Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo The Green Gold On The Earth 1st Edition Zishan Ahmad Yulong Ding Anwar Shahzad

Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo
The Green Gold on the Earth 1st Edition

Zishan Ahmad Yulong Ding Anwar
Shahzad
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/biotechnological-advances-in-bamboo-the-green-gold
-on-the-earth-1st-edition-zishan-ahmad-yulong-ding-anwar-shahzad/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Advances in Environment Engineering and Management:

Proceedings of the 1st National Conference on
Sustainable Management of Environment and Natural
Resource Through Innovation in Science and Technology
1st Edition Nihal Anwar Siddiqui
https://ebookmeta.com/product/advances-in-environment-
engineering-and-management-proceedings-of-the-1st-national-
conference-on-sustainable-management-of-environment-and-natural-
resource-through-innovation-in-science-and-technolog/
Modern Biotechnology in Healthcare: Advances and

Applications 1st Edition Sheikh Umar Ahmad (Editor)
https://ebookmeta.com/product/modern-biotechnology-in-healthcare-
advances-and-applications-1st-edition-sheikh-umar-ahmad-editor/
Transcultural Humanities in South Asia Critical Essays

on Literature and Culture 1st Edition Waseem Anwar
https://ebookmeta.com/product/transcultural-humanities-in-south-
asia-critical-essays-on-literature-and-culture-1st-edition-
waseem-anwar/
Advances in Green and Sustainable Nanomaterials 1st

Edition Megh R Goyal
https://ebookmeta.com/product/advances-in-green-and-sustainable-
nanomaterials-1st-edition-megh-r-goyal/
Hands On Ablation The Experts Approach Third Edition
Amin Al-Ahmad
https://ebookmeta.com/product/hands-on-ablation-the-experts-
approach-third-edition-amin-al-ahmad/
On Earth Or in Poems 1st Edition Eric Calderwood
https://ebookmeta.com/product/on-earth-or-in-poems-1st-edition-
eric-calderwood/
Contemporary Chemical Approaches for Green and

Sustainable Drugs (Advances in Green and Sustainable
Chemistry) 1st Edition By Aparna Das (Author)
https://ebookmeta.com/product/contemporary-chemical-approaches-
for-green-and-sustainable-drugs-advances-in-green-and-
sustainable-chemistry-1st-edition-by-aparna-das-author/
The Masters of Limitation: An ET's Observations on

Earth Anka
https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-masters-of-limitation-an-ets-
observations-on-earth-anka/
The Natural History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to

Everything on Earth 1st Edition Dk
https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-natural-history-book-the-
ultimate-visual-guide-to-everything-on-earth-1st-edition-dk/
Zishan Ahmad
Yulong Ding
Anwar Shahzad Editors
Biotechnological
Advances in
Bamboo
The “Green Gold” on the Earth
Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo
Zishan Ahmad • Yulong Ding • Anwar Shahzad
Editors
Biotechnological Advances
in Bamboo
The “Green Gold” on the Earth
Editors
Zishan Ahmad Yulong Ding
Bamboo development laboratory Bamboo development laboratory
Bamboo Research Institute, Nanjing Bamboo Research Institute Nanjing Forestry
Forestry University University
Nanjing, China Nanjing, China
Anwar Shahzad
Department of Botany
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, India
ISBN 978-981-16-1309-8 ISBN 978-981-16-1310-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1310-4
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd. 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Professor Xiong Wenyu
(July 1915–September 2014)
Founder of Scientific Cultivation of Bamboo

Plantation
Known as “Mr. Bamboo” and “Bamboo
Pioneer”
Foreword
Bamboos are considered as the “green gold of the forest” as these have improved
many facets of rural livelihood while strengthening urban sector. Bamboos have
been traditionally used as construction material for rural housing, food, and, last but
not least, handicraft products. In today’s times, however, its uses have become more
diverse. Presently, bamboos have emerged as one of the most important renewable
resources for food, fuel, paper, pulp, textile, plywood, etc. Therefore, the annual
demands for bamboos have already outcrossed the annual yields across the world.
And the current scenario has forced scientists to pay more attention to the utilization
of biotechnological tools for better understanding and improving bamboos. Modern
biotechnologies are more and more applied in bamboo research and practice and will
bring deep influence on the development of bamboo. The concerns in this book
initially begin with a chapter introducing the global distribution of the bamboo. The
book provides an overview of the adoption of biotechnological approaches to
advance bamboo research for better utilization of bamboo resources for human
beings. Various applications of biological techniques related to bamboo have been
discussed in detail, for example, plant tissue culture techniques, somatic embryo-
genesis, germplasm conservation techniques, utilization of molecular markers,
transcriptomics, polymorphism, and phylogenetic analysis. The book also addresses
novel industrial applications of bamboo in structural, food and pharmaceutical
applications along with traditional uses in detail. The book is a reference text with
essential information for various scientists, including advanced students, teachers as
well as research scientists working in different areas of bamboo research.
University of Hamburg, Hamburg

Germany
Walter Liese
vii
Preface
Bamboo is considered as a multipurpose plant and has a prolonged history as an

adaptable and extensively used renewable resource in conventional and commercial
applications. Therefore, the annual demands for bamboos have already outcrossed
the annual yields across the world. Increasing population pressure; indiscriminate
exploitation by paper, pulp, and fuel industry; and insufficient attempts to replenish
and cultivate bamboos are further widening the gap between demand and supply.
And the current scenario has forced scientists to pay more attention to the utilization
of biotechnological tools for better understanding and improving bamboos. As a
result, new insights into bamboos were gained through various biotechnological
approaches. The book provides an overview of the adoption of biotechnological
approaches to advance bamboo research for better utilization of bamboo resources
for human beings. Various applications of biological techniques related to bamboo
have been discussed in detail, for example, plant tissue culture techniques, somatic
embryogenesis, germplasm conservation techniques, utilization of molecular
markers, transcriptomics, polymorphism, and phylogenetic analysis. Being involved
in this area, we comprehend that information on the application of the biotechno-
logical approaches in bamboo is still obscure, and there is no single book available
on this aspect. This volume comprises several chapters on relevant topics contrib-
uted by experts working in the field of plant biotechnology so as to make available a
comprehensive treatise designed to provide an in-depth analysis of the subject in
question. The book is a compilation of 20 chapters with relevant text, tables, and
illustrations describing the experimental work on bamboo biotechnology, which will
be useful in the planning and execution of various experiments smoothly and
effectively. The present book aims to induce new outlooks to scientists/researchers
who are unfamiliar with bamboo biotechnology and will be very helpful in various
present and future researches in different areas of plant biotechnology, molecular
biology, and plant physiology. We are extremely thankful to all the contributors who
ix
x Preface
wholeheartedly welcomed our invitation and agreed to contribute chapters to embel-

lish information on bamboo biotechnology, thus helping in this endeavor.
Nanjing, China Zishan Ahmad

Nanjing, China Yulong Ding
Aligarh, India Anwar Shahzad
17 July 2021
Acknowledgments
We, the editors, are thankful to our publisher, Springer Singapore, for continuous
support throughout this project. We acknowledge the generous support of all the
contributors who spared their precious time in scripting the chapters for this edited
volume. We are grateful to the reviewers for their thoughtful comments and sug-
gestions, which have been very helpful for improving the manuscripts. We express
our special thanks to the Bamboo Research Institute, Nanjing Forestry University,
and Aligarh Muslim University for all their support.
Zishan Ahmad
Yulong Ding
Anwar Shahzad
xi
Contents
1 Bamboo: Origin, Habitat, Distributions and Global Prospective . . . 1

Zishan Ahmad, Anamica Upadhyay, Yulong Ding,
Abolghassem Emamverdian, and Anwar Shahzad
2 Molecular Markers in Bamboos: Understanding Reproductive
Biology, Genetic Structure, Interspecies Diversity, and Clonal
Fidelity for Conservation and Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Enéas Ricardo Konzen, Luciano Cesar Pozzobon,
Denys Matheus Santana Costa Souza, Sérgio Bruno Fernandes,
Wellington Ferreira Campos, Gilvano Ebling Brondani,
Dulcinéia de Carvalho, and Siu Mui Tsai
3 Standard Protocols for in Vitro Propagation of Bamboo with
Emphasis on Axillary Shoot Proliferation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Víctor M. Jiménez, Andrea Holst, Paula Carvajal-Campos,
and Eric Guevara
4 Somatic Embryogenesis in Bamboos: Advances and Prospects . . . . 85
Luiza Giacomolli Polesi, Leila do Nascimento Vieira,
Miguel Pedro Guerra, and Hugo Pacheco de Freitas Fraga
5 Initiation and Establishment of Cell Suspension Cultures
in Bamboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fernanda Furlan Queiroz, Inaê Mariê de Araújo Silva-Cardoso,
and Jonny Everson Scherwinski-Pereira
6 Foliar-Anatomical Adaptations of Micropropagated Plants
of Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees Towards
Photoautotrophic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Mahipal S. Shekhawat, Bharat S. Rajput, and M. Manokari
xiii
xiv Contents
7 Micropropagation of Bamboos and Clonal Fidelity Assessment

Using Molecular Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Leimapokpam Tikendra, Ravish Choudhary,
Rajkumari Sanayaima Devi, Abhijit Dey,
Angamba Meetei Potshangbam, and Potshangbam Nongdam
8 Standardization of Laboratory to Land Transfer Strategies
of Micropropagated Plantlets of Bamboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Kalpataru Dutta Mudoi, Himangshu Lekhak, Nilakshi Borah,
Debashish Bora, and Siddhartha Proteem Saikia
9 Management of Bamboo Genetic Resources and Clonal
Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Enéas Ricardo Konzen, Denys Matheus Santana Costa Souza,
Sérgio Bruno Fernandes, Gilvano Ebling Brondani,
Dulcinéia de Carvalho, and Wellington Ferreira Campos
10 Polymorphism and Phylogenetic Relationships in Bamboo . . . . . . . 229
Irfan Bashir Ganie, Alin Liana, Zishan Ahmad, and Anwar Shahzad
11 Transgenic Approaches in Bamboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Irfan Bashir Ganie, Anwar Shahzad, Zishan Ahmad,
Najat A. Bukhari, and Kahkashan Parveen
12 Advances in the Conservation of Bamboo Genetic Resources
Through Whole Seed Cryopreservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Jonny Everson Scherwinski-Pereira, Jênifer Silva Nogueira,
Janaína Medeiros Vasconcelos, Joane dos Santos Neves,
and Talita Aparecida Balzon
13 Application of Biotechnological Tool in Bamboo Improvement . . . . 291
Anwar Shahzad, Sabaha Tahseen, Adla Wasi, Zishan Ahmad,
and Akil A. Khan
14 Ethnobamboology: Traditional Uses of Bamboos and
Opportunities to Exploit Genomic Resources for Better
Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Souradeep Banerjee, Mridushree Basak, Smritikana Dutta,
Chhandam Chanda, Abhijit Dey, and Malay Das
15 Bamboo Flowering in South America: What the Past Tells
about the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Carolina Guerreiro and Andrea S. Vega
16 Molecular Markers in Bamboo Genotyping: Prospects for
Conservation and Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Lucina Yeasmin and Md. Nasim Ali
Contents xv
17 Application of Bamboo in the Food and Pharmaceutical

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Oinam Santosh, Harjit Kaur Bajwa, Madho Singh Bisht,
and Nirmala Chongtham
18 Functional Pasta: A Comparative Study of the Use of Bamboo
Fibers and White Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Amanda Rios Ferreira, Felipe Gianasi,
Thaisa de Menezes Alves Moro, Mária Herminia Ferrari Felisberto,
Elisa Cristina Andrade Neves, and Maria Teresa Pedrosa Silva Clerici
19 Bamboo Fiber as a Substitute for Fat and/or Sugar in Cookies . . . . 447
Mária Herminia Ferrari Felisberto, Patricia Satie Endo Miyake,
Amanda Rios Ferreira, Thaísa de Menezes Alves Moro,
Elisa Cristina Andrade Neves, and Maria Teresa Pedrosa Silva Clerici
20 Practical Applications of Bamboo as a Building Material:
Trends and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Siew Choo Chin
Chapter 1
Bamboo: Origin, Habitat, Distributions
and Global Prospective
Zishan Ahmad, Anamica Upadhyay, Yulong Ding,

Abolghassem Emamverdian, and Anwar Shahzad
Abstract Bamboo is the multifunctional and fastest-growing plant on Earth. Bam-

boo has played a crucial role in the daily life of millions of people in tropical
countries, where it provides environmental, social and economic benefits. Bamboo
belongs to the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Today, the
native bamboo distributes mainly in Asia, America and Africa, but Europe is unable
to claim any native bamboo species. Approximately 123 genera and more than 1500
species of bamboo plant have been identified across the world. The natural distri-
bution of bamboo across the tropical and subtropical regions is dependent on the
type of soil, rainfall, temperature and altitude. The latitudinal distribution of bamboo
ranges from 47 S to 50 300 N, while the altitudinal distribution from sea level
to 4300 m. The occurrence of bamboo is therefore associated with the area mostly
mesic to wet forest types in both temperate and tropical regions. However, there are
some other bamboos reported to be adapted for open grasslands or narrow habitat.
The present chapter is aiming to summarize the details of bamboo origin, habitat and
global distribution. The classification of Bambusoideae has been also given. More-
over, an overview of important bamboo genera and species has been discussed.
Keywords Bamboo diversity · Bamboo habitats · Bamboo classification · Woody

bamboo
Z. Ahmad · Y. Ding (*) · A. Emamverdian

Bamboo Research Institute, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, People’s Republic
of China
Co-innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University,
Nanjing, Jiangsu, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: ylding@vip.163.com
A. Upadhyay · A. Shahzad
Plant Biotechnology Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
Z. Ahmad et al. (eds.), Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1310-4_1
2 Z. Ahmad et al.
1.1 Introduction
Bamboo is a versatile group of plants that comes under the subfamily Bambusoideae
of the family Poaceae. From the beginning of civilization up to nowadays, bamboo
has played an immensely important part in the daily lives of human beings, and
therefore, this plant is known as “the plant of multifunctional uses” (Amada and
Untao 2001; Wooldridge 2012; Sharma et al. 2014). Bamboo grows fast and matures
early, due to which, its plantation is good over other forestry species. One more
significant advantage in comparison to other forest plant species is that bamboo can
harvest multiple times within a few years because of its fast growth rates. Nowadays,
the native bamboo distributes mainly in Asia, America and Africa. There is no native
bamboo species in Europe; nevertheless, a lot of species were introduced and
cultivated in Europe. The use of bamboo stem is wide, and its major quantity is
utilized as raw material for housing, utensils, agricultural applications, handicraft
items, packing materials, paper and pulp industry, etc. (Singh 2008). Bamboo is
inextricably linked to human beings as it fulfils the need for shelter, clothing and
many other items (Wooldridge 2012; Chaowana 2013). Therefore, commonly,
bamboo described as “friend of people”, “poor man’s timber”, “green gasoline”
and “the cradle to coffin timber” (Singh 2008). Bamboo serves as an important
resource for living organisms like pandas and many other organisms.
The distribution of bamboo plants over the subtropical and tropical regions
naturally depends on several conditions like rainfall, soil type, temperature and
altitude. Bamboos naturally grow in those areas that receive annual rainfall and
vary from 1200 to 4000 mm approximately, and the annual average temperature
varies from 8 to 36 C approximately. They grow well in different types of soils like
sandy soils, loamy soils, hard lateritic soils and rich alluvium soils. Except Antarc-
tica and Europe, bamboos are native to all continents and distributed 47 S to
50 300 N latitudinal and 4, 300 m from the sea level in altitude (Judziewicz et al.
1999; Ohrnberger 1999). The multipurpose application of bamboo hardly rivalled
with other plants of plant kingdom. However, bamboos are complex plants and
difficult to identify and classify, but considering the ecological and economic
importance, the correct identification and classification are a critical step. This
chapter deals with the up-to-date information of bamboo origin, habitat and its
global prospective. Bamboo taxonomical identification and classification system
on the basis of morphological and molecular characteristics has been also discussed.
Moreover, the end section of this chapter provides an overview of important bamboo
genera and species.
1.2 Bamboo Origin, Habitat and Diversity
The origin of bamboo will be discussed based on the evolution of the grass,
distribution centre, fossil evidence and the basal lineage of grass. It deals with
where and when its origin and the possible ancestor. The utilization of bamboo
1 Bamboo: Origin, Habitat, Distributions and Global Prospective 3
can be dated back to 3500 years ago. In order to better use bamboo, the ancient
people started to give names of different bamboos. The first monograph of bamboo
named “Zhu Pu” in the world was written by Dai Kai-zhi (317–420 A.C.) from Jin
Dynasty. In his book, the morphological and biological characters, distributions and
usages of more than 60 bamboos were described. He also modified the definition of
bamboo from grass to “Bamboo is a non-wood, non-grass strange plant”.
In fact, the English word bamboo” in west literature was originated from the
Indian name “Mambu”. In India, the local people collected one kind of substance
from a plant named “Mambu” or “Saccar Mambu” as medication which was called
“Tabaxir” later. In fact, the first bamboo classification in Europe was done by Georg
Eberhard Rumpf (1750) who divided the bamboos into eight classes, all with the
name Arundo. On this basis, Linnaeus in 1753 used the name Arundo bambos which
included all bamboos up to his time, from which the genus name Bambusa was later
adapted. This classification system was used with little change by Linnaeus (1753).
The number of bamboo species known to science has risen sharply since Linnaeus
published only one species, Arundo bambos (Bambusa bambos), in his Species
Plantarum. One hundred fifteen years later (1868), a new list of 170 species and
21 genera of bamboo was issued by Munro who published a monograph of the
Bambuseae and classified the bamboo in three divisions.
In 1881, Gamble proposed a classification system in which he recognized 4 sub-
tribes, 14 genera and 151 species. In 1883, Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plantarum 3
(2), Bambuseae, modified the system of Munro, so instead of three divisions, four
subtribes were introduced. About 30 years later (1913), French botanist E.G. Camus
adopted Munro’s system of classification. In his publication, he listed 33 genera and
490 species of bamboo, including many of the herbaceous bamboos. During the
1980s–1990s, a few bamboo classification systems were published by Clayton and
Renvoize (1986), Soderstrom and Ellis (1987), Dransfield and Widjaja (1995)
and Stapleton (1998). More recently, a new system based on the molecular data was
built by Kelchner and Bamboo Phylogeny Group (2013). According to Ohrnberger
(1999), a number of species of woody bamboos purely occurring in the countries of
the Asia-Pacific region, Africa and Americas have been listed in Table 1.1.
Bamboo plant species is naturally distributed globally in all continents except
Antarctica and Europe; however, a few years ago, some species of bamboo plants
had been introduced in Europe (Akinlabi et al. 2017; Wu et al. 2020). In terms of
altitudinal and latitudinal, distribution of bamboo plants ranges from sea level to
4300 m and 47 S to 50 300 N, respectively (Soderstrom and Calderon 1979,
Ohrnberger 1999, Judziewicz et al. 1999, Liese and Tang 2015). In an ecological
area, bamboo plants are dominant in subtropical and tropical regions (Ohrnberger
1999, Jiang 2007, Akinlabi et al. 2017, Wu et al. 2020). However, its occupancy also
includes coniferous forests, temperate deciduous forests, mountainous forests, low-
land tropical forests, wetter forests, grasslands, etc., and therefore bamboo plants
occupied a broad range of habitat types. A description of bamboo species occurrence
and habitats has been summarized in Table 1.2.
Bamboo has the richest diversity in Asia. There are about 50 genera and 900 spe-
cies which is about 75% of the total species in the world. The largest national
complement of species is for China, which had about 600 described species,
4 Z. Ahmad et al.
Table 1.1 Naturally occurring bamboo species

Number of naturally occurring bamboo
Country species
Asia-Pacific Australia 2
Bhutan 1
Brunel 1
China 583
Hong Kong 3
India 40
Indonesia 29
Japan 75
Republic of Korea 2
Laos 4
Malaysia 26
Myanmar 30
Nepal 6
Papua New 15
Guinea
Philippines 14
Sri Lanka 6
Thailand 4
Vietnam 38
Africa Madagascar 32
Tanzania 1
North, Central and South Argentina 2
America Belize 1
Bolivia 2
Brazil 110
Chile 10
Colombia 15
Costa Rica 13
Cuba 6
Ecuador 14
El Salvador 1
Guyana 2
Martinique 1
Mexico 17
Panama 1
Paraguay 1
Peru 15
Trinidad and 2
Tobago
United States 1
Uruguay 1
Venezuela 32
Table 1.2 Bamboo species occurrence and habitats

Bamboo species Occurrence Habitats References
Acidosasa Asia Dry or evergreen sub- Stapleton (1994a, b, c),
tropical forests Li and Xue (1997), BPG
(2012)
Actinocladum Brazil Lowland bamboos Soderstrom and
Calderon (1979),
Judziewicz et al. (1999)
Alvimia America, Asia Lowland tropical Soderstrom and
bamboos Londoño (1988),
Dransfield (1992, 1994)
Arundinaria Eastern United Woodlands and forests, Yang and Xue (1990),
States, China, mostly along rivers Triplett et al. (2006), Dai
Japan, North et al. (2011)
America
Aulonemia Brazil Andean montane for- Judziewicz et al. (1999),
ests, mono-dominant Viana et al. (2013)
stands at high
elevations
Bambusa China, Mexico, Lowland moist tropical Soderstrom and
India, Vietnam forests, lower montane Calderon (1979),
forests Seethalakshmi and
Kumar (1998),
Judziewicz et al. (1999),
BPG (2012)
Bashania China Montane forests Taylor and Qin (1997),
Li and Xue (1997)
Bergbambos India, Tropical mountain Soderstrom and Ellis
South Africa, Sri grasslands and (1982); Soderstrom et al.
Lanka shrublands (1988)
Cambajuva Brazil Mono-dominant stands Judziewicz et al. (1999),
at high elevations Viana et al. (2013)
Chimonobambusa China, Myanmar Montane forests, wetter Stapleton (1994a, b, c),
side of mountain ranges Taylor and Qin (1997),
Li and Xue (1997)
Chusquea America, Argen- Andean montane for- Soderstrom and
acuminatissima, tina, Brazil, Chile, ests, Araucaria forests, Londoño (1988),
C. aristata, Mexico, Atlantic forests, cloud Dransfield (1992, 1994),
C. tessellate, forest, highest elevation Judziewicz et al. (1999),
C. guirigayensis, (4000–4400 m), mon- Fisher et al. (2009), BPG
C. villosa tane forests, (2012)
Nothofagus, pine oak fir
forests
Cryptochloa Argentina, Brazil, Lower montane forests Judziewicz et al. (1999),
America, Mexico Judziewicz and Clark
(2007)
(continued)
6 Z. Ahmad et al.
Table 1.2 (continued)

Dendrocalamus America, China, Lowland moist tropical Soderstrom and
strictus Colombia, India, forests or lower mon- Calderon (1979), Gadgil
Madagascar, tane forests and Prasad (1984), Rao
Mexico and Ramakrishnan
(1988), Seethalakshmi
and Kumar (1998),
Ruiz-Sanchez (2011),
BPG (2012)
Dinochloa America, Asia Lowland tropical Soderstrom and
Drepanostachyum Asia, Central Evergreen subtropical Stapleton (1994a, b, c),
Himalayas forests, seasonally dry Li and Xue (1997), BPG
forests (2012)
Ekmanochloa America, Argen- Savannas (semi- BPG (2012), Ferreira
tina, Brazil, Mex- deciduous seasonal et al. (2013)
ico, West Indies forests)
Eremocaulon Mexico Lowland moist tropical Soderstrom and
forests or lower mon- Calderon (1979),
tane forests Seethalakshmi and
Kumar (1998),
BPG (2012)
Fargesia Asia, China, Montane forests, tem- Li and Xue (1997), Tay-
Japan, Madagas- perate mountains lor and Qin (1997), Li
car, Sri Lanka et al. (2006), BPG
(2012)
Fargesia China, Himalaya Might elevations Li et al. (2006)
yulongshanensis
Filgueirasia Brazil Lowland bamboos Soderstrom and
Calderon (1979),
Judziewicz et al. (1999)
Gigantochloa China, Mexico Lowland moist tropical Soderstrom and
Kumar (1998),
BPG (2012)
Guadua paniculata Amazon Basin, Lowland moist tropical Soderstrom and
America, China, forests or lower mon- Calderon (1979), Gadgil
Colombia, India, tane forests and Prasad (1984), Rao
Mexico, and Ramakrishnan
Madagascar (1988), Seethalakshmi
and Kumar (1998),
Ruiz-Sanchez (2011),
BPG (2012)
(continued)

Hickelia America, Asia Lowland tropical Soderstrom and
Holttumochloa Southeast Asia Montane forests Dransfield (1992),
Wong (1993)
Indosasa Asia, China Montane forests, dry or Stapleton (1994a, b, c),
evergreen subtropical Li and Xue (1997), Tay-
forests lor and Qin (1997), BPG
(2012)
Kuruna India, Tropical mountain Soderstrom and Ellis
South Africa, Sri grasslands and (1982); Soderstrom et al.
Lanka shrublands 1988
Lithachne Brazil, America, Near the equator, lower Judziewicz et al. (1999),
Colombia, Cuba, montane forests Judziewicz and Clark
Mexico, Panama (2007), BPG (2012)
Merostachys Brazil Atlantic forests Judziewicz et al. (1999)
Nastus borbonicus Argentina, Chile Montane forests Judziewicz et al. (1999),
BPG (2012)
Neomicrocalamus America, Asia Lowland tropical Soderstrom and
Ochlandra Asia, Africa, Reed-like thickets Seethalakshmi and
Australia, India, along stream banks Kumar (1998), BPG
Sri Lanka (2012), Gopakumar and
Motwani (2013)
Olyra (O. latifolia) Argentina, Amer- Near the equator, lower Judziewicz et al. (1999),
ica, Brazil, montane forests Judziewicz and Clark
Colombia, Cuba, (2007), BPG (2012)
Panama Mexico
Otatea America, Colom- Drier forests Soderstrom and
bia, India, Mexico, Calderon (1979), Gadgil
Madagascar and Prasad (1984), Rao
and Ramakrishnan
and Kumar (1998),
Ruiz-Sanchez (2011)
Pariana Amazonian, Lowland tropical mon- Judziewicz et al. (1999),
America, Argen- tane forests Judziewicz and Clark
tina, Brazil, (2007)
Bolivia, Costa
Rica, Mexico
Perrierbambus America, Colom- Drier forests Soderstrom and
bia, India, Mexico, Calderon (1979), Gadgil
Madagascar and Prasad (1984), Rao
and Ramakrishnan
and Kumar (1998),
Ruiz-Sanchez (2011)
(continued)
8 Z. Ahmad et al.

Raddiella America, Argen- Lower montane forests Judziewicz et al. (1999),
(R. esenbeckii) tina, Brazil, Judziewicz and Clark
Mexico (2007)
Racemobambos Southeast Asia, Montane forests, low- Soderstrom and
America land tropical bamboos Londoño (1988),
Dransfield (1992, 1994),
Wong (1993)
Reitzia Brazil Atlantic forests Judziewicz et al. (1999)
Rhipidocladum Brazil Andean montane Judziewicz et al. (1999)
forests
Sasa China, Korea and Wetter forests Noguchi and Yoshida
Japan (2005), Tsuyama et al.
(2011)
Sasamorpha China, Korea and Wetter forests Noguchi and Yoshida
Japan (2005), Tsuyama et al.
(2011)
Sarocalamus China Wetter side of mountain Stapleton (1994a, b, c)
ranges
Schizostachyum China, Mexico Lowland moist tropical Soderstrom and
Kumar (1998),
BPG (2012)
Sinobambusa Asia Dry or evergreen sub- Stapleton (1994a, b, c),
tropical forests Li and Xue (1997), BPG
(2012)
Thamnocalamus Central Himalayas Seasonally dry Stapleton (1994a, b, c)
Vietnamosasa Indochina Grassland Stapleton (1998)
Yushania Asia, China, Montane forests, wetter Stapleton (1994a, b, c),
Japan, Madagas- side of mountain Li and Xue (1997), Tay-
car, Sri Lanka ranges, temperate lor and Qin (1997), Li
mountains et al. (2006), BPG
(2012)
followed by India (102 species) and Japan (84 species). The bamboo area in Asia is
about 25 million hm2; among them, India ranks first with about nine million hm2,
while China has about 6.4 million hm2. Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam,
Laos, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Japan, Bangladesh, South Korea, Sri Lanka,
Nepal and other countries have about ten million hm2. In America, there are
21 genera and 345 species, but it mainly distributes in Latin America, with only
3 species in southeast part of the United States. However, the biodiversity of bamboo
is the richest in this region. In Africa, about 13 genera and 40 species were
recognized. But the bamboo forests distribute mainly in East Africa, like Tanzania,
Kenya, Zambia, Ghana, Ethiopia, Uganda, Mozambique and Madagascar.
1.3 Taxonomical Identification of Bamboo
As bamboo is a highly adaptable plant in different environmental conditions, it is

difficult to identify or classify. Moreover, on the basis of ecological characteristics
and the economic importance, identification of bamboo species was done. In the
whole world, approximately 123 genera and more than 1500 species of bamboo plant
have been identified (Steinfeld 2001; Nguyen 2006; Chaowana 2013). Bamboo
belongs to the monocotyledonous flowering plants in the group angiosperms. Bam-
boo plant is basically divided into two major parts, the underground part of stem
known as rhizomes and the upper portion, i.e. stem known as culms (Steinfeld 2001).
Rhizomes of the bamboo are mostly sympodial, and they store the nutrients for their
growth and development along with the sustenance of the plant in the ground.
Rhizomes also contain the meristematic buds which further grow into shoots and
emerge from the ground to form the group of culms. The culm of the bamboo plant is
cylindrical in shape and contains most of the woody material of the plant (Ahmed and
Kamke 2005). The culm is subdivided by multiple sections which are called nodes or
diaphragms, and the part of the culm is between the two adjacent nodes called
internodes (Amada and Untao 2001). Bamboo culm is hollow and has a thick wall,
due to which, it ideals with the formation of household products, etc. The diameter of
bamboo culm is ranging from 0.64 to 30.48 cm, and its height ranges from 1 foot to
120 feet (Amada and Untao 2001). Bamboo culm does not have bark, but it has
smooth outer skin which is hard in nature because of the presence of silica. Bamboo
culms bear branches and foliage leaves. Species of bamboo differ from each other in
the sense of growth style of culm, i.e. it may be erect with droopy tips or simple erect,
and also, it may be arched or clambering type (Akinlabi et al. 2017). Bamboo has the
main characteristic of having high tensile strength compared to mild steel for the load-
bearing capacity, and this is because bamboo has a natural composite material made
up of cellulose fibres which immersed in a matrix of lignin that gives of an average
700 MPa tensile resistance (Janssen 2000; Li and Shen 2011).
1.4 Classification of Bamboo
On the basis of morphological as well as molecular characteristic features, bamboo is

classified into three tribes, namely, Arundinarieae, Bambuseae and Olyreae.
Arundinarieae includes temperate woody bamboos, Bambuseae includes tropical
bamboos, and Olyreae includes herbaceous bamboos (Sungkaew et al. 2009;
BPG 2012; Kelchner and Bamboo Phylogeny Group 2013). Recently, bamboos
(i.e. Bambusoideae) is considered as part of the subfamily of Poaceae,
i.e. Grasses family (GPWG 2001; GPWG II 2012), and these are found to be the
most diversified grasses in the global forests (Zhang and Clark 2000; Judziewicz and
Clark 2007; Sungkaew et al. 2009). According to GPWG (2001) and BPG (2012), there
are approximately 115 to 119 genera and more than 1500 species of bamboos where
10 Z. Ahmad et al.
Bambusoideae
(subfamily of Poaceae)
>1500 species
Bambuseae
Olyreae
(tropical bamboos)
(herbaceous bamboos)
>812 species
>123
Arundinarieae Neotropical Paleotropical
woody woody
(temperate woody
bamboos bamboos
bamboos)
Olyrinae
>545 species Bambusinae
Arthrostylidine Buergersiochloinae
Hickeliine Parianinae
Chusqueinae
Melocanninae
Guaduinae
Racemobambosinae
Fig. 1.1 Classification of Bambusoideae
Arundinarieae consists of about 533 to 546 bamboos, Bambuseae contains about

784–813 bamboos and Olyreae has only about 122–124 bamboos (Fig. 1.1). Tribe
Bambuseae is further subdivided into two clades, namely, neotropical woody bamboos
and paleotropical woody bamboos. Neotropical woody bamboos are again categorized
into three subtribes, namely, Arthrostylidium, Chusqueinae and Guaduinae.
Paleotropical woody bamboos are categorized into four subtribes, namely, Bambusinae,
Hickeliinae, Melocanninae and Racemobambosinae. Further, tribe Olyreae are
subdivided into three subtribes, namely, Olyrinae, Buergersiochloinae and Parianinae.
Morphologically, woody bamboos can be distinguished from the herbaceous bamboos
as they have lignified culms, culm leaves and outer ligules, while herbaceous bamboos
are made up of weekly lignified culms only (BPG 2012). Moreover, woody bamboos
have the characteristic feature of monocarpic flowering with bisexual spikelets, while
herbaceous bamboos have unisexual spikelets with seasonal flowering. Furthermore,
olyroid silica found in the herbaceous bamboos is absent in the case of woody bamboos.
1.5 Bamboo Culm and Its Development
The culm is the main material for utilization. It can reach the maximum height in
about 60 days. So, bamboo is considered the most fast-growing plant. No matter it is
a sympodial or monopodial bamboo, a culm is only one piece of the branch of one
ramet. It developed from the buds on the rhizome or on the culm prope. Some
bamboo species are shooting in spring, some in summer and some in autumn. The
differentiation of the buds may be affected by temperature and the endogenous
hormone.
The most important process of culm development includes bud differentiation,
primary thickening growth, elongation growth and maturation. There are already
quite a lot of publications that deal with the development of the culm, but there still
remain a lot of questions which need to continue the investigation. For example, the
culm sheath plays an important role by shoot elongation growth. But there are very
few little publications that deal with this aspect. During the primary thickening, how
the vascular bundles differentiate remains unknown. The mechanism of the fibre
thickening during the maturation of culm is still a mysterious matter. Culm devel-
opment occurs in two phases: (1) Newly unbranched shoots having culm leaves that
elongate to their full length takes place. (2) Elongated culm lignification and
development of branches along with the production of foliage leaves take place.
The longevity of culms is varied among species to species, but generally they persist
for 5–10 years (McClure 1966), and usually 3–5-year-old culms are treated as
mature culms. The age of culms is an important parameter in the management of
bamboo forest. Moreover, the age of bamboo can also be determined by counting the
base node (leaf scar) on the leaf sheath present in the twig of a culm of bamboo
(Banik 2000). Leaves of a bamboo fall in 1 year or 1 ½ year, and new leaves are
developed from the near one node of leaf fall region keeping leaf scar marks on twig.
Therefore, within 12–15 months of culm age, mark of one leaf scar is formed, and
after in the next 24–30 months of culm age, another mark of leaf scar is formed.
Therefore, in the third year of culm age, total three marks of leaf scar are formed in
the twig.
1.6 Difference in Characteristics of Bamboo in Reference

to Trees
“In the plant kingdom, there is one kind of plant called bamboo, which is different from
both trees and grasses. It is a strange plant”. This definition was described by Dai
Kaizhi (AC 420–479), who write the first monograph of bamboo. Bamboo is evergreen
with a special leaf blade. The anatomical structure is also different from those of grass.
Bamboo has no secondary growth. Bamboo has a special branching pattern and has no
main trunk. Bamboo has a very long vegetative growth cycle and propagates mainly by
clones. A differential description of bamboo and trees is summarized in Table 1.3.
12 Z. Ahmad et al.
Table 1.3 Differences in the characteristic features of bamboos and trees

S. No. Bamboos characteristics Tree characteristics
1 Stem, i.e. culm is hollow and segmented Stem is solid and unsegmented
2 Peripheral region of the culm is the hardest Central region of the stem is the hardest
part of the plant part of the plant
3 Culm has no bark Stem has bark (secondary phloem + cork)
4 Culm grows very fast and reaches its full Stem grows slowly in height as well as in
height in a single season (as its height diameter for many seasons
reaches up to 36 m tall within 4–6 months)
5 Conducting tissues, i.e. xylem and phloem Conducting tissues, i.e. xylem and phloem
lie together inside the vascular bundle are separated by vascular cambium inside
the vascular bundle
6 Due to the absence of vascular cambium, Due to the presence of vascular cambium,
culm does not grow in diameter with the stem grows in diameter with the age
age
7 Harvesting of culms directly effects on the Harvesting of stems does not directly
clump community affect on the remaining tree
8 Culm depends on the other in a clump Stem grows independently
because it grows in association with the
network of rhizome
9 Culm has no radial, i.e. lateral, communi- Stem has radial communication through-
cation except at the internodes out its length
10 Underground part consists of both rhizome Underground part does not have rhizome
and roots and consist of only roots
1.7 An Overview of Important Genera and Species

of Bamboos
There are 123 genera and more than 1500 species of bamboos in the world (GPWG
2001; BPG 2012; Steinfeld 2001; Nguyen 2006; Chaowana 2013). They are native
to Asia, America, Africa and Oceania. The most important feature of bamboos is
being sympodial and its discrete clump form. A brief description of some important
bamboo genera and species has been given in Table 1.4. Similarly, the important
species of high economic use in China, South America and Africa has been listed
below.
Phyllostachys edulis, the most important bamboo in China (Fig. 1.2).
Phyllostachys violascens, an important shoot production bamboo in Yangtze Delta
region (Fig. 1.3). Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Bambusa oldhamii, two important
shoot production bamboos in South China (Figs. 1.4 and 1.5). Dendrocalamus
brandisii an important shoot production bamboo in south Yunnan Province
(Fig. 1.6). Chimonobambusa utilis, an important shoot production in southwest
China (Fig. 1.7). Dendrocalamus farinosus, Bambusa rigida and Bambusa
emeiensis, important species for pulp industry in China (Figs. 1.8, 1.9 and 1.10).
Guadua angustifolia, the most important species for construction in South America
Table 1.4 Overview of some important genera and species of bamboos
Characteristic features
Genus Species Geographical distribution Brief description Uses
Bambusa B. arundinacea Bangladesh, China, India, Indone- It is a versatile bamboo, having Culm used in artefacts, pulp and
sia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, thick culm internodes. It is thorny paper industry, handicrafts, river
Thailand, Vietnam in nature. Its culm height is up to bank stabilization, land
30 m, thickness about 18 cm and rehabilitation
wall thickness approx. 2.5 to 5 cm.
It can withstand 2 C temperature
B. balcooa Australia, Bangladesh, India, Its culm height is up to 24 m, Culm used in construction of
Indonesia diameter up to 15 cm and wall artefacts, pulp and paper, furni-
thickness approx. 2.5 cm ture, handicrafts, river bank stabi-
lization, land rehabilitation
B. blumeana China, Borneo, Java, Malaysia, It is a giant thorny bamboo and Culms used in construction of
Philippines, Papua Guinea, Suma- green in colour with prominent artefacts, handicrafts, furniture,
tra, Thailand nodes. Its culm height is up to pulp and paper, chopsticks, river-
15–25 m and diameter up to 20 cm. bank stabilization, rehabilitation
They can be propagated by seeds, of degraded land
layering, culm and rhizome
cuttings
B. polymorpha Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Its culm height up to 16 and 25 m, Culms used in construction of
1 Bamboo: Origin, Habitat, Distributions and Global Prospective
Thailand diameter up to 15 cm and its wall artefacts, handicrafts, furniture

thickness up to 1 cm. It can be and buildings. Its shoots are edible
propagated by seeds, layering, also
culms, offset and rhizome cuttings
B. textilis China It is a medium-sized bamboo. Its It is a high-quality bamboo. Culm
cum height is up to 15 m and is used in artefacts, handicrafts
diameter up to 3–5 cm. Its wall is and weaving purpose because it
thin and delicate in nature. It can be splits easily. Its shoots are edible
propagated by seeds, culms and also
offset cuttings
13
(continued)
14
B. tulda Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Its culm height is up to 30 m, Culms used in construction arte-
Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, diameter up to 5–10 cm and wall facts, paper and pulp, handicrafts,
Vietnam thickness approx. 1 cm. It can be furniture and architectural works
propagated by seeds, marcotting,
culms, rhizomes and offset cuttings
B. vulgaris Found in all regions where bamboo This bamboo is strong and medium Culms used in construction of
can grow easily, i.e. temperate, to large with having open clumps. artefacts, furniture, handicrafts,
tropical and subtropical regions Its culm height is up to 20 m, architectural works and
diameter up to 5–10 cm and wall manufacturing of pulp and paper
thickness approx. 1.5 cm. This
bamboo is easy to propagate
because it is tremendously vegeta-
tive in nature, and therefore it
mostly propagated by branch cut-
tings, layering, marcotting and
culm, offset and rhizome cuttings.
Its culms and internodes are
curved. This species is of two
varieties. One is B. vulgaris vittata
and characterized by having yellow
culm, and the other is B. vulgaris
wamin and characterized by having
green culm. These are grown as
ornamental plants
Cephalostachyum C. pergracile China, India, Java, Myanmar, It is a medium-sized bamboo and is Culms used in construction of
Thailand having straight culms. Its culm artefacts, handicrafts and weaving
height is up to 30 m and its wall is of baskets. It used as an ornamen-
thin. They can be propagated by tal plant also
using seeds but mostly propagated
Z. Ahmad et al.
by culm and offset cuttings because
it is tremendously vegetative
species
Dendrocalamus D. asper Bangladesh, China, India, Indone- These bamboos possess large Culms used in construction of
sia, Laos, Malaysia culms whose height is up to artefacts, handicrafts, furniture,
Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, 20–30 m, diameters up to 8–20 cm musical instruments and architec-
Thailand, Vietnam and wall thickness approx. 2 cm. It tural works
can be propagated by culm, offset Its shoots are edible also
and branch cuttings
D. giganteus Bangladesh, China, Ghana, India, This bamboo is made up of huge Culms used in construction of
Indonesia, Kenyan, Myanmar, and large culm and green to dark artefacts, handicrafts, structural
Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam bluish green in colour. Its culm works, building,bamboo boards
height is up to 25–60 m, diameter and pulp. Its shoots are edible also
up to 10–20 cm and wall thickness
approx. 2.5 cm. It can be propa-
gated by layering, marcotting,
macroproliferation, culms, branch
and rhizome cuttings
D. lactiferous China, India, Japan, Myanmar, This bamboo is having medium- Culm used in construction of
Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, sized culms. It grows well in areas artefacts, handicrafts, furniture,
Vietnam with high rainfall. Its culm height is pulp and architectural works
up to 14–25 m, diameter up to
8–20 cm and wall thickness
approx. 0.5–3 cm. It can be propa-
gated by marcotting, layering and
culm cuttings
D. strictus India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand This bamboo has medium-sized Culms used in construction of
culm. Its culm height up to 8–20 m artefacts, handicrafts, structural
and diameter up to 2.5–8 cm, and works, bamboo boards, building,
its wall is thick but not straight. It pulp and household utensils. Its
can be propagated by seeds, shoots are also edible
15
(continued)
16
layering, marcotting,
macroproliferation and culm and
rhizome cuttings
Gigantochloa G. apus India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myan- This is a large bamboo. Its culm Culm used in construction of
mar, Thailand height is up to 8–30 m, diameter up artefacts, handicrafts, musical
to 4–13 cm and wall thickness instruments, structural works,
approx. 1.5 cm which is strongly building, pulp and household
tufted in nature. It is propagated by utensils. Its shoots are edible, but
culm and offset cuttings it has bitter in taste
G. levis China, Indonesia, Kalimantan, This bamboo has large culm. Its Culms used in construction of
Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam culm height is up to 30 m, diameter artefacts, handicrafts, walls, furni-
up to 5–16 cm and wall thickness ture, pulp and paper, architectural
approx. 1–1.2 cm. It is propagated works and household utensils. Its
by culm and offset cuttings shoots are having high edible
quality
G. pseudoarundinacea China, India, Java, Malaysia, Its culm height is up to 7–30 m, Culms used in construction of
Sumatra diameter up to 5–13 cm and wall artefacts, handicrafts, toothpicks,
thickness approx. 2 cm which is structural works and household
strong in nature. It is propagated by utensils. Its shoots are edible also
culms and branch cuttings
Guadua G. angustifolia Argentina, China, India, Mexico This is a large bamboo, and it can Culms used in construction of
be easily identified by their aes- artefacts, handicrafts, furniture,
thetic feature like its dark green pulp, structural works, building
culm having white node bands. Its and bamboo boards
culm height is up to 30 m, diameter
up to 20 cm and wall thickness
approx. 1.5 cm with strongly tufted
Z. Ahmad et al.
in nature. It is propagated by culms
and offset cuttings
Melocanna M. baccifera Bangladesh, China, India, Indone- This is a large bamboo species. Its Culms used in construction of
sia, Myanmar, Vietnam culm height is up to 10–25 m and handicrafts, structural works,
diameter up to 5–9 cm, but its wall roofing, walls, weaving of mats,
is thin approx. 0.5–1.2 cm. The pulp and paper. Its shoots are used
important feature of this species is in the preparation of liquor, and
its culm tips are pendulous in also it is edible
nature and this produces the largest
fruit in the grass family. It is prop-
agated by seeds and culm cuttings
Phyllostachys P. edulis China, Europe, Japan, Korea, USA, This species of bamboo is medium Culm used in construction of
Vietnam to large in size. Its culm height is handicrafts and in structural works
up to 10–20 m and diameter up to
18–20 cm, having a white waxy
covering. It is propagated by seeds
and offset cuttings
Thyrsostachys T. siamensis Indochina and Myanmar This bamboo has densely clumped, Culms used in construction of
and its sheath on the culm is obsti- handicrafts, walls, furniture,
nate with single white ring below structural works, pulp and paper.
nodes. Its culm height is up to It is also used as an ornamental
8–16 m and diameter up to 2–6 cm, plant. Its shoots are edible also
and its wall is thin in nature. It is
propagated by seeds,
macroproliferation and offset
cuttings
17
18 Z. Ahmad et al.
Fig. 1.2 Phyllostachys edulis. (a, b) plantation. (c, d) Shoot culms. PC: Prof. Yulong Ding
(Fig. 1.11). Oxytenanthera abyssinica, an important bamboo in lowland found in

Africa (Fig. 1.12).
Fig. 1.3 Phyllostachys violascens. (a, b) plantation. (c) New shoot. PC: Prof. Yulong Ding
20 Z. Ahmad et al.
Fig. 1.4 Dendrocalamus latiflorus. (a) Plantation. (b) Shoot. (c) Culm with new culms. PC: Prof.
Yulong Ding
Fig. 1.5 Bambusa oldhamii. (a) Plantation. (b) New shoot. (c) Harvesting shoot. PC: Prof.
Yulong Ding
22 Z. Ahmad et al.
Fig. 1.6 Dendrocalamus brandisii. (a) Plantation. (b) New shoot. (c) Culm. PC: Prof.
Yulong Ding
Fig. 1.7 Chimonobambusa utilis. (a, b) Plantation. (c) New shoot. PC: Prof. Yulong Ding
24 Z. Ahmad et al.
Fig. 1.8 Dendrocalamus farinose. (a, b) Plantation. (c) Shoot. PC: Prof. Yulong Ding
Fig. 1.9 Bambusa rigida. (a, b) Plantation. (c) New culms. PC: Prof. Yulong Ding
26 Z. Ahmad et al.
Fig. 1.10 Bambusa emeiensis. (a, c) Plantation. (b) New shoot. PC: Prof. Yulong Ding
Fig. 1.11 Guadua angustifolia. (a) Plantation. (b, c) New shoot. PC: Prof. Yulong Ding
28 Z. Ahmad et al.
Fig. 1.12 Oxytenanthera abyssinica. (a) Plantation. (b) Shoot. PC: Prof. Yulong Ding
1.8 Conclusions
Bamboo is one of the fast-growing and high-demand plants; however, its sustain-
ability is at higher risk, and a critical examination for its renewability is a much-
needed step to meet its traditional and modern demands. Its capacity to grow in
almost any climate and ready to harvest in 3–5 years as compared to the other woody
plants makes it a more versatile plant. For thousands of years, the bamboo plant has
not been depleted despite its regular uses; however, the introduction of more
advanced methods to make bamboo more resourceful is needed to be examined to
avoid any consequences that claim its sustainability.
Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation for Scholars of China (31870595) and the Priority Academic Program Development of
Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions.
Conflict of Interest There is no conflict of interest.
Author Contribution ZA and AU wrote the manuscript. YD, AE and AS reviewed and added to
the review. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
References
Ahmed M, Kamke FA (2005) Analysis of Calcutta bamboo for structural composite materials:
physical and mechanical properties. Wood Sci Technol 39:448–459
Akinlabi ET, Anane-Fenin K, Akwada DR (2017) Bamboo—the multipurpose plant. Springer,
Switzerland
Amada S, Untao S (2001) Fracture properties of bamboo. Compos B 32:451–459
Banik RL (2000) Silviculture and field-guide to priority bamboos of Bangladesh and South Asia.
BFRI, Chittagong, pp 1–187
Bamboo Phylogeny Group [BPG] (2012) An updated tribal and subtribal classification of the
bamboos (Poaceae: Bambusoideae). In: Gielis J, Potters G (eds) Proceedings of the 9th world
bamboo congress. Antwerp, Belgium, pp 3–27
Chaowana P (2013) Bamboo: an alternative raw material for wood and wood-based composites. J
Mater Sci Res 2(2):90
Clayton WD, Renvoize SA (1986) Genera graminum, Grasses of the world, Vol XIII, Kew bulletin
additional series. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, p 389
Dai L-M, Wang Y, Su D-K, Zhou L, Yu D-P, Lewis BJ, Qi L (2011) Major forest types and the
evolution of sustainable forestry in China. Environ Manag 48:1066–1078
Dransfield S (1992) The bamboos of Sabah. Sabah forest records no. 14. Forestry Department,
Sabah, Malaysia, p 94
Dransfield S (1994) The genus Hickelia (Gramineae-Bambusoideae). Kew Bull 49:429–443
Dransfield S, Widjaja EA (eds) (1995) Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 7: Bamboos.
Backhuys, Leiden, p 189
Ferreira FM, Dorea MC, Leite KRB, Oliveira RP (2013) Eremitis afimbriata and E. magnifica
(Poaceae, Bambusoideae, Olyreae): two remarkable new species from Brazil and a first record of
blue iridescence in bamboo leaves. Phytotaxa 84:31–34
Fisher A, Triplett JK, Ho C-S, Schiller A, Oltrogge K, Schroder E, Kelchner SA, Clark LG (2009)
Paraphyly in the Chusqueinae (Poaceae: Bambusoideae: Bambuseae). Syst Bot 34:673–683
Gadgil M, Prasad SN (1984) Ecological determinants of life history evolution of two Indian
bamboo species. Biotropica 16:161–172
Gopakumar B, Motwani B (2013) Adaptive strategies of reed bamboos, Ochlandra spp., to the
Western Ghat habitats of India. Bamboo Sci Cult 26:33–40
Grass Phylogeny Working Group [GPWG] (2001) Phylogeny and subfamilial classification of the
grasses (Poaceae). Ann Missouri Bot Gard 88:373–457
Grass Phylogeny Working Group [GPWG II] (2012) New grass phylogeny resolves deep evolu-
tionary relationships and discovers C4 origins. New Phytol 193:304–312
Janssen JJA (2000) Designing and building with bamboo. International Network for Bamboo and
Rattan Technical Report No. 29. pp 207
Jiang Z (2007) Bamboo pulp and paper making (Chapter 11); bamboo charcoal. Vinegar and active
carbon (Chapter 13). In: Bamboo and rattan in the world. China Forestry Publishing House,
Beijing, pp 178–198. 214–226
Judziewicz EJ, Clark LG (2007) Classification and biogeography of New World grasses:
Anomochlooideae, Pharoideae, Ehrhartoideae and Bambusoideae. Aliso 23:303–314
Judziewicz EJ, Clark LG, Londoño X, Stern MJ (1999) American bamboos. Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington, DC, p 392
30 Z. Ahmad et al.
Kelchner SA, Bamboo Phylogeny Group (2013) Higher level phylogenetic relationships within the
bamboos (Poaceae: Bambusoideae) based on five plastid markers. Mol Phylogenet Evol
67:404–413
Li D-Z, Wang Z-P, Zhu Z-D, Xia N-H, Jia L-Z, Guo Z-H, Yang G-Y, Stapleton C (2006)
Bambuseae. In: Wu Z-Y, Raven PH, Hong D-Y (eds) Flora of China: Poaceae, vol 22. Science
Press, Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing, St. Louis, pp 7–180
Li DZ, Xue JR (1997) The biodiversity and conservation of bamboos in Yunnan, China. In:
Chapman GP (ed) The bamboos. Academic, London, pp 83–94
Li H, Shen S (2011) The mechanical properties of Bamboo and vascular bundles. J Mater Res 26
(21):2749–2756
Liese W, Tang TKH (2015) Morphology and growth. In: Liese W, Kohl M (eds) Bamboo: the plant
and its uses. Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, pp 227–253
Linnaeus C (1753) “Species Plantarum,” vol.1. London, pp 392
McClure FA (1966) The bamboos: a fresh perspective. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, p 347
Nguyen HN (2006) Bamboos of Vietnam. Agricultural Publishing House
Noguchi M, Yoshida T (2005) Factors influencing the distribution of two co-occurring dwarf
bamboo species (Sasa kurilensis and Sasa senanensis) in a conifer-mixed broadleaved stand in
northern Hokkaido. Ecol Res 20:25–30
Ohrnberger D (1999) The bamboos of the world: annotated nomenclature and literature of the
species and the higher and lower taxa. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p 585
Rao KS, Ramakrishnan PS (1988) Architectural plasticity of two bamboo species, Neohouzeaua
dulloa Camus and Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees in successional environment in North-East
India. Proc Indian Acad Sci (Plant Sci) 98:121–133
Ruiz-Sanchez E (2011) Biogeography and divergence time estimates of woody bamboos: insights
in the evolution of Neotropical bamboos. Bol Soc Bot Me’x 88:67–75
Seethalakshmi KK, Kumar MSM (1998) Bamboos of India: a compendium. Kerala Forest Research
Institute, Peechi. India and International Network for Bamboo and Rattan, New Delhi, p 342
Sharma B, Gatóo A, Bock M, Mulligan H, Ramage M (2014) Engineered bamboo: State of the art.
Proc Inst Civil Eng. https://doi.org/10.1680/coma.14.00020
Singh O (2008) Bamboo for sustainable livelihood in India. Silviculture division, Forest Research
Institute, Dehradun, pp 1193–1198
Soderstrom TR, Calderon CE (1979) V. Ecology and phytosociology of bamboo vegetation. In:
Numata M (ed) Ecology of grasslands and bamboolands in the world. VEB Gustav Fischer
Verlag, Jena, pp 223–236
Soderstrom TR, Ellis RP (1982) Taxonomic status of the endemic South African bamboo,
Thamnocalamus tessellatus. Bothalia 14:53–67
Soderstrom TR, Ellis RP (1987) The position of bamboo genera and allies in a system of grass
classification. In: Soderstrom TR, Hilu KW, Campbell CS, Barkworth ME (eds) Grass system-
atics and evolution. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, pp 225–238
Soderstrom TR, Londoño X (1988) A morphological study of Alvimia (Poaceae: Bambuseae), a
new Brazilian bamboo genus with fleshy fruits. Am J Bot 75:819–839
Soderstrom TR, Judziewicz EJ, Clark LG (1988) Distribution patterns of neotropical bamboos. In:
Vanzolini PE, Heyer RE (eds) Proceedings of a workshop on neotropical distribution patterns,
Academia Brasileira de Ciencias, Rio de Janeiro, pp 121–157
Stapleton CMA (1994a) The bamboos of Nepal and Bhutan Part I: Bambusa, Dendrocalamus,
Melocanna, Cephalostachyum, Teinostachyum, and Pseudostachyum (Gramineae: Poaceae,
Bambusoideae). Edinb J Bot 51:1–32
Stapleton CMA (1994b) The bamboos of Nepal and Bhutan Part II: Arundinaria, Thamnocalamus,
Borinda and Yushania (Gramineae: Poaceae, Bambusoideae). Edinb J Bot 51:275–295
Stapleton CMA (1994c) The bamboos of Nepal and Bhutan Part III: Drepanostachyum,
Himalayacalamus, Ampelocalamus, Neomicrocalamus and Chimonobambusa. Edinb J Bot
51:301–330
Stapleton CMA (1998) Form and function in the bamboo rhizome. J Am Bamb Soc 12(1):21–29
Steinfeld C (2001) A bamboo future. Environmental Design and Construction, pp 1–5

Sungkaew S, Stapleton CMA, Salamin N, Hodkinson TR (2009) Non-monophyly of the woody
bamboos (Bambuseae; Poaceae): a multi-gene region phylogenetic analysis of Bambusoideae
s.s. J Plant Res 122:95–108
Taylor AH, Qin Z-S (1997) The dynamics of temperate bamboo forests and panda conservation in
China. In: Chapman GP (ed) The bamboos. Academic, London, pp 189–203
Triplett JK, Weakley A, Clark LG (2006) Hill cane (Arundinaria appalachiana), a new species of
woody bamboo (Poaceae: Bambusoideae) from the Southern Appalachian Mountains. SIDA
22:79–95
Tsuyama I, Nakao K, Matsui T, Higa M, Horikawa M, Kominami Y, Tanaka N (2011) Climatic
controls of a keystone understory species, Sasamorpha borealis, and an impact assessment of
climate change in Japan. Ann For Sci 68:689–699
Viana P, Filgueiras T, Clark LG (2013) A new genus of woody bamboo (Poaceae: Bambusoideae:
Bambuseae) endemic to Brazil. Syst Bot 38:97–103
Wong KM (1993) Four new genera of bamboos (Gramineae: Bambusoideae) from Malesia. Kew
Bull 48:517–532
Wooldridge M (2012) Booming bamboo: The next super-material? BBC News Magazine 3
Wu R, Nan X, Yan H, Yang F, Shi Y, Bao Z (2020) A survey on the history of the introduction of
bamboo from China to the United States (1898-2010) and the application of bamboo in urban
greening. Urban For Urban Green 55:1–13
Yang Y-M, Xue J-R (1990) A preliminary study on the natural bamboo forests in the Dawei
Mountain of southeastern Yunnan. J Southwest For Coll 10:22–29
Zhang W-P, Clark LG (2000) Phylogeny and classification of the Bambusoideae (Poaceae). In:
Jacobs SWL, Everett J (eds) Grass systematics and evolution. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp 35–42
Chapter 2
Molecular Markers in Bamboos:
Understanding Reproductive Biology,
Genetic Structure, Interspecies Diversity,
and Clonal Fidelity for Conservation
and Breeding
Enéas Ricardo Konzen, Luciano Cesar Pozzobon,

Denys Matheus Santana Costa Souza, Sérgio Bruno Fernandes,
Wellington Ferreira Campos, Gilvano Ebling Brondani,
Dulcinéia de Carvalho, and Siu Mui Tsai
Abstract Molecular markers have revolutionized analyses in population genetics,

enabling precise estimates of the amount of genetic variability and how it is
distributed within and among populations. The high diversity of bamboos, distrib-
uted throughout the world and of high economic relevance, has deserved several
studies on molecular characterization. This chapter describes how distinct categories
of molecular markers, such as isozymes, RAPD, AFLP, microsatellites, and SNP,
have enabled the analysis of population genetic processes, assessments of the genetic
diversity, and structure of natural populations and selected cultivars of bamboo
species. One important application is their power of phylogenetic inference, enabling
the distinction of the diverse set of bamboo species. With the genomic technologies,
gene families have been characterized, mainly for Phyllostachys edulis, which has its
genome sequenced and deposited to databases, enabling the detection of markers
related with environmental constraints. As vegetative propagation is a common
mechanism in bamboos and their cultivation relies on this strategy, molecular
markers have been important for attesting genetic fidelity to their original source
E. R. Konzen (*) · L. C. Pozzobon

Center for Coastal, Lymnological and Marine Studies, North Coastal Campus, Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul, Imbé, RS, Brazil
D. M. S. C. Souza · S. B. Fernandes · G. E. Brondani · D. de Carvalho
Department of Forestry Sciences, Federal University of Lavras, Lavras, MG, Brazil
W. F. Campos
Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Unaí, MG, Brazil
S. M. Tsai
Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 33
Z. Ahmad et al. (eds.), Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1310-4_2
34 E. R. Konzen et al.
of propagules. Altogether, we provide a panorama of several applications of molec-

ular markers to bamboo conservation and breeding.
Keywords Genetic diversity · Genetic fidelity · Microsatellites · Phylogenomics ·

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms
2.1 Introduction
Only a few decades back in the 1960s or even in the 1970s and 1980s, taxonomy
involved almost exclusively the use of morphological traits to differentiate one
species from another. Genetic variation of populations was also accounted for
based on morphological variation. It was in the mid-1960s that Lewontin and
Hubby revealed the application of protein electrophoresis to quantify genetic vari-
ation in populations of fruit flies (Lewontin and Hubby 1966). Soon enough,
isozyme electrophoresis spread throughout the world. Numberless population
genetic studies were produced, unraveling genetic systems of a diverse set of
species, including plants. A revolution to that began with the use of markers directly
at the level of DNA, in the 1980s. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms
(RFLP) enabled not only population genetic structure but also the development of
linkage maps (Tanksley et al. 1989). The development of polymerase chain reaction
accelerated the discovery of molecular markers of various types in a few laboratory
steps. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) (Williams et al. 1990) and
amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) (Vos et al. 1995) filled in count-
less issues of scientific journals in the 1990s and early 2000s. Simple sequence
repeats (SSR) or microsatellites (Litt and Luty 1989) became more popular and
are still being largely employed for population genetic studies that require the
distinction of heterozygotes, such as in studies of genetic diversity, structure,
paternity and system of mating. Currently, single-nucleotide polymorphisms
(SNP) prevail, as those are the most abundant markers in organisms, accounting
for the variation in a single base.
As members of the Poaceae family, bamboos comprise up to 1662 species and
121 genera described so far (Canavan et al. 2017), with broad distribution through-
out the world. Extensive molecular marker-based surveys have been carried out to
constantly improve the resolution of phylogenetic trees of such species (Bamboo
Phylogeny Group 2012; Wysocki et al. 2015). Besides taxonomy and molecular
phylogenetics, molecular markers have also been employed for the study of bam-
boos for diverse purposes such as genetic diversity and structure of populations,
genetic fidelity assessment in clonal populations, candidate gene search for growth,
and developmental processes, among others. The emerging field of epigenomics has
also been explored in a few studies so far. It is the aim of this chapter to describe the
fundamental applications of molecular markers to bamboos, briefly accounting for
the main methods that have been employed, either PCR or gel-based, or obtained
directly from sequencing. Up-to-date studies on genomics and perspectives into
other “omics,” such as epigenomics and phylogenomics, are also discussed.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
grades of the service, from his humble situation as a pastrycook’s
boy to the highest dignities in the state, was a practical reproof to the
indolent and ignorant nobility, who were now taught to feel that merit
was the only recommendation to the favour of the czar. The old
system of promotion was closed. The claims of birth and the pride of
station ceased to possess any influence at court. The great body of
the people, impressed with the justice that dictated this important
change in the dispensation of honour and rewards, began for the first
time to be inspired with a spirit of emulation and activity; and exactly
in proportion as Peter forfeited the attachment of the few, whose
power was daily on the decline, he drew around him the mixed
wonder and allegiance of the many, whose power he was daily
enlarging. Thus were laid the foundations of a mighty empire in the
hearts of a scattered population, as various in habits and in language
as it had always been discordant in interests and disunited in action.
Having acquired this valuable possession, and secured himself in
St. Petersburg against the Swedes, it was the profound policy of
Peter to keep up the war between Charles and Augustus, with a view
to weaken by diversion the strength of the former. He accordingly
made a great offer of assistance to the dethroned king, and
despatched General Repuin with six thousand horse and six
thousand foot to the borders of Lithuania; while he advanced in
person into Courland at the head of a strong force. Here he received
a severe check, having fallen in with the Swedish general
Lewenhauft, who defeated the Russians after an obstinate battle, in
which the czar’s troops lost between five thousand and six thousand
men, and the Swedes no more than two thousand. Peter,
notwithstanding, penetrated into Courland, and laid siege to the
capital, which surrendered by capitulation. On this occasion the
Swedes degraded themselves by committing an extensive pillage in
the palace and archives of the dukes of Courland, descending even
into the mausoleums to rob the dead of their jewels. The Russians,
however, before they would take charge of the vaults, made a
Swedish colonel sign a certificate that their sacrilegious depredations
were the acts of his own countrymen.
POLISH AFFAIRS
The greatest part of Courland, as well as the whole of Ingria, had

now been conquered in detail by Peter, and, as Charles was still
engrossed by his operations in Poland and Saxony, he returned to
Moscow to pass the winter; but intelligence of the approach of the
Swedish king at the head of a powerful force towards Grodno, where
the combined armies of Russia and Saxony were encamped,
recalled him from his repose. Peter immediately hastened to the
field, and found all the avenues occupied by Swedish troops. A battle
ensued near Frauenstadt, in which the flower of the confederated
battalions, under the command of General Schullemberg, to the
number of eighteen thousand men, six thousand of whom were
Russians, suffered a complete defeat. With an insignificant
exception, they were nearly all slain. Some authorities attribute this
disaster to the treachery of a French regiment, which had the care of
the Saxon artillery; but it is certain that the most sanguinary atrocities
were committed on both sides, in a contest upon the issues of which
two crowns appeared to be dependent.
The consequences of this overthrow would have been immediately
fatal to Augustus, but for the energy of the czar, who, rapidly
organising an army of twenty thousand men, urged that wavering
prince to take advantage of the absence of Charles in Saxony, and
throw himself once more into Poland. A revolt in Astrakhan called
Peter into that part of his territories; but he deputed General Patkul,
a brave Livonian, who had formerly made his escape from the hands
of Charles, and had passed from the service of Augustus into that of
the czar, to explain the necessity of the measure. Augustus yielded
to the advice of his ally, and marched into Poland; but he had no
sooner made good his progress than, suddenly panic-struck by the
increasing successes of Charles, he resolved to sue for peace upon
any terms at which it could be procured. He accordingly invested two
ambassadors with full powers to treat confidentially with Charles,
and had the temerity to cast Patkul into prison. While the
plenipotentiaries were negotiating this shameful treaty at the camp of
Charles XII, Menshikov joined the forces of Augustus at Kalish with
thirty thousand men. The
consternation of Augustus at this
unexpected reinforcement was
indescribable; and his confusion
amounted almost to despair
upon the receipt of intelligence
that ten thousand Swedes,
under the command of General
Meierfeldt, were on their march
to give him battle.
In this dilemma he transmitted
a private message to General
Meierfeldt to inform him of the
negotiation he had opened with
his master; but that general,
naturally treating the whole affair
as a mere pretext to gain time,
made preparations for hostilities.
The superior force of the
Russians decided the fate of the
day, and, after having defeated
the Swedes with great slaughter,
Wife of a Merchant of Kalonga
they entered Warsaw in triumph.
Had Augustus relied upon the
energy and friendship of his ally,
he would now have been replaced upon his throne; but the timidity
that tempted him to cast himself upon the mercy of Charles was
prolific of misfortunes. He had scarcely entered Warsaw as a victor
when he was met by his own plenipotentiaries, who placed before
him the treaty they had just concluded, by which he had forfeited the
crown of Poland forever. His humiliation was complete. Thus the
weak and vacillating Augustus, fresh from a triumph that ought to
have placed him upon the throne of Poland, was a vassal in its
capital, while Charles was giving the law in Leipsic and reigning in
his lost electorate.
His struggles to escape from the disgrace into which his folly and
his fears had plunged him only drew down fresh contempt upon his
head. He wrote to Charles a letter of explanation and apology, in
which he begged pardon for having obtained a victory against his
will, protesting that it was entirely the act of the Russians, whom it
was his full intention to have abandoned, in conformity with the
wishes of Charles; and assuring that monarch that he would do
anything in his power to render him satisfaction for the great wrong
he had committed in daring to beat his troops. Not content with this
piece of humility, and fearing to remain at Warsaw, he proceeded to
Saxony, and, in the heart of his own dominions, where the members
of his family were fugitives, he surrendered in person to the
victorious Swede. Charles was too conscious of his advantages not
to avail himself of them to the full, and not only made the timid
Augustus fulfil all the stipulations of the treaty, by which he
renounced the crown of Poland, abandoned his alliance with the
czar, surrendered the Swedish prisoners, and gave up all the
deserters, including General Patkul, whom Augustus had arrested by
a violation of good faith, but he forced him to write a letter to
Stanislaus, congratulating him on his accession to the throne. The
unfortunate Patkul was no sooner delivered into the hands of
Charles than he condemned him to be broken on the wheel and
quartered.
The timid and treacherous conduct of Augustus and the deliberate
cruelty of Charles drew from Peter expressions of unbounded
indignation. He laid a statement of the whole circumstances before
the principal potentates of Europe, and declared his determination to
use all the means in his power to drive Stanislaus from the throne of
Poland. The first measure he adopted was the holding of a
conference with several of the Polish grandees, whom he completely
gained over to his side by the suavity of his manners. At a
subsequent meeting it was agreed that the throne of Poland was in
fact vacant, and that a diet should be summoned for the purpose of
electing a king. When the diet assembled, Peter urged upon their
attention the peculiar circumstances in which the country was
placed, and the impossibility of effecting any substantial resistance
against the ambitious intrigues of Charles, unless a new king were
placed upon the throne. His views were confirmed by the voice of the
assembly, who agreed to the public declaration of an interregnum,
and to the investiture of the primate in the office of regent until the
election should have taken place.
CHARLES XII INVADES RUSSIA (1707 A.D.)
But while these proceedings were going

[1707 a.d.] forward at Lublin, King Stanislaus, who had
been previously acknowledged by most of the
sovereigns of Europe, was advancing into Poland at the head of
sixteen Swedish regiments, and was received with regal honours in
all the places through which he passed. Nor was this the only danger
that threatened to arrest the course of the proposed arrangements
for the settlement of the troubles of Poland. Charles, whose
campaign in Saxony had considerably enriched his treasury, was
now prepared to take the field with a well-disciplined army of forty-
five thousand men, besides the force commanded by General
Lewenhaupt; and he did not affect to conceal his intention to make
Russia the theatre of war, in which purpose he was strengthened by
an offer on the part of the Porte to enter into an offensive alliance
with him against Peter, whose interference in the affairs of Poland
excited great jealousy and alarm in Turkey. Charles calculated in
some degree upon the support he might receive from the Russians
themselves, who, he believed, would be easily induced to revolt
against Peter, in consequence of the innovations he had introduced
and the expenses that he would be likely to entail upon them by a
protracted war.
But the people of Russia were well aware that mere personal
ambition did not enter into the scheme of Peter, and that, although
he had broken through many antiquated and revered customs, yet
that he had conferred such permanent benefits upon the empire as
entitled him to their lasting gratitude. Whatever prospects of success,
therefore, Charles might have flattered himself upon deriving from
the dissatisfaction of the great mass of the community were evidently
vague and visionary. But the argument was sufficient for all his
purposes in helping to inspire his soldiers with confidence. About this
time the French envoy at the court of Saxony attempted to effect a
reconciliation between Charles and the czar, when the former made
his memorable reply that he would treat with Peter in Moscow; which
answer being conveyed to Peter produced his equally memorable
commentary—“My brother Charles wishes to play the part of
Alexander, but he shall not find a Darius in me.”
Rapid preparations were made on both sides for the war which
had now become inevitable. In the autumn of 1707 Charles
commenced his march from Altranstadt, paying a visit to Augustus at
Dresden as he passed through that city, and hastening onwards
through Poland, where his soldiers committed such devastations that
the peasantry rose in arms against them. He finally fixed his winter
quarters in Lithuania. During the time occupied by these movements
Peter was wintering at Moscow, where, after an absence of two
years, he had been received with universal demonstrations of
affection. He was busily occupied in inspecting the new
manufactories that had been established in the capital, when news
reached him of the operations of the Swedish army. He immediately
departed, and, with six hundred of the guards established his
headquarters in the city of Grodno. Charles no sooner heard of his
arrival at that place than, with his usual impetuosity, he hastened
forwards with only eight hundred men to besiege the town.
By a mistake, the life of Peter was nearly sacrificed. A German
officer, who commanded the gate towards which Charles
approached, imagining that the whole Swedish army was advancing,
fled from his post and left the passage open to the enemy. General
consternation prevailed throughout the city as the rumour spread;
and the victorious Charles, cutting in pieces the few Russians who
ventured to contest his progress, made himself master of the town.
The czar, impressed with the belief that the report was true, retreated
behind the ramparts, and effected his escape through a gate at
which Charles had placed a guard. Some Jesuits, whose house,
being the best in the town, was taken for the use of Charles,
contrived in the course of the night to inform Peter of the real
circumstances; upon which the czar re-entered the city, forced the
Swedish guard, and contended for possession in the streets. But the
approach of the Swedish army compelled him at last to retire, and to
leave Grodno in the hands of the conqueror.
The advance of the Swedes was now marked by a succession of
triumphs; and Peter, finding that Charles was resolved to pursue
him, and that the invader had but five hundred miles to traverse to
the capital, an interval unprotected by any places of consequence,
with the exception of Smolensk, conceived a masterly plan for
drawing him into a part of the country where he could obtain neither
magazines nor subsistence for his army, nor, in case of necessity,
secure a safe retreat. With this design he withdrew to the right bank
of the Dnieper,[40] where he established himself behind sheltered
lines, from which he might attack the enemy at an advantage,
preserving to himself a free communication with Smolensk, and
abundant means of retreat over a country that yielded plentiful
resources for his troops.
In order to render this measure the more certain, he despatched
General Goltz at the head of fifteen thousand men to join a body of
twelve thousand Cossacks, with strict orders to lay waste the whole
province for a circle of thirty miles, and then to rejoin the czar at the
position he had taken up on the bank of the Dnieper. This bold
movement was executed as swiftly as it was planned; and the
Swedes, reduced to immediate extremity for want of forage, were
compelled to canton their army until the following May. Accustomed,
however, to the reverses of war, they were not daunted by danger or
fatigue, but it was no longer doubtful that both parties were on the
eve of decisive events. They regarded the future, however, with very
different hopes. Charles, heated with victories, and panting for
further acquisitions, surveyed the vast empire, upon the borders of
which he now hung like a cloud, as if it were already within his grasp;
while Peter, more wary and self-possessed, conscious of the
magnitude of the stake for which he fought, and aware of the great
difficulties of his situation, occupied himself in making provision
against the worst.c
REVOLT OF THE COSSACKS OF THE DON; MAZEPPA

Meantime there were foes at home that had demanded the
attention of he czar.a The strelitz were not the only military body
belonging to old Russia whose existence had become incompatible
with the requirements of a modern state. The undisciplined Cossack
armies, which had hitherto formed a rampart for Russia against
barbarian hordes, were also to undergo transformation. The empire
had many causes of complaint against the Cossacks, particularly
those of the Ukraine and the Don who had formerly sustained the
usurper, Dmitri, and from whose ranks had issued the terrible Stenka
Radzin.
In 1706 the Cossacks of the Don had revolted against the
government of the czar because they were forbidden to give asylum
in their camp to refugee peasants or taxpayers. The ataman
Boulavine and his aids, Nekrassov, Frolov, and Dranyi, called them
to arms. They murdered Prince George Dolgoruki, defeated the
Russians on the Liskovata, took Tcherkask, and menaced Azov, all
the while proclaiming their fidelity to the czar and accusing the
voyevods of having acted without orders. They were in turn defeated
by Vasili Dolgoruki, Bulavin was murdered by his own soldiers and
Nekrassov with only two thousand men took refuge in the Kuban.
After clearing out the rebel camps Dolgoruki wrote: “The chief traitors
and mutineers have been hung, together with one out of ten of the
others; and all the bodies have been placed on rafts and allowed to
drift with the current that the Dontsi may be stricken with terror and
moved to repent.”
Since the disgrace of Samoilovitch, Mazeppa had been the
hetman of the Little Russian Cossacks in Ukraine. Formerly a page
of John Casimir, king of Poland, he had in his youth experienced the
adventure made famous by the poem of Lord Byron and the pictures
of Horace Vernet. Loosened from the back of the untamed horse that
fled with him to the deserts of Ukraine, he at once took rank in the
Cossack army, and rose by means of treachery, practised against all
the chiefs in turn, to fill the highest posts in the military service. His
good fortune created for him numerous enemies; but the czar, who
admired him for his intelligence and had faith in his fidelity, invariably
delivered over to him his detractors. He put to death the monk
Solomon for revealing his intrigues with Sophia and the king of
Poland, and later denunciators shared the same fate.
Ukraine, meanwhile, was being undermined by various factions. In
the Cossack army there was always a Russian party, a party that
wished to restore the Polish domination, and a party which designed
to deliver over the country to the Turks. In 1693 Petrik, a Turkish
chief, invaded Ukraine but failed in his attempts at subjugation.
Moreover, profound dissent existed between the army and the
sedentary populations of Ukraine. The hetman was constantly
scheming to make himself independent, the officers of the army
objected to rendering an account of their actions to others, and the
soldiers wished to live at the country’s expense without working or
paying taxes. The farmers, who had founded the agricultural
prosperity of the country, the citizens in towns who were not secure
in the pursuit of their avocations, the whole peaceful and laborious
population, in fact, longed to be free from this turbulent military
oligarchy and called upon the czar at Moscow to liberate them.
Mazeppa represented the military element in Ukraine and knew
that he was odious to the quiet classes. The czar showered proofs of
confidence upon him, but Mazeppa had reason to fear the
consolidation of the Russian state. The burdens that the empire
imposed upon the vassal state were day by day becoming heavier,
and the war against Charles XII served to increase them still more.
There was everything to fear from the imperious humour and
autocratic pretensions of the czar, and the imminent invasion of the
Swedes was certain to precipitate a crisis; either Little Russia would
become independent with the aid of strangers, or their defeat on her
soil would deal the death-blow to her prosperity and hopes for the
future. Knowing that the hour was approaching when he should be
obliged to obey the white czar Mazeppa allowed himself to be drawn
into communication with Stanislaus Leszczynski, the king of Poland
elected by the Swedish party. The witty princess Dolskaia gave him
an alphabet in cipher. Hitherto Mazeppa had given over to the czar
all letters containing propositions of betrayal, just as the czar had
surrendered to him his accusers. On receiving the letters of the
princess he remarked with a smile: “Wicked woman, she wishes to
draw me away from the czar.”
When, however, the hand of the sister of Menshikov was refused
to one of his cousins, when the Swedish war and the passage of
Muscovite troops limited his authority and increased taxation in his
territory, when the czar sent urgent injunctions for the equipment of
troops after the European fashion, and he could feel the spirit of
rebellion against Moscow constantly growing around him, he wrote
to Leszczynski that though the Polish army was weak in numbers it
had his entire good will. His confidant Orlik was in the secret of all
these manœuvres, and several of his subordinates who had divined
them undertook to denounce him to the czar. The denunciation was
very precise and revealed all the secret negotiations with the
emissaries of the king and of the princess Dolskaia; but it failed
before the blind confidence of the czar. Palei, one of the
denunciators, was exiled to Siberia; Iskra and Kotchonbei, the
remaining two, were forced by torture to avow themselves
calumniators, and were then delivered over to the hetman and
beheaded. Mazeppa realised that good fortune such as his could not
long endure, and the malcontents urged upon him the consideration
of the common safety. At this juncture Charles XII arrived in the
neighbourhood of Little Russia. “It is the devil who brings him here!”
cried Mazeppa, and placed between his two powerful enemies he
exerted all his craft to preserve the independence of his little state
without giving himself into the hands of either Charles XII or Peter
the Great. When the latter invited him to join the army he feigned
illness; but Menshikov approaching simultaneously with Charles XII,
it was necessary to make a choice. Mazeppa left his bed, rallied his
most devoted Cossacks about him, and crossed the Desna for the
purpose of effecting a junction with the Polish army. At this the czar
issued a proclamation denouncing the treason of Mazeppa, his
alliance with the heretics, his plots to bring Ukraine once more under
vassalage to Poland and to restore the temples of God and the holy
monasteries to the uniates. Mazeppa’s capital, Baturin, was taken by
Menshikov and rased to the ground, his accomplices perished on the
wheel or the scaffold.g
MAZEPPA JOINS CHARLES XII; PULTOWA
Mazeppa with his army passed over the

[1708-1709 a.d.] Desna; his followers, however, believed they
were being led against Charles, and deserted
their hetman as soon as his views were known, because they had
more to fear from Peter than to hope from Charles. The hetman
joined the Swedes with only seven thousand men, but Charles
prosecuted his march and despised every warning. He passed the
Desna; the country on the farther side became more and more
desolate, and appearances more melancholy, for the winter was one
of the most severe; hundreds of brave Swedes were frozen to death
because Charles insisted upon pursuing his march even in
December and January. The civil war in Poland in the mean time
raged more violently than ever, and Peter sent divisions of his
Russians to harass and persecute the partisans of Stanislaus. The
three men who stood in most immediate relation to the Swedish king,
Piper, Rehnskold, and Levenhaupt, belonged, indeed, among the
greatest men of their century; but they were sometimes disunited in
their opinions, and sometimes incensed and harassed by the
obstinacy of the king.
Mazeppa fell a sacrifice to his connection with Charles, his
residence (Baturin) was destroyed by Menshikov, and his faithful
Cossacks, upon Peter’s demand, were obliged to choose another
hetman (November, 1708). Neither Piper nor Mazeppa could move
the obstinate king to relinquish his march towards the ill-fortified city
of Pultowa. Mazeppa represented to him in vain that, by an attack
upon Pultowa he would excite the Cossacks of the Falls
(Zaparogians) against him; and Piper entreated him, to no purpose,
to draw nearer to the Poles, who were favourable to his cause, and
to march towards the Dnieper; he continued, however, to sacrifice
his men by his march, till, in February (1709), a thaw set in.
He was successful in gaining the favour of the Zaparogians
through their hetman, Horodenski; but fortune had altogether
forsaken the Swedes since January. In that month they were in
possession of Moprik; in February, the battles at Goronodek and
Rashevka were decided in favour of the Russians; in March,
Sheremetrev took Gaditch, which was occupied by the Swedes, and
thereby gave a position to the Russian army which could not but
prove destructive to the Swedes, who were obliged to besiege
Pultowa without the necessary means, because their intractable king
insisted upon the siege. In April and May, the Swedes exerted
themselves in vain in throwing up trenches before the miserable
fortifications of Pultowa, whilst the Russians were enclosing them in
a net. One part of the Russians had already passed the Vorskla in
May, and Peter had no sooner arrived, in the middle of June, than
the whole army passed the river, in order to offer a decisive
engagement to the invaders.
Rehnskold acted as commander-in-chief at the battle of Pultowa;
for Charles had received a dangerous wound in his foot ten days
before, and was unable to mount his horse. The Swedes on this day
performed miracles of bravery, but everything was against them, for
the Russians fought this time at least for their country, and had at
length gained experience in the field. The defeat of the Swedes is
easily explained, when it is known that they were in want of all the
munitions of war, even powder and lead, that they were obliged to
storm the enemy’s fortifications in opposition to an overwhelming
numerical force, and that Levenhaupt and Rehnskold were so much
disunited in opinion that the former, in his report of the engagement
at Pultowa, makes the bitterest complaints against the commander-
in-chief, which have since that time been usually adopted by all
historians. Of the whole Swedish army, only fourteen or fifteen
thousand under Levenhaupt and Kreuz succeeded in erecting an ill-
fortified camp on the Dnieper, where they were shut up by the
Russians and the river.
This small force might possibly have succeeded in fighting its way
into Poland, and Charles had at first adopted this determination; he
was, however, with great trouble, induced to pass the Dnieper, and
accompanied by a small guard, to take refuge in Turkey. His plan
was to reach the Bug over the pasture lands which then belonged to
the Tatars on the Black Sea, and, aided by the Turks and the Tatars,
to make his way first to Otchakov and then to Bender, whence he
hoped to persuade the Turks to take part in the Polish affairs. As
soon as the king had escaped (July 10th, 1709), Levenhaupt,
mourning over the sacrifice which the wilfulness of Charles had
brought upon his Swedes, concluded a capitulation, in virtue of
which all the baggage and artillery were surrendered to the
Russians, together with the remnant of the Swedish army, which,
calculating those who had been taken prisoners in the battle,
amounted in all to about eighteen thousand men.
Charles’ flight to Bender, and his long residence of five years in
Turkey, were the most favourable events which could have occurred
for the accomplishment of Peter’s great plans. He was now master in
Poland. In the Swedish, German, and French adventurers who had
been in Charles’ army, he received the very best instructors of his
people. Among those who entered into his service, there were
experienced officers, artillerymen, architects, and engineers.
The Swedes, who for thirteen long years were neither set at liberty
nor accorded by their impoverished country the usual support of
prisoners of war, were distributed over the whole of Russia, and sent
far into Siberia. They founded schools and institutions, in order to get
a livelihood, and used their knowledge and experience against their
will for the promotion of Peter’s designs. This was the more
important, as there was not a man among those many thousand
prisoners who was not in a condition to teach the Russians to whom
he came something of immediate utility, drawn from his experience
in his native land. Many never returned to their homes, because they
had raised up institutions and commenced undertakings which were
as advantageous to themselves as to the Russian Empire.e
PETER THE GREAT AT THE BATTLE OF PULTOWA
(Painted for The Historians’ History of the World by

Thure de Thulstrup)
PETER AND THE POWERS
A treaty was entered into by Poland, Prussia,

[1711 a.d.] and Denmark, which restored to those states
the conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, and to
Russia her sovereignty over her ancient possessions of Livonia,
Ingria, and a part of Finland. When these preliminaries were settled,
Peter went in person to make a defensive treaty with the elector of
Brandenburg, the first king of Prussia; a mode of negotiation unusual
amongst sovereigns, but which was perfectly consistent with the
individual character and promptitude of the czar. Having concluded
these important plans, he proceeded to reduce some Swedish
fortresses, and to bombard the town of Riga, the capital of Livonia,
where he lost between nine and ten thousand men by a pestilence
that was then raging in that place. The garrison, struck down by two
enemies—the plague and the Russians, and scarcely able to decide
which was the more fatal—speedily capitulated; and Livonia was
once more rendered tributary to Muscovy.
In the meanwhile Charles was employing all his interest at
Constantinople to prevail upon the sultan to undertake a war against
Russia, which the sultan was easily induced to embrace, in
consequence of the ravages committed by the Muscovite troops on
the frontiers of Turkey, and the rapidly extending power of the czar
on the sea of Azov and the Black Sea. The khan of the Crimean
Tatars naturally regarded with apprehension the Russian
establishment at Azov, which the Turks had been forced to surrender
a few years before; and he, therefore, strengthened the arguments
that were submitted to the Divan to persuade them into a declaration
of hostilities against the common enemy. A statement setting forth
the formidable advances that Russia was making in her navy on the
Don and in the harbour of Taganrog, and of the spirit of acquisition
she was constantly exhibiting in her encroachments upon the border
lands, was laid before the council by Poniatowski, the active friend of
the Swedish king, and was immediately assented to by the mufti. In
order to render the views of the sultan still more impressive, Count
Tolstoi, the czar’s ambassador at Constantinople, was arrested in the
public streets, and committed to the castle of the Seven Towers.
The indignity offered to Peter in the person of his minister was
scarcely necessary to inflame his irritable temper. Within a short
space of time his plenipotentiary in Saxony was broken on the
wheel, and his ambassador in London imprisoned for debt; but these
events had taken place before the battle of Pultowa, which suddenly
elevated him to the highest consideration amongst contemporary
sovereigns. The insult, therefore, which the sultan cast upon him by
the arrest of Count Tolstoi was the more acutely felt, as it appeared
to treat him with contempt in the very hour of victory. He soon made
the necessary arrangements for the approaching war, sending one
division of his army to Moldavia, another to Livonia; and fleets to
Azov, the Baltic, and the Black Sea. It was necessary, however, to
return to Moscow to make provision for the government during his
absence, and while he was there he issued a conscription for the
purpose of recruiting his army.
CATHERINE ACKNOWLEDGED AS PETER’S WIFE (1711 A.D.)
The time was now arrived for acknowledging before his subjects
his marriage with Catherine, which had taken place privately in 1707;
and accordingly, on the 6th of March, 1711, the czarina Catherine
Alexievna was solemnly declared to be his legitimate wife. The
ascendency which Catherine had acquired over him was not more
extraordinary than it was propitious. Peter’s disposition was naturally
impatient and cruel, and when he was excited to acts of severity he
could not be restrained by any appeal to his reason or his humanity.
The only influence that possessed any permanent power over him
was that of female society; and the remarkably sweet temper of
Catherine, who was never known to be out of humour, invariably
tranquillised him, even in his most angry moods, so complete was
the fascination she exercised over his mind that the agony of those
spasmodic fits to which he was subject yielded to her soothing
presence. Without forgetting the low condition from which she
sprang, she maintained the pomp of majesty with irreproachable
propriety, and united an air of ease and authority that excited the
admiration of those by whom she was surrounded. She was not
distinguished by that lofty beauty which would seem to sympathise
with these august qualities; nor was she either very brilliant in
conversation or of a very quick imagination, but she was graceful
and animated; her features were pretty and expressive, and a tone
of good sense and kindness always pervaded her actions. She was
admirably formed for the sphere she embellished, and, above all, for
the peculiar necessities of the era that called her to the throne. Her
devotion to Peter was boundless. She constantly attended him, even
upon occasions of the utmost danger, and especially upon this
eventful expedition, when she accompanied him upon his campaign
into Turkey.
WAR WITH TURKEY
The whole body of troops which the precautions of the czar had
enabled him to collect amounted to 130,000 men; but, being
distributed in different quarters, and failing to join the czar on the
Pruth, as he expected, he was obliged to proceed with an army that
fell short of 40,000 men. The perils of the enterprise were so
apparent that Peter issued orders requiring the women who followed
in the train of the army to return; but Catherine, who insisted upon
remaining with the czar, prevailed upon him to retract his
determination. This slight circumstance eventually proved to be the
salvation of the czar and his empire.
From Sorokat the army proceeded to Jassy, where Peter was led
to expect supplies from the prince of Wallachia, with whom he had
entered into a secret negotiation; but the sultan, warned of the
prince’s intended revolt, suddenly deposed him, and appointed
Cantemir in his place. But Cantemir, who was a Christian prince, was
no less inclined to assist the czar, and proffered him such aid as he
could command; admitting very candidly, however, that his subjects
were attached to the Porte,[41] and firm in their allegiance. In this
extremity Peter found himself at the head of a very inadequate force
in the heart of a wild and rugged country, where the herbage was
destroyed by swarms of locusts, and where it was impossible to
procure provisions for the troops. The dangers of his situation,
however, offered a valuable test of the fidelity and endurance of the
soldiers, who, although they suffered the most severe privation,
never uttered a single complaint.
In this state of things, intelligence was received that the Turkish
army had crossed the Danube, and was marching along the Pruth.
Peter called a council of war, and declared his intention of advancing
at once to meet the enemy; in which measure all the generals,
except one, expressed their concurrence. The dissentient officer
reminded the czar of the misfortunes of the king of Sweden in the
Ukraine, and suggested to him the possibility that Cantemir might
disappoint him; but Peter was resolved, and, after a fatiguing march
for three nights over a desert heath, the troops arrived on the 18th of
June at the river Pruth. Here they were joined by Prince Cantemir,
with a few followers, and they continued their march until the 27th,
when they discovered the enemy, to the number of 200,000 men,
already crossing the river. There was no alternative left but to form
the lines of battle; and Peter, perceiving that the enemy was
endeavouring to surround him with cavalry, extended his lines a
considerable way along the right bank.
The situation of the army at this juncture was extremely
unfortunate. The great body of the Turkish soldiers were before the
Russians on one side of the river, and on the other the hostile Tatars
of the Crimea. The czar was thus completely surrounded, his means
of escape by the river were cut off, and the great numbers of the
Turks rendered a flight in the opposite direction impossible. He was
placed in more critical circumstances than Charles at Pultowa, and
he had been misled, like that unfortunate prince, by an ally who did
not possess the power of fulfilling his promise. But his presence of
mind and indomitable courage never forsook him. He formed his
army, which consisted in detail of 31,554 infantry, and only 6,692
cavalry, into a hollow square, placing the women in the centre, and
prepared to receive the disorderly but furious onslaught of the Turks.
It is evident that, if the forces of the sultan had been commanded by
skilful officers, the contest must have been speedily terminated. But
the superior discipline of the Russians was shown in the steadiness
with which they met the charge, and maintained themselves against
such great odds. The Turks injudiciously confined their attack to one
side of the square, by which, although the loss sustained by the
Russians was immense, the czar was enabled constantly to relieve
the troops, and supply the front with fresh men. The fight continued
for three days. Their ammunition was at last exhausted, and there
remained no choice between surrendering and making a desperate
attempt to cut their way through the enemy. This latter proposition is
said to have been entertained by Peter, who proposed to force a
passage in the night, accompanied by his officers and a few select
men; but it is extremely unlikely that he should have contemplated a
step that must inevitably have sacrificed the czarina and the remnant
of his brave army.
Catherine’s Heroism; the Peace of Pruth
It is not improbable, however, that Peter may have conceived

some heroic design for forcing a passage; but the certainty of failure
must have overruled such an intention almost as soon as it was
formed. After the agitation of that eventful day, he surrendered
himself to the anxiety by which he was oppressed, and, retiring to his
tent on the third night, gave strict orders that he should be left
undisturbed. It was on this occasion that the genius and influence of
the czarina preserved the empire, her consort, and the army. She
who had accompanied him through so many dangers, who had
shared in the toils of the field without murmuring, and partaken in the
fatigues consequent upon his reforms and improvements, had a right
to be heard at a moment of such critical importance. In despite,
therefore, of his prohibition she entered his tent, and representing to
him the perils by which they were on all sides environed, urged upon
him the necessity of seeking to negotiate a peace. She not only
suggested this measure, which was probably the very last that might
have occurred to Peter, but she undertook to carry it into effect
herself. It is the immemorial custom in the East to approach all
sovereigns, or their representatives, with presents, and Catherine,
aware of that usage, collected all her own jewels and trinkets, and
those of the women who had accompanied the expedition, giving a
receipt for their value to be discharged on their return to Moscow,
and dispatched the vice chancellor, accompanied by an officer, with
a letter from Marshal Sheremetrev to the grand vizir, proposing
negotiations for a treaty of peace.[42]
Some hours elapsed, and no answer was returned. It was
supposed that the bearers of the letter were put to death, or placed
under arrest, when a second officer was despatched with a duplicate
of the letter, and it was determined in a council of war, that, should
the vizir refuse to accept the proffered terms, an attempt should be
made to break through the enemy’s ranks. With this view an
intrenchment was rapidly formed, and the Russians advanced within
a hundred paces of the Turkish lines. A suspension of arms,
however, was immediately proclaimed by the enemy, and
negotiations were opened for a treaty.
It would appear strange that the vizir should have consented to a
cessation of hostilities under such circumstances, when the
Russians were completely at his mercy; but he was aware that the
Russian troops in Moldavia had advanced to the Danube after
reducing the town of Brabilow, and that another division of the
general army was on its march from the frontiers of Poland. He,
therefore, considered it advisable to avail himself of that opportunity
to dictate to Peter the terms upon which he wished to terminate the
campaign, knowing that if he postponed the treaty he would be
compelled to renew the war against the whole force of the empire.
The conditions he proposed were sufficiently humiliating. He
demanded the restitution of Azov, the demolition of the harbour of
Taganrog, the renouncement of all further interference in the affairs
of Poland and the Cossacks, a free passage for Charles back to his
own country, and the withdrawal from the sea of Azov and the Black
Sea. Peter subscribed to all these conditions, but refused to deliver
up Prince Cantemir to the sultan, declaring that he would rather cede
to the Turks the whole country as far as Kursk than violate his word.
This treaty, however, did not satisfy the expectations of Charles;
and, indeed, obtained for him scarcely any advantage. The only
passage it contained which directly related to him was that which
bound Peter to give him a safe return home, and to conclude a
peace with him, if the terms could be agreed upon. He never ceased
to importune the sultan to dismiss the vizir and make war upon
Russia, until the Porte, wearied by his ungrateful and frantic
complaints, at last recalled the pension allowed him, and sent him an

Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo The Green Gold On The Earth 1st Edition Zishan Ahmad Yulong Ding Anwar Shahzad

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo The Green Gold On The Earth 1st Edition Zishan Ahmad Yulong Ding Anwar Shahzad

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo The Green Gold On The Earth 1st Edition Zishan Ahmad Yulong Ding Anwar Shahzad

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biotechnological Advances in Bamboo

The Green Gold on the Earth 1st Edition

Advances in Environment Engineering and Management:

Modern Biotechnology in Healthcare: Advances and

Transcultural Humanities in South Asia Critical Essays

Advances in Green and Sustainable Nanomaterials 1st

On Earth Or in Poems 1st Edition Eric Calderwood

Contemporary Chemical Approaches for Green and

The Masters of Limitation: An ET's Observations on

The Natural History Book: The Ultimate Visual Guide to

ISBN 978-981-16-1309-8 ISBN 978-981-16-1310-4 (eBook)

Founder of Scientiﬁc Cultivation of Bamboo

University of Hamburg, Hamburg

Bamboo is considered as a multipurpose plant and has a prolonged history as an

wholeheartedly welcomed our invitation and agreed to contribute chapters to embel-

Nanjing, China Zishan Ahmad

1 Bamboo: Origin, Habitat, Distributions and Global Prospective . . . 1

7 Micropropagation of Bamboos and Clonal Fidelity Assessment

17 Application of Bamboo in the Food and Pharmaceutical

Zishan Ahmad, Anamica Upadhyay, Yulong Ding,

Abstract Bamboo is the multifunctional and fastest-growing plant on Earth. Bam-

Keywords Bamboo diversity · Bamboo habitats · Bamboo classiﬁcation · Woody

Z. Ahmad · Y. Ding (*) · A. Emamverdian

1.2 Bamboo Origin, Habitat and Diversity

Table 1.1 Naturally occurring bamboo species

Table 1.2 Bamboo species occurrence and habitats

Table 1.2 (continued)

Table 1.2 (continued)

Table 1.2 (continued)

1.3 Taxonomical Identiﬁcation of Bamboo

As bamboo is a highly adaptable plant in different environmental conditions, it is

1.4 Classiﬁcation of Bamboo

On the basis of morphological as well as molecular characteristic features, bamboo is

Fig. 1.1 Classiﬁcation of Bambusoideae

Arundinarieae consists of about 533 to 546 bamboos, Bambuseae contains about

1.5 Bamboo Culm and Its Development

1.6 Difference in Characteristics of Bamboo in Reference

Table 1.3 Differences in the characteristic features of bamboos and trees

1.7 An Overview of Important Genera and Species

Thailand diameter up to 15 cm and its wall artefacts, handicrafts, furniture

(Fig. 1.11). Oxytenanthera abyssinica, an important bamboo in lowland found in

Conﬂict of Interest There is no conﬂict of interest.

Steinfeld C (2001) A bamboo future. Environmental Design and Construction, pp 1–5

Enéas Ricardo Konzen, Luciano Cesar Pozzobon,

Abstract Molecular markers have revolutionized analyses in population genetics,

E. R. Konzen (*) · L. C. Pozzobon

of propagules. Altogether, we provide a panorama of several applications of molec-

Keywords Genetic diversity · Genetic ﬁdelity · Microsatellites · Phylogenomics ·

The greatest part of Courland, as well as the whole of Ingria, had

CHARLES XII INVADES RUSSIA (1707 A.D.)

But while these proceedings were going

REVOLT OF THE COSSACKS OF THE DON; MAZEPPA

Mazeppa with his army passed over the

(Painted for The Historians’ History of the World by

PETER AND THE POWERS

A treaty was entered into by Poland, Prussia,

CATHERINE ACKNOWLEDGED AS PETER’S WIFE (1711 A.D.)

WAR WITH TURKEY