most of
the respondents were born in Baling hospital. This shows they have received modernization in terms
of medicine and no longer use the services of midwives. According to Batin Razali Bin Kulim, there
are only 2 midwives left in their village. For respondents born outside the Baling area, their parents
have moved outside the Kensiu Aboriginal settlement. After a few years, they returned to their
village. Respondents who had lived outside their hometowns were of course influenced by the Malay
2655
language and adopted the lifestyle of the settlements in which they lived but their numbers were not
large.
Religious beliefs
Religious belief is an individual's belief in teaching whether it is a teaching that requires them to
worship or adore something (Herwanis et al., 2021). This belief causes them to be obedientto the
rules and prohibitions of each religion. Each holding has its prayer and way of practising it. Sasse
(1992) said that religious beliefs are also a factor in determining the resilience of a language. In
KLL, there are Muslims. This will to some extent cause their language to be less used in religious
variables because most Islamic religious practices are done in Arabic or Malay. During the Hari
Raya celebration, they will visit Malay homes. For those who are Muslims, they have abandoned
practices or beliefs that are contrary to Islam which is mostly done in their mother tongue.
Education
According to Masleh (2011) in his study, which discussed the extinction and preservation of
minority languages, said that the influence of settlement and employment opportunities affect the
educational level of Lahanan ethnic respondents. This is also agreed by Bradley (1989) in his study
of the Ugong language which is increasingly threatened by Thai which is the official language in the
Thai education system. Grenoble and Whaley (1998) said that a country's centralized education
system can erode minority languages from the native speakers of a language.Yusop (2007) said that
the education system in Malaysia has a direct impact on the Duano and Kanaq dialects because
Malay is adopted as the medium of instruction in schools and causes their mother tongue to be side-
lined. This situation also applies to the Kensiu language in Kampung Lubuk Legong.
For the age group of 6 to 17 years, a total of 4 people does not go to school, 34 people go to
primary school and 14 people go to secondary school. According to Puan Khadijah Bakar, a
kindergarten teacher in Lubuk Legong village, 21 students are studying there. 13 female students and
8 male students. 3 Malay students and 18 Kensiu Indigenous students. Students range in age from 4
to 6 years old. Mrs Khadijah has served in the kindergarten for almost 23 years. According to her,
the teaching process is quite difficult to do due to the problem of language acquisition and interaction
by Kensiu students. She said this happened because the children's lack of exposure to the Malay
language caused the interaction to not be conveyed well.For the age group of 18 to 39 years old, 25
people did not go to school, 32 people went to primary school, 9 people attended secondary school
and one continued his studies at IPT. In the age group of 40 and above, 27 people did not go to
school and only 4 people had primary school education.
This shows that almost all respondents aged 6 to 7 years old have obtained a perfect level of
education and are exposed to the education system in schools. The age group of respondents is
different from 18 to 39 and 40 and above, in which the majority did not go to school. The results of
the interviews showed that this group mostly studied halfway due to the pressure of poverty and lack
of interest in education.
Occupation
According to Kuter (1989) in his study on Breton and French, the field of socioeconomics and
employment opens up space for inter-linguistic clashes within an ethnic group. His study found that
although the French language is so dominant in all public sectors, the Breton language which is seen
2656
as so exclusive from a cultural point of view has attracted many people to learn it and subsequently
use it in the employment sector. For this study of the Kensiu language, the researcher found that the
employment sector requires Kensiu speakers to communicate in Malay so that the employment
process is done smoothly, especially for those who work outside the village and work with the
Malays.
Based on the respondents' interviews, most of the residents of Kampung Lubuk Legong are
self-employed. Among the work they do is to find fungi, petai, durian, agarwood, and other forest
products tosell in the city. They also took the wages of lawnmowers and tapped rubber in nearby
villages. Meanwhile, several women work as production operators at the Green Point factory in
Sungai Petani and Toray FenFabrik in Bayan Lepas. Vans and workers' dormitories are provided by
the factory. According to Syamsiah, only women survive working in factories. The men could only
last two or three days because they could not adjust to the job. They are more comfortable working
on their own because they are free and not bound by rules.
According to Puan Rohana, all Kensiu Aboriginal families are assisted every month because of
their poverty-stricken lives. Assistance is provided in the form of food such as rice, sugar, salt and
others. This assistance is given in stages by JAKIM, JAKOA and PERKIM. Each head of the family
is also given financial assistance, especially the elderly. One family earns RM150. While children
are given school assistance such as books, pocket money and other school equipment. With this help,
the burden of the head of the family is slightly reduced and enough to help cover their daily needs.
Based on this data, none of the respondents worked as government employees and only one
person worked as a private employee, namely the production operator in the factory. This indicates
that respondents are less exposed to the modernization that is taking place in the city.
Language ability
This language proficiency data shows that the bilingual phenomenon occurs in Kampung Lubuk
Legong because most respondents say they are fluent in Malay. Respondents who are fluent in Malay
are not only the young but also respondents from the elderly. In this case, most young people have
been exposed to the education system that uses the Malay language in teaching sessions in schools.
However, respondents remained proficient in their mother tongue.
CONCLUSION
The findings found that the Kensiu language is still preserved in the variables of gender, age group,
parental lineage, place of birth and language ability. Data on the Kensiu language ability among
respondents showed that the Kensiu language is currently in a safe situation because 100% of
respondents said that they are fluent in the Kensiu language. This is because the survival and
retention of a language lie in the extent to which the language is used and recognized by the speakers
themselves. The Kensiu people still communicate their mother tongue in family groups. In
conclusion, this study can be a guide for policymakers in the country to do perfect and orderly
language planning to preserve the culture and language of the Kensiu in Kampung Lubuk Legong.
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Kensiu Language Preservation: An Analysis Based on the Typological

Article · January 2022

Nur Faaizah Nur Farahkhanna Mohd Rusli

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Noor Saadah Salleh Wan Khairulhusna Wan Mokhtar

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Kensiu Language Preservation: An Analysis Based on the

John Edward Framework

Table 2 Sasse's Theoretical Model of Language Death (1992)

Bil Respondent (80 people) OAK Percentage (%)

Table 2: Gender Distribution of Kensiu Respondents

Social variable Total Percentage (%)

Social variable Total Percentage (%)

Descendants of Kensiu Respondents’ Parents

Social Variable Total Percentage (%)

Table 7: Distribution of Kensiu Respondents who have lived in other places

Social variable Total Percentage (%)

Social variable Total Percentage (%)

Social variable Total Percentage (%)

Social variable Total Percentage (%)

Table 11: Distribution of Kensiu Respondents’ Language Ability

Social variable Total Percentage (%)

The lineage of Kensiu Respondents’ Parents

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