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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 320
Javier Prieto
Alberto Partida
Paulo Leitão
António Pinto Editors
Blockchain and
Applications
3rd International Congress
Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems
Volume 320
Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland
Advisory Editors
Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA,
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas—
UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil
Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA; Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Beijing, China
Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada; Systems Research Institute,
Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus,
Nicosia, Cyprus
Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary
Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong,
Kowloon, Hong Kong
The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest
developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality.
Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core
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Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new
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The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks,
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15179

Javier Prieto Alberto Partida
• •
Paulo Leitão António Pinto

•
Editors
Blockchain and Applications

3rd International Congress
123
Editors
Javier Prieto Alberto Partida
Building Edificio I+D+i, Room 24.1 Universidad Rey Juan Carlos
University of Salamanca Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
António Pinto
Paulo Leitão ESTG, Instituto Politécnico do Porto
Research Centre in Digitalization Felgueiras, Portugal
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança
Bragança, Portugal
ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems
ISBN 978-3-030-86161-2 ISBN 978-3-030-86162-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86162-9
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
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Preface
The 3rd International Congress on Blockchain and Applications 2021 will be held
in Salamanca from 6 to 8 of October. This annual congress will reunite blockchain
and artificial intelligence (AI) researchers, who will share ideas, projects, lectures,
and advances associated with those technologies and their application domains.
Among the scientific community, blockchain and AI are seen as a promising
combination that will transform the production and manufacturing industry, media,
finance, insurance, e-government, etc. Nevertheless, there is no consensus with
schemes or best practices that would specify how blockchain and AI should be used
together. Combining blockchain mechanisms and artificial intelligence is still a
particularly challenging task.
The BLOCKCHAIN’21 congress is devoted to promoting the investigation of
cutting-edge blockchain technology, to exploring the latest ideas, innovations,
guidelines, theories, models, technologies, applications and tools of blockchain and
AI for the industry, and to identifying critical issues and challenges those
researchers and practitioner must deal with in the future research. We want to offer
researchers and practitioners the opportunity to work on promising lines of research
and to publish their developments in this area.
The technical program has been diverse and of high quality, and it focused on
contributions to both, well-established and evolving areas of research. More than 44
papers have been submitted to 38 from over 20 different countries (Canada, France,
Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Morocco,
Netherlands, Oman, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Arab Emirates, and
USA).
We would like to thank all the contributing authors, the members of the Program
Committee, the sponsors (IBM, Indra, EurAI, AEPIA, AFIA, APPIA, and AIR
Institute), and the Organizing Committee for their hard and highly valuable work.
We are especially grateful for the funding supporting by project “XAI - XAI -
Sistemas Inteligentes Auto Explicativos creados con Módulos de Mezcla de
Expertos,” ID SA082P20, financed by Junta Castilla y León, Consejería de
Educación, and FEDER funds. Their work contributed to the success of the
BLOCKCHAIN’21 event and, finally, the Local Organization Members and the
v
vi Preface
Program Committee Members for their hard work, which was essential for the
success of BLOCKCHAIN’21.
Javier Prieto
Alberto Partida
Paulo Leitão
António Pinto
Organization
General chair
Javier Prieto Tejedor University of Salamanca, Spain, and AIR

Institute, Spain
Advisory Board
Ashok Kumar Das IIIT Hyderabad, India
Abdelhakim Hafid Université de Montréal, Canada
António Pinto Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Portugal
Program Committee Chairs

Alberto Partida Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain
Paulo Leitao Technical Institute of Bragança, Portugal
Organizing Committee
Juan M. Corchado Rodríguez University of Salamanca, Spain, and AIR
Institute, Spain
Javier Prieto Tejedor University of Salamanca, Spain, and AIR
Institute, Spain
Roberto Casado Vara University of Salamanca, Spain
Fernando De la Prieta University of Salamanca, Spain
Sara Rodríguez González University of Salamanca, Spain
Pablo Chamoso Santos University of Salamanca, Spain
Belén Pérez Lancho University of Salamanca, Spain
Ana Belén Gil González University of Salamanca, Spain
Ana De Luis Reboredo University of Salamanca, Spain
Angélica González Arrieta University of Salamanca, Spain
vii
viii Organization
Emilio S. Corchado University of Salamanca, Spain

Rodríguez
Angel Luis Sánchez Lázaro University of Salamanca, Spain
Alfonso González Briones University Complutense of Madrid, Spain
Yeray Mezquita Martín University of Salamanca, Spain
Javier J. Martín Limorti University of Salamanca, Spain
Alberto Rivas Camacho University of Salamanca, Spain
Ines Sitton Candanedo University of Salamanca, Spain
Elena Hernández Nieves University of Salamanca, Spain
Beatriz Bellido University of Salamanca, Spain
María Alonso University of Salamanca, Spain
Diego Valdeolmillos AIR Institute, Spain
Sergio Marquez University of Salamanca, Spain
Marta Plaza Hernández University of Salamanca, Spain
Guillermo Hernández AIR Institute, Spain
González
Ricardo S. Alonso Rincón University of Salamanca, Spain
Javier Parra University of Salamanca, Spain
Program Committee
Regio A. Michelin University of New South Wales, Australia
Mo Adda University of Portsmouth, UK
Rishav Agarwal University of Waterloo, Canada
Imtiaz Ahmad Akhtar Higher Colleges of Technology, Sweden
Sami Albouq Islamic University of Madinah, Saudi Arabia
Ricardo Alonso AIR Institute, Spain
Alejandro Alfonso Fernández DigitelTS, Spain
Diego Andina Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Artem Barger IBM, Israel
Francisco Luis Benítez University of Granada, Spain
Martínez
Javier Bermejo Higuera Universidad Internacional de La Rioja, Spain
Bill Buchanan Napier University, UK
Roben C. Lunardi IFRS, Brazil
Roberto Casado Vara University of Salamanca, Spain
Arnaud Castelltort Montpellier, France
Giovanni Ciatto University of Bologna, Italy
Victor Cook University of Central Florida, EE.UU.
Manuel E. Correia CRACS/INESC TEC; DCC/FCUP, Portugal
Gaby Dagher Boise State University, Idaho, USA
Ashok Kumar Das International Institute of Information Technology,
India
Pankaj Dayama IBM, India
Organization ix
Andreea-Elena Drăgnoiu University of Bucharest, Romania

Enrique De la Cal Marín University of Oviedo, Spain
Josep Lluis De La Rosa TECNIO Centre EASY Innovation, UdG, Spain
Monika di Angelo TU Wien, Austria
Roberto Di Pietro Hamad Bin Khalifa University, College
of Science and Engineering, Qatar
Joshua Ellul University of Malta, Malta
Enes Erdin Florida International University, EE.UU.
Xinxin Fan IoTeX, India
Manuel J. Fernandez University of Seville, Spain
Iñaki Fernández Université de Lorraine, France
Christof Ferreira Torres Interdisciplinary Centre for Security, Reliability
and Trust (SnT), University of Luxembourg
Nikos Fotiou Athens University of Economics and Business,
Greece
Paula Fraga Lamas University of A Coruña, Spain
Muriel Franco University of Zurich, EE.UU.
Felix Freitag Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain
Shahin Gheitanchi Altera Corporation, EE.UU.
Raffaele Giaffreda CREATE-NET, Italy
Mongetro Goint Université Le Havre Normandie, France
Hélder Gomes Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão de
Águeda, Universidade de Aveiro, Portugal
Dhrubajyoti Goswami Concordia University, Canada
Ram Govind Indian Computer Emergency Response Team,
Ministry of Electronics and IT, India
Volker Gruhn Universität Duisburg-Essen, Germany
Hao Guo Northwestern Polytechnical University, China
Abdelatif Hafid University of Montreal, Canada
Yahya Hassanzadeh- Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Irán
Nazarabadi
Farzin Houshmand University of California, EE.UU.
Qin Hu George Washington University, EE.UU.
Maria Visitación Hurtado University of Granada, Spain
Hans-Arno Jacobsen University of Toronto, Canada
Marc Jansen University of Applied Sciences Ruhr West,
Germany
Eder John Scheid University of Zurich, Switzerland
Raja Jurdak QUT, Australia
Salil Kanhere University of New South Wales, Australia
Christos Karapapas Athens University of Economics and Business,
Greece
Samuel Karumba UNSW, Australia
Denisa Kera Asia Research Institute (STS Cluster), Australia
x Organization
Mohamed Laarabi Mohammadia School of Engineering Rabat,

Morocco
Oscar Lage TECNALIA, Spain
Chhagan Lal University of Padova, Italy
Xabier Larrucea TECNALIA, Spain
Anne Laurent LIRMM – UM, France
Xianfeng Li Macau University of Science and Technology,
China
Sotirios Liaskos School of IT, York University, Canada
Alexander Lipton Massachusetts Institute of Technology, EE.UU.
Fengji Luo The University of Sydney, Australia
João Paulo Magalhaes ESTGF, Porto Polytechnic Institute, Portugal
Yacov Manevich IBM, Israel
Stefano Mariani Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio
Emilia, Italy
Luis Martínez University of Jaén, Spain
Imran Memon Zhejiang University, China
Suat Mercan Florida International University, EE.UU.
Yeray Mezquita University of Salamanca, Spain
Juan Jose Morillas Guerrero Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Imtiaz Muhammad Anas Boston University, EE.UU.
Daniel Jesus Munoz Guerra University of Malaga, Spain
Ahmed Nadeem King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Malaw Ndiaye Université Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegal
Mark Nejad University of Delaware, EE.UU.
Mariusz Nowostawski Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, Norway
Andrea Omicini Alma Mater Studiorum–Università di Bologna,
Italy
Kazumasa Omote University of Tsukuba, Japan
Arindam Pal Data61, CSIRO, Australia
Rafael Pastor Vargas UNED, Spain
Miguel Pincheira Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Italy
António Pinto ESTG, P.Porto, Portugal
Pedro Pinto Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo,
Portugal
Steven Platt Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
Matthias Pohl Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg,
Germany
Javier Prieto University of Salamanca, Spain
Yuansong Qiao Athlone Institute of Technology, Ireland
Bruno Rodrigues University of Zurich, Switzerland
David Rosado University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Grigore Rosu University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, EE.
UU.
Organization xi
Gernot Salzer Vienna University of Technology, Austria

Georgios Samakovitis University of Greenwich, UK
Altino Sampaio Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Escola Superior de
Tecnologia e Gestão de Felgueiras, Portugal
Elio San Cristóbal Ruiz UNED, Spain
Ricardo Santos ESTG/IPP, Portugal
Nuria Serrano AIR Institute, Spain
Wazen Shbair University of Luxembourg, SnT, Luxembourg
Pradip Sharma University of Aberdeen, UK
Chien-Chung Shen University of Delaware, EE.UU.
Ajay Kumar Shrestha University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Mark Staples CSIRO, Australia
Radu State University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg
Burkhard Stiller University of Zurich, Switzerland
Wilhelm Stork Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany
Marko Suvajdzic University of Florida, EE.UU.
Stefan Tai TU Berlin, Germany
Chamseddine Talhi École de Technologie Supérieure, Canada
Teik Guan Tan Singapore University of Technology and Design,
Malaysia
Ege Tekiner Florida International University, EE.UU.
Subhasis Thakur National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
Llanos Tobarra UNED, Spain
Aitor Urbieta IK4-Ikerlan Technology Research Centre, Spain
Julita Vassileva University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Massimo Vecchio Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Italy
Eduardo Vega-Fuentes University of Glasgow, UK
Sebastián Ventura University of Cordoba, Department of Computer
Science and Numerical Analysis, Spain
Luigi Vigneri IOTA Foundation, Germany
Roopa Vishwanathan New Mexico State University, Mexico
Marco Vitale Foodchain SpA, Italy
Chenggang Wang University of Cincinnati, EE.UU.
Yawei Wang George Washington University, EE.UU.
Komminist Weldemariam IBM Research, Africa, and Queen’s University,
Canada
Amr Youssef Concordia University, EE.UU.
Uwe Zdun University of Vienna, Austria
Kaiwen Zhang École de technologie supérieure de Montréal,
Canada
Mirko Zichichi Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Avelino F. Zorzo PUCRS, Brazil
André Zúquete University of Aveiro, Portugal
xii Organization
BLOCKCHAIN’21 Sponsors
Contents
BLOCKCHAIN-Main Track
Formal Analysis of Smart Contracts: Model Impact Factor
on Criminality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Malaw Ndiaye and Karim Konaté
A Blockchain-Enabled Fog Computing Model for Peer-To-Peer
Energy Trading in Smart Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Saurabh Shukla, Subhasis Thakur, Shahid Hussain, and John G. Breslin
Energy Trading Between Prosumers Based
on Blockchain Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Susana M. Gutiérrez, José L. Hernández, Alberto Navarro,
and Rocío Viruega
Protection Against Online Fraud Using Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Raphael Burkert, Jonas van Hagen, Maximilian Wehrmann,
and Marc Jansen
Decentralized Online Multiplayer Game Based on Blockchains . . . . . . . 44
Raphael Burkert, Philipp Horwat, Rico Lütsch, Natalie Roth,
Dennis Stamm, Fabian Stamm, Jan Vogt, and Marc Jansen
Parameter Identification for Malicious Transaction Detection
in Blockchain Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Vikram Kanth, John McEachen, and Murali Tummala
Blockchain Validity Register for Healthcare Environments . . . . . . . . . . 64
Cinthia Paola Pascual Cáceres, José Vicente Berná Martinez,
Francisco Maciá Pérez, and Iren Lorenzo Fonseca
Implementation and Evaluation of a Visual Programming Language
in the Context of Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Farouk Hdhili, Ramy Gouiaa, and Marc Jansen
xiii
xiv Contents
Implementation and Evaluation of a Visual Query Language

in the Context of Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Ramy Gouiaa, Farouk Hdhili, and Marc Jansen
On (Multi-stage) Proof-of-Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Paolo D’Arco and Francesco Mogavero
Towards Informational Self-determination: Data Portability Requests
Based on GDPR by Providing Public Platforms for Authorised
Minimal Invasive Privacy Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Dominik Schmelz, Karl Pinter, Phillip Niemeier, and Thomas Grechenig
Blockchain and the Riemann Zeta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Paulo Vieira
Case Study: The Automation of an over the Counter Financial
Derivatives Transaction Using the CORDA Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Andrei Carare, Michela Ciampoli, Giovanni De Gasperis,
and Sante Dino Facchini
Application of Blockchain to Peer to Peer Energy Trading
in Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Manuel Sivianes and Carlos Bordons
The Value and Applications of Blockchain Technology in Business:
A Systematic Review of Real Use Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Oscar Lage, María Saiz-Santos, and José Manuel Zarzuelo
A Preliminary Review on Complementary Applications of Databases
and Blockchain Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Renata Kramberger, Tatjana Welzer, and Aida Kamišalić
Blockchain Platform Selection for Security Token Offering (STO)
Using Multi-criteria Decision Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Richard, Harjanto Prabowo, Agung Trisetyarso, and Benfano Soewito
Towards a Holistic DLT Architecture for IIoT: Improved DAG
for Production Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Denis Stefanescu, Patxi Galán-García, Leticia Montalvillo, Juanjo Unzilla,
and Aitor Urbieta
A Secure Blockchain-Based Solution for Management of Pandemic
Data in Healthcare Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Arav Dalwani
Investigation on Vulnerabilities Location in Solidity
Smart Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Mirko Staderini and Andrea Bondavalli
Contents xv
Benchmarking Constrained IoT Devices in Blockchain-Based

Agri-Food Traceability Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Miguel Pincheira, Massimo Vecchio, and Raffaele Giaffreda
Towards Micropayment for Intermediary Based Trading . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Anupa De Silva, Subhasis Thakur, and John Breslin
BlockFLow: Decentralized, Privacy-Preserving, and Accountable
Federated Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Vaikkunth Mugunthan, Ravi Rahman, and Lalana Kagal
COVID-19 Early Symptom Prediction Using Blockchain
and Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Sarada Kiranmayee Tadepalli and Ruppa K. Thulasiram
A Smart Contract Architecture to Enhance the Industrial Symbiosis
Process Between the Pulp and Paper Companies - A Case Study . . . . . 252
Ricardo Gonçalves, Inês Ferreira, Radu Godina, Pedro Pinto,
and António Pinto
Establish Trust for Sharing Data for Smart Territories Thanks
to Consents Notarized by Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Mongetro Goint, Cyrille Bertelle, and Claude Duvallet
Blockchain and AI in Art: A Quick Look into Contemporary
Art Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Marko Suvajdzic, Dragana Stojanović, and Iryna Kanishcheva
Machine Learning Powered Autoscaling for Blockchain-Based Fog
Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
John Paul Martin, Christina Terese Joseph, K. Chandrasekaran,
and A. Kandasamy
Cryptocurrencies Impact on Financial Markets: Some Insights on Its
Regulation and Economic and Accounting Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Vanessa Jiménez-Serranía, Javier Parra-Domínguez, Fernando De la Prieta,
and Juan Manuel Corchado
Usage of Multiple Independent Blockchains for Enhancing Privacy
Using the Example of the Bill of Lading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Hauke Precht and Jorge Marx Gómez
A Dag Based Decentralized Oracle Model: Implementation
and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Ramy Gouiaa, Farouk Hdhili, and Marc Jansen
Blockchain-Enabled Next Generation Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Yibin Dong, Seong K. Mun, and Yue Wang
xvi Contents
Attacks on Blockchain Based Digital Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Akshay Pillai, Vishal Saraswat,
and Arunkumar Vasanthakumary Ramachandran
Cryptocurrencies and Price Prediction: A Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Yeray Mezquita, Ana Belén Gil-González, Javier Prieto,
and Juan Manuel Corchado
Doctoral Consortium
A Fully Anonymous e-Voting Protocol Employing Universal
Zk-SNARKs and Smart Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Aritra Banerjee
A Secure Email Solution Based on Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Diego Piedrahita, Javier Bermejo, and Francisco Machío
Artificial Intelligence Decision and Validation Powered Smart
Contract for Open Learning Content Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Frederick Ako-Nai, Enrique de la Cal Marin, and Qing Tan
Towards a Holistic DLT Architecture for IIoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Denis Stefanescu
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

BLOCKCHAIN-Main Track
Formal Analysis of Smart Contracts:
Model Impact Factor on Criminality
Malaw Ndiaye(B) and Karim Konaté
UCAD, Dakar, Senegal

{malaw.ndiaye,karim.konate}@ucad.edu.sn
Abstract. Smart contracts certainly provide a powerful functional sur-

plus for maintaining the consistency of transactions in applications gov-
erned by blockchain technology. However, the intended level of automa-
tion might cause cascading effects that have to be checked by formal
methods of algorithmic proof. Our smart contract formal model analysis
framework uses the Finite State Machine (FSM) theory which is a model
of behavior composed of states, transitions and actions. In this model,
a state stores information about the past, a transition indicates a state
change and is described by a condition that would need to be fulfilled to
enable the transition. An action is a description of an activity that is to
be performed at a given moment. These conditions are properties that
are checked during program execution. This formal analysis framework
allows us to define a set of invariants on Finite State Machine behav-
ior model and to propose an anomaly detection system based on the
invariants of the smart contract.
1 Introduction
Ethereum, taken as a whole, can be viewed as a transaction-based state machine.
The state can include such information as account balances, reputations, trust
arrangements, data pertaining to information of the physical world; in short,
anything that can currently be represented by a computer is admissible. Trans-
actions thus represent a valid arc between two states; the ‘valid’ part is important
there exist far more invalid state changes than valid state changes. Invalid state
changes might, e.g., be things such as reducing an account balance without an
equal and opposite increase elsewhere. A valid state transition is one that is
produced by a transaction [36].
Smart contract is the program deployed in a distributed network that can
acquire outside information via transations and update the internal state auto-
matically. Majority of smart contract procedures are based on blockchain tech-
nology. Existing smart contracts control digital currencies principal. Whereas
they were found having defects and deficiencies in the course of their operations,
leading to more serious consequences, such as “The DAO” and Ethereum Parity
wallet incident, which caused a large number of cryptocurrencies to be stolen,
causing a large loss. If these program bug cannot be processed, smart contracts
will be difficult to manipulate real assets [10].
c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
J. Prieto et al. (Eds.): BLOCKCHAIN 2021, LNNS 320, pp. 3–13, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86162-9_1
4 M. Ndiaye and K. Konaté
1.1 Contributions
This paper makes the following contributions:

• We propose a framework for analyzing the smart contract model, we use an
approach based on Finite State Machine theory to model the execution of
smart contracts in the Ethereum environment.
• We will show the inadequacies of the model in relation to malicious smart
contracts, i.e. show how the model facilitates attacks and steals capital.
• Proposal for an anomaly detection model based on smart contract invariants.
1.2 Organize
This paper is organized as follows:
• Section 2 presents background study and related work.

• Section 3 presents the study framework of the program as a whole and exam-
ines the flaws in the model of smart contract promoting crime.
• Section 4 describes our anomaly detection system based on the invariant cal-
culation method in smart contract systems.
• Section 5 offers new research directions based on anomaly detection in smart
contract systems.
2 Background Study and Related Work
2.1 Smart Contracts Operational Mechanism
Smart contracts generally have two attributes: value and state (Fig. 1). The trig-
gering conditions and the corresponding response actions of the contract terms
are preset using triggering condition statements such as “If-Then” statements.
Smart contracts are agreed upon and signed by all parties and submitted in
transactions to the blockchain network, then transactions are broadcasted via
the P2P network, verified by the miners and stored in the specific block of the
blockchain [22,34].
The creators of the contracts get the returned parameters (e.g., contract
address), then users can invoke a contract by sending a transaction. Miners
are motivated by the system’s incentive mechanism and will contribute their
computing resources to verify the transaction. More specially, after the miners
receive the contract creation or invoking transaction, they create contract or
execute contract code in their local Execution Environment. Based on the input
of trusted data feeds and the system state, the contract determines whether
the current scenario meets the triggering conditions. If the conditions are met,
the response actions are strictly executed. After a transaction is validated, it is
packaged into a new block. The new block is chained into the blockchain once
the whole network reaches a consensus [10,34].
Formal Analysis of Smart Contracts: Model Impact Factor on Criminality 5
Fig. 1. Smart contracts operational mechanism
2.2 Smart Contracts Formal Model

A model M ∗ is a pair (Q, δ∗ ), where Q is a set of states and δ∗ is a set of sequences

of states satisfying property below. The set of states can be thought of as the
set of all conceivable states of a program; i.e., all possible combinations of values
of variables and “program counter” values. A sequence q1 , q2 , . . .∈ δ∗ represents
an execution that starts in state q1 , performs the first program step to reach
state q2 , performs the next program step to reach state q3 etc. The execution
terminates if and only if the sequence is finite. The set δ∗ represents all possible
executions of the program, starting in any possible state [19].
Contract automata M ∗ is a quintuple:

M∗ = (Q, , δ∗, s∗, F ∗ ) (1)
Among them:
• Q = {q1∗, q2∗, ..., qm
∗ }. Q is the set about all states of contract execution
automata, qi is contained in the state set of contract party, qi∗ ∈ qi , (i=1,

∗
...
, m);
• is the set of all input events;
• δ∗ is the set of all the transition functions,

δ∗ : Q × → Q
• s∗ is the initial state, s∗ ∈ Q
• F ∗ is the set of termination states, F ∗ ⊂ Q.
2.3 Transaction Formal Model

A transaction (formally, T) is a single cryptographically signed instruction con-
structed by an external actor [3,28,36,38]. While it is assumed that the ultimate
external actor will be human in nature, software tools will be used in its construc-
tion and dissemination. There are two types of transactions: those which result
in message calls and those which result in the creation of new accounts with
associated code (known informally as “contract creation”). Both types specify a
number of common fields: nonce (Tn ), gasPrice (Tp ), gasLimit (Tg ), to (Tt ),
value (Tv ), init (Ti ), data (Td ) [30] (Fig. 2).
T = ∪Tα ≡ ∪Tα α ∈ {n, p, g, t, v, i, d, ...} (2)
Fig. 2. Transaction model
3 Smart Contracts Sequential Execution Model

3.1 The Smart Contracts Sequential Programs
The specific model of deterministic sequential programs can be obtained by
structuring the general state into [29]:
Q = (π, u) (3)
π is the control component and assumes a finite number of values, taken to
be labels or locations in the program. L = {l0, l1, ...ln }
u is the data component and will usually range over an infinite domain. It
be structured into state variables and data structures or functions (Fig. 1).
The transition relation δ can also be partitioned into a next-location function
N(π, u) and a data transformation function D(π, u). N(l, u) will actually depend
on u only if the statement at l is a conditional.
We can thus express δ in terms of N and D:
δ[(π, u), (π , u )] ⇐⇒ π = D(π, u)&u = N(π, u) (4)
3.2 Smart Contracts Execution Model

An execution is a sequence of external transactions T each nesting one or more
internal transactions (transitions Tα ). Each transition starts with a message and
proceeds in a sequence of commands. Commands may load or store data from and
to the private storage, perform local computations (not affecting the storage),
and initiate nested transitions [28].
a) Transition Invariant
A transition invariant T is a superset of the transitive closure of the transition
relation δ restricted to the accessible states Q [30]. Formally,
δ∗ ∩ Q × Q ⊆ T (5)
Transition is valid
⇔ ∀qi ∃qi+1 / δ(qi, Tα ) = qi+1 (6)
b) State Invariant
A state invariant is a superset of Q. Given the transition invariant T and the
set of starting states I ∈ Q, the set
I ∪ {q |q ∈ I and (q , q) ∈ T } (7)
is a state invariant. Conversely, a transition invariant can be strengthened by

restricting it to a given state invariant [30].
In other words, an execution is normal if there is a finite sequence of consecutive

valid transitions which begins with an initial state q1 and ends with a final state
qn , without blocking any state (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Smart contracts execution model
3.3 Model and Vulnerable Smart Contracts Attack Vectors
In software systems, programming errors are usually the root cause leading to
security breaches such as denial of service, buffer overflow, format string, code
injection, etc. Coding errors may result either from defectively designed language
features such as no built-in protection for accessing memory, or from invalid logic
having high-level semantic error [12].
Smart contracts may contain vulnerabilities, which cause contracts to run on
an unplanned scenario. However, these vulnerabilities are still harmless until an
adversary takes advantage by exploiting them. Generally, he must send trans-
actions, which are termed as attack vectors in security field, to exploit these
vulnerabilities [23].
In formal verification (model verification, symbolic execution, theorem proof,
translation and type verification) [1,2,4,5,14,18,21,22,28,31] as in the detection
of vulnerabilities [6–9,11,13,15,20,24,25,27,32,33,37], all smart contracts which
do not respect the properties of theorems 1 and 2, are carriers attack vectors.
Table 1 represent the properties which are likely to be violated.
3.4 Model and Criminal Smart Contracts
We refer to smart contracts that facilitate crimes in distributed smart contract

systems as criminal smart contracts (CSCs) [16]. In blockchain, the main activ-
ity of criminal smart contracts is based on Darkleaks, Generic public Leakage,
Private Leakage, Key Theft, website defacement contract, Data Feed corruption,
Table 1. Ethereum application layer vulnerabilities attacks
Model impact factor Properties Violation

Attack name Attack vectors Theoreme 1 Theoreme 2
Termination Fairness Correctness
DAO attack Reentrancy ✗ ✔ ✗
Parity Delegate call injection ✔ ✔ ✗
multisignature
wallet
Erroneous visibility ✔ ✔ ✗
Unprotected suicide ✔ ✔ ✗
Frozen Ether ✔ ✔ ✗
BECToken Integer overflow ✔ ✗ ✗
attack
GovernMental DOS unbounded operations ✔ ✔ ✗
attacks
Unchecked call return value ✗ ✔ ✗
Call-stack depth limit ✗ ✔ ✗
Transaction-ordering dependence ✔ ✔ ✗
Timestamp dependence ✔ ✔ ✗
HYIP attack DOS unexpected revert ✗ ✔ ✗
Fomo3D Generating randomness ✔ ✔ ✗
attacks
DOS block stuffing ✗ ✔ ✔
ERC-20 Insufficient signature information ✗ ✔ ✗
signature replay
Rubixi attack Erroneous constructor name ✔ ✔ ✗
Password theft. An example of a CSC is a smart contract for (private-)key theft.

Such a CSC might pay a reward for delivery of a target key sk, such as a cer-
tificate authority’s private digital signature key. The validity of criminal smart
contracts is an indicator of criminals’ success.
In their previous work, Juel and et al. [16,17] demonstrated that the execu-
tion of criminal smart contracts is always based on a time Tend . The time Tend
marks the end of the execution whatever the state of the transaction i.e. the
desirable terminal state is not always accessible therefore properties (4) and (7)
are not always respected. This thesis is confirmed by the work of Yilei and et
al. [35]. In their studies, they proposed a CSC based on PublicLeaks by formu-
lating random factors such as the donation ratio. This contract is divided into
five terminal states, one of which is unique in PublicLeaks because of its random
nature (Table 2).
Table 2. Criminal smart contracts attacks
Model impact factor Properties violation

Attack name Type of action Correctness Reachability Real-time Liveness
Leakage of secrets Darkleaks ✔ ✗ ✗ ✔
Generic public leakage ✔ ✗ ✗ ✔
Private leakage ✔ ✗ ✗ ✔
Key compromise Key theft ✔ ✗ ✗ ✔
Calling card crimes Website defacement contract ✔ ✗ ✗ ✔
Data feed corruption ✔ ✗ ✗ ✔
Password theft Password theft ✔ ✗ ✗ ✔
4 Proposition
It is important to understand that formal verification does not solve the problem
of malicious smart contracts crime. To solve the problem of contracts while
respecting the properties mentioned above, we propose an anomaly detection
system on smart contracts. The idea is to create a consensus mechanism based
on the behavior of smart contracts whose principle will be based on the prototype
of normal behavior of the smart contract.
Anomaly detection overcomes the limitation of misuse detection by focusing
on normal system behaviors, rather than attack behaviors. This approach is
characterized by two phases: in the training phase, the behavior of the system
is observed in the absence of attacks, and invariant calculation technique used
to create a profile of such normal behavior. In the detection phase, this profile
is compared against the current behavior of the system, and any deviations
are flagged as potential attacks. Unfortunately, systems often exhibit legitimate
but previously unseen behavior, which leads anomaly detection techniques to
produce a high degree of false alarms. Moreover, the effectiveness of anomaly
detection is affected greatly by what aspects of the system behavior are learnt.
Thus our model is composed of two modules: an invariant calculation algo-
rithm to determine the normal profile of a smart contract, and an algorithm for
monitoring the execution of the contract (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Smart contracts anomalies detection system

5 Challenges
Given that all of the proposed solutions use techniques based on formal verifica-
tion, it would be of great importance to orient the field of research towards the
anomalies detection in smart contract systems. Anomaly detection is based on
a program or host or network. Many distinct techniques are used based on type
of processing related to behavioral model.
They are: Statistical based, Operational or threshold metric model, Markov
Process or Marker Model, Statistical Moments or mean and standard devia-
tion model, Invariant Model, Multivariate Model, Time series Model, Cognition
based, Finite State Machine Model, Description script Model, Machine Learn-
ing based, Baysian Model, Genetic Algorithm model, Neural Network Model,
Computer Immunology based.
The application of these detection techniques relating to the behavior model
can solve the problem of attacks in smart contract systems.
Additional work could be carried out on smart contract anomaly detection
techniques using artificial intelligence, ontology-based smart contracts for detect-
ing malicious behavior, deep learning technique.
A future project could consist of working on a behavior detection model based
on artificial intelligence because so far, cybersecurity systems using artificial
intelligence have proven to be the most effective in protecting blockchain.
6 Conclusion
Termination, Fairness, Correctness, Reachability, Safety, Liveness and Real-time

properties of a smart contract must be guaranteed in advance, before formal
instantiation in a blockchain. This is certainly important for developers, as well
as suppliers and consumers that rely on the soundness of a smart contract.
Moreover, it furnishes a source of trust for users because trust is maintained by
algorithmic concepts. For example, proving the correctness of smart contracts,
a model of the actual correct behaviour of a contract is necessary in first place.
Determining whether a contract reacts correctly is not always as trivial as it
seems, and proving it (automatically) means that the behaviour must be defined
as conditions in a formal notation, for instance (temporal) first order logics [26].
However, a good approach to smart contract model allows us to find a solution
to the problems related to blockchain crime. Anomaly detection provides an
answer to various problems such as vulnerable smart contracts and criminal
smart contracts.
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A Blockchain-Enabled Fog Computing Model
for Peer-To-Peer Energy Trading in Smart Grid
Saurabh Shukla(B) , Subhasis Thakur , Shahid Hussain , and John G. Breslin
National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland

{saurabh.shukla,shahid.hussain,subhasis.thakur,
john.breslin}@nuigalway.ie
Abstract. The advancement in renewable energy sources (RESs) technology have

changed the role of traditional consumers to prosumers. In contrast to the tradi-
tional power grid, the Smart Grid (SG) network provides a platform for peer-to-
peer (P2P) energy trading between prosumers to buy or sell energy according to
their requirements. The potential benefits of P2P energy trading can be realized
through an efficient service provider of the communication network infrastruc-
ture. However, the current communication network is a trustless environment and
thereby is unable to fully support the P2P energy trading requirements. Existing
techniques in P2P energy trading with blockchain suffers from large network delay
due to large network size; this further affects the network performance for P2P
trading. In this paper, we present a novel Blockchain-Based Smart Energy Trad-
ing (BSET) algorithm along with a Blockchain-Enabled Fog Computing Model
(BFCM) for P2P energy trading in Smart Grid. The proposed BSET algorithm
provides a fully trusted minimum latency communication network that enables
the prosumers to trade energy within their local premises. The algorithm was
implemented using iFogSim, Truffle, ATOM, Anaconda, and Geth and evaluated
against state-of-the-art communication network models for P2P energy trading.
The simulation results revealed the effectiveness in terms of secure trading and
network latency.
Keywords: Smart grid · Smart meter · Cyber-physical system · Fog computing ·

Blockchain · Cryptography · Cloud computing · Microgrid · Internet-of-Things
1 Introduction
Nowadays, the increasing demand for timely electrical energy consumption and mon-
itoring has given rise to the role of a smart grid network over the traditional grid. The
traditional grid is a centralized and one-way transmission of energy. Whereas the SG net-
work is distributed two-way transmission of energy and information. Where prosumers
and consumers have a major role to play in buying and selling energy in a decentralized
manner. The current SG network extends the controlling, computation, monitoring and
sensing of the information and electrical energy flow in a bidirectional way when com-
pares to a traditional network where different buyers and sellers participate in the auction
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86162-9_2
A Blockchain-Enabled Fog Computing Model for Peer-To-Peer Energy 15
and bidding. SG when enabled with Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
and Cyber-Physical System (CPS) has become an autonomous and resilient energy trad-
ing system. The different and independent stakeholders can unite and build a trustworthy
relationship to exchange the required electrical energy as per the end-user requirement
in real-time. The existing state-of-the-art SG system requires a distributed platform for
storing, processing, and controlling a large amount of information and energy to make
the system reliable for P2P energy trading. This can be possible with the use of Fog Com-
puting (FC) acting as the middleware layer at the edge of prosumers and consumers in a
Neighbourhood Area Network (NAN), Building Area Network (BAN), Household Area
Network (HAN), and Local Area Network (LAN) [1]. FC nodes can transmit the data in
a real-time mode with a single hop count. This makes the SG network efficient for the
performance related to energy trading and exchange of information between prosumers
and consumers as they require minimum service latency, network usage and an efficient
secure channel [2]. Next, to secure the energy trading transaction in the SG network
blockchain can play a major role by acting as a decentralized system along with the FC
environment. Recent studies have not evaluated the underlying blockchain performance
for QoS requirement in P2P energy trading in an FC environment. Therefore, to meet
the above-mentioned challenges we have proposed a novel paradigm using blockchain
in the FC environment. The proposed work includes a novel BSET algorithm along with
a BFCM for P2P energy trading in SG.
2 Background and Related Work

This section includes the research work related to P2P energy trading mechanism, auction
of available energy between different distributed prosumers and consumers, along with
blockchain-based techniques bidding techniques used in an SG network and CPS. Recent
work related to energy trading shows that it is quite complex to design a decentralized
P2P trading system that keeps an optimum balance between economic efficiency and data
privacy [3, 4]. Network size, latency and security are the major features that affect the
overall performance of P2P energy trading. Some of the recent works for energy trading
have been highlighted under this section. In [5], the authors proposed a novel approach
using a Hyperledger Fabric (HF) to strengthen the collaboration and coordination of the
SG network with CPS. Furthermore, they designed a novel framework for peer-to-peer
energy trading mechanism. In [2], the authors proposed a negotiation protocol for a
double auction mechanism with additional security features for secure energy trading in
the SG network between prosumers and consumers. The novel protocol is comparable
with SG technology. Similarly, in [6], the authors proposed a peer-to-peer trading system
method that minimizes the risk of energy loss and maximizes the profit and benefits for
both buyers and sellers. The risk in energy distribution is measured using Markowitz
portfolio theory and modified Sharpe ratio. The proposed work focuses on maximizing
the benefit for prosumers and uses the particle swarm optimization technique.
In [7], the authors proposed a two-stage optimization model for maximizing the
utilities with optimal strategies in peer-to-peer energy trading between prosumers and
consumers in the power systems likes, microgrids, and SG network. The above model
was implemented using a distributed algorithm. In [8], the authors conducted a detailed
16 S. Shukla et al.
description of the problem related to peer-to-peer energy trading in a decentralized power

system. The existing model for energy trading between prosumers and consumers lacks
the real-world implementation of sharing energy using the model between different
customers and sellers. In [9], the authors explained the potential of machine learning in
the distributed environment to solve the issues involved in the energy trading problem
between the different prosumers and consumers. They addressed several issues of the
SG network such as resource allocation, communication schemes, the privacy of user
data, and negotiation between the seller and buyers.
3 Conventional Energy Trading Model
This section discusses the conventional way of P2P energy sharing between the com-
munities using smart meters in an SG network. See Fig. 1 for the conventional trading
involving different communities.
Fig. 1. Conventional P2P energy trading
Figure 1 shows the conventional way of P2P energy trading between the different
communities i.e., the different distributed customers. Where one of the customers acts
as prosumers and another one-act as consumers. The smart meters are further connected
to utility offices. However, this conventional way of P2P energy trading suffers from the
various QoS requirements i.e., service delay, and network usage for efficient P2P energy
trading between the buyers and sellers of electrical energy in the SG network. In general,
energy trading is conducted between different microgrids. Where both producers and
consumers participate in using the energy supply from smart meters to measure con-
sumption. The conventional energy trading model lacks secure private communication
and energy transaction between prosumers related to P2P energy trading.
4 Blockchain-Enabled Fog Computing Model (BFCM)

In this section, we discussed the proposed advanced P2P energy trading system model
which utilizes the concept of blockchain and FC to meet the network, latency and security
requirement for energy trading involving smart meters. FC acting at the edge of networks
transfers the electrical data in a single hop count Here in this system model, we have
used blockchain technology to secure the user’s anonymity and privacy for securing
information during trading. See Fig. 2 for an advanced blockchain-based P2P energy
trading system.
Fig. 2. Blockchain-enabled fog computing model for P2P energy trading in smart grid
Figure 2 shows the novel advanced blockchain-based P2P energy trading model.
The model consists of a secure data transmission channel that uses blockchain-based
technology. The blockchain here used for electrical data distribution, settlements of
contracts, recording of transactions that occurred, data and user verification along with
storage of blocks. Where FC nodes are used for minimizing the service latency and
network usage at the edge of the smart meter deployed in the SG network. Next, the
energy available for trading is transferred to prosumers and consumers in a real-time
mode where negotiations are conducted for the auction of available energy to sell. The
advanced model will help in achieving QoS requirement by minimizing the bottlenecks
which affect the performance of the energy trading and achieve the best configuration
for the system. Each prosumer can share his/her energy usage information which can be
used by other neighbours with a secure channel using the blockchain model.
5 Blockchain-Based Smart Energy Trading (BSET) Algorithm

This section discusses the design and development of the BSET algorithm. The func-
tioning of the proposed novel algorithm is divided into three different algorithms for the
18 S. Shukla et al.
performance evaluation of efficient P2P energy trading between prosumers. Moreover,

the time complexity of the proposed BSET algorithm for encryption function is O(N)2
and for decryption function is O(N)3 .
Algorithm 1: Negotiation protocol of two users begin inside fog computing (FC) envi-
ronment. In this part, the seller generated a contract and final contract based on the offer
and counteroffer for negotiation with the buyer.
Algorithm 2: Final contract determination begins between the peers in FC. This part
of the algorithm deals with the final contract determination and contract determination
deadline.
Algorithm 3: Encryption and decryption of electrical data using blockchain for secure
communication between peers. The data is encrypted and then decrypted using a private
blockchain and different cryptographic operations. The encryption algorithm is used to
encrypt the meter data and readings from the outside world. The algorithm performs
security of data transmission between smart meters, meter management system, and
consumers using the blockchain. The electrical data is encrypted using private-public
key arrangements the data is encrypted and then decrypted as per the user requirement.
20 S. Shukla et al.
6 Results and Discussion

This section discusses the results and simulation of the BSET algorithm in the iFogSim
simulator. Next, we have used Anaconda (Python), Geth version 1.9.25, Ganache, Truffle
(Compile) and ATOM as a text editor for creating smart contracts. iFogSim is an open-
source simulator used for creating physical topology design, resource placement, and
packet allocation by creating different edges, networks, nodes, and devices with cloud
and fog sever. A detailed comparative analysis is conducted between FC and cloud-
related latency, malicious node percentage, and network usage. The simulations are
conducted between different prosumers at different physical topology configurations.
Furthermore, the malicious node percentage increases with an increase in the number
of prosumers. See Fig. 3 represent the physical topology configuration.
Fig. 3. iFogSim GUI configuration for physical configuration
Figure 3 shows the physical topology for configuration built in the iFogSim simulator.
The configuration is solely based on the concept of a proposed system. The figure shows
Fig. 4. Average latency performance evaluation

22 S. Shukla et al.
the fog devices connected with a cloud server and the smart meters embedded at the
prosumers place. See Fig. 4 for average latency performance.
Figure 4 shows the average latency comparison between different prosumers during
P2P energy trading in fog and cloud computing environment. The FC easily outperforms
the cloud in terms of latency.
Fig. 5. Malicious node percentage vs detection accuracy in fog and cloud environment
Figure 5 shows the malicious node percentage in fog and cloud along with the
detection accuracy in percentage. The figure shows that the detection accuracy in fog
nodes is much greater when compared to the cloud for different distributed prosumers.
Fig. 6. Network usage in P2P energy trading for different prosumers in fog and cloud
Figure 6 shows the network usage by the different prosumers in P2P energy trading
using fog and cloud. The FC easily outperforms the cloud in terms of network usage.
7 Conclusion
To overcome the limited communication, network efficiency, and data privacy issues of
the SG network a fully distributed energy trading system using FC and blockchain is pro-
posed. Next, we have proposed a novel Blockchain-Based Smart Energy Trading (BSET)
algorithm. The algorithm is further divided into three other major sub-algorithms. 1)
Negotiation protocols between two users 2) Final contract determination between the
peers and 3) Encryption and decryption of electrical data using blockchain for secure
communication. The main contribution of the proposed work is to improve P2P energy
trading by providing a secure communication channel among prosumers along with
determining the latency and network usage requirement.
Acknowledgements. This publication has emanated from research supported in part by a research
grant from Cooperative Energy Trading System (CENTS) under Grant Number REI1633, and by
a research grant from Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) under Grant Number SFI 12/RC/2289_P2
(Insight), co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund.
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1. Ahsan, M.M., Ali, I., Imran, M., Idris, M.Y.I., Khan, S., Khan, A.: A fog-centric secure cloud
storage scheme. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Comput. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/TSUSC.2019.
2914954
2. Sarenche, R., Salmasizadeh, M., Ameri, M.H., Aref, M.R.: A secure and privacy-preserving
protocol for holding double auctions in smart grid. Inf. Sci. 557, 108–129 (2021)
3. Luo, F., Dong, Z.Y., Liang, G., Murata, J., Xu, Z.: A distributed electricity trading system in
active distribution networks based on multi-agent coalition and blockchain. IEEE Trans. Power
Syst. 34(5), 4097–4108 (2018)
4. Sadhukhan, D., Ray, S., Obaidat, M.S., Dasgupta, M.: A secure and privacy preserv-
ing lightweight authentication scheme for smart-grid communication using elliptic curve
cryptography. J. Syst. Arch. 114, 101938 (2020)
5. Lohachab, A., Garg, S., Kang, B.H., Amin, M.B.: Performance evaluation of Hyperledger
Fabric-enabled framework for pervasive peer-to-peer energy trading in smart Cyber-Physical
Systems. Futur. Gener. Comput. Syst. 118, 392–416 (2021)
6. Mohan, V., et al.: Realistic energy commitments in peer-to-peer transactive market with risk
adjusted prosumer welfare maximization. Int. J. Electric. Power Energy Syst. 124, 106377
(2021)
7. Jiang, A., Yuan, H., Li, D.: A two-stage optimization approach on the decisions for prosumers
and consumers within a community in the Peer-to-peer energy sharing trading. Int. J. Electric.
Power Energy Syst. 125, 106527 (2021)
8. Tushar, W., et al.: Peer-to-peer energy systems for connected communities: a review of recent
advances and emerging challenges. Appl. Energy 282, 116131 (2021)
9. Wang, N., Li, J., Ho, S.-S., Qiu, C.: Distributed machine learning for energy trading in electric
distribution system of the future. Electric. J. 34(1), 106883 (2021)
Energy Trading Between Prosumers Based
on Blockchain Technology
Susana M. Gutiérrez1(B) , José L. Hernández1 , Alberto Navarro2 ,

and Rocío Viruega2
1 Fundación CARTIF, 47151 Boecillo (Valladolid), Spain
susgut@cartif.es
2 Alpha Syltec Ingeniería, SL., 47197 Valladolid, Spain
Abstract. Electrification of the energy systems and the current policies for sus-
tainable development are increasing the potential for distributed energy resources
(DERs). Within this trend, electricity grid generation and intermediary elements
(e.g. batteries) are distributed, promoting a new business model where the con-
sumers have become prosumers. That is to say, they can both generate and con-
sume energy. The distributed energy generation is based on renewable (mainly,
photovoltaics) and storage (i.e. batteries). However, the produced energy is unpre-
dictable without forecasting tools and intermittent (i.e. dependent on the solar
resources). Additionally, although the priority is the usage of this energy for self-
consumption, the surplus of energy is usually sold to the DSO (Distribution System
Operator). Then, the usage of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) energy trading fosters new busi-
ness models and novel paradigms of energy system generation where people can
generate their own energy and share it locally with each other. The aforementioned
factors have encouraged a wider adoption of microgrids powered by renewable
distributed energy sources and they provide a lot of economic and environmen-
tal benefits. For that end, this paper presents a P2P approach, combined with
demand and production forecasting, to enable novel prosumers’ business models
and promoting renewable energy communities for energy transition.
Keywords: Blockchain · P2P · Smart contract · Energy trading · Microgrid ·

Energy transition
1 Introduction
Energy markets are evolving from centralized electricity generation to distributed con-
cepts [1], thanks to the wide deployment of renewable self-consumption installations
(e.g. photovoltaics in roofs). This aspect contributes to more efficient, environmentally-
friendly and small-size generating units, as well as better demand management. This
new trend is enhanced by the integration of new technologies, like blockchain and P2P
(peer to peer). Under this approach, the new concept of microgrid arises where the
distributed generation and consumption elements are integrated in the existing power
system [2] and communicated though the aforementioned P2P technology. Thus, Dis-
tributed Ledger Technologies (DLTs) and, in particular, blockchain technology, have the
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86162-9_3
Energy Trading Between Prosumers Based on Blockchain Technology 25
potential to transform the energy sector. The World Economic Forum, Stanford Woods
Institute for the Environment, and PwC released a joint report [3] identifying more than
65 blockchain use-cases for the environment. These use cases include new business
models for energy markets and, even more, moving carbon credits or renewable energy
certificates onto the blockchain.
Since years ago, the penetration of renewables has been seen as a disruptive way
to transform energy markets thanks to the integration of PV (photovoltaics) cells, wind
turbines, Information and Communication technologies, among others [4]. Therefore,
better balances of the energy flows are possible based on trading mechanisms [5], where
blockchain is the enabler technology. Also, this blockchain technology breaks with the
traditional role of the system aggregator by using the Smart Contracts concept as a virtual
aggregator within the microgrid.
Thus, this paper presents a blockchain-based microgrid deployment so as to foster
distributed energy resources within microgrids and energy trading mechanisms. Then,
the implementation of this P2P concept aims to foster new electricity markets for energy
transition. The implementation of blockchain plus Smart Contract allows the creation
of transactions for energy sharing between agents in the microgrid. In this sense, local
energy exchange is prioritized, reducing the grid stress (i.e. when supplying the excess
of energy from the aforementioned renewables sources into the grid).
In order to detail the concept, Sect. 2 contains a very brief summary of the related
work and how the aforementioned approach is sited in the current research context.
Section 3 explains the approach and business model that applies for the energy trading
solution proposed in this paper. Section 4 describes the system that has been developed
and the technological aspects to be considered. Finally, Sect. 5 provides the real case
demonstration and test results, and the set of conclusions is described in Sect. 6.
2 Related Work
In the last years, a lot of research works have been published in the field of blockchain,
P2P and energy trading. One of the pioneers was the Brooklyn microgrid [6], where
a distributed energy generation microgrid was set up to balance energy generation and
consumption. The concept of the Brooklyn microgrid established self-produced energy
trading mechanisms integrating both physical and virtual prosumers.
Other studies like [5] or [7] have been focused on the implementation of auction
mechanisms based on blockchain and smart contracts for the optimization of the energy
flows, allowing trading between peers. Additionally, blockchain has been deployed to
enable a direct energy trading among consumers and facilitating the local power, such
as the analysis in [8]. Finally, the authors in [9] propose a framework under where
P2P trading is possible. Then, energy matching strategies are followed to match demand
and renewable energy supply. Double auction principles are applied within the microgrid
where the players count on renewable producers, consumers, and the distribution system
operator (DSO).
However, it has to be highlighted that the previous researches, with the exception
of the Brooklyn microgrid, lacks of real demonstrators and they are simulation-based
in test environments, such as Ganache. Additionally, the results are focused on the
26 S. M. Gutiérrez et al.
prosumers energy trading, without considering the DSO, who plays a very important
role, where only the research in [9] includes the DSO in the energy matching process.
Finally, as stated before, the distributed energy generation, distribution and demand is
intermittent, which is not considered within the previous researches and depends on the
user’s behavior. But, end-consumers are not considered as the core of the microgrid.
2.1 Contribution Beyond the State of the Art
The research presented in this paper goes beyond the state of the art in the axes that are
described in the following bullets:
• First of all, to overcome the uncertainties in the available energy production, as well as
demand uncertainties, combined blockchain and demand prediction has been imple-
mented. While the blockchain technology enables the energy trading, machine learn-
ing for forecasting is applied on top of the blockchain to predict the production,
demand and, thus, excess of energy. According to this, three stages in the energy
trading are modelled: (1) predicted excess of energy to be sold and predicted energy
demand to be covered (i.e. requirements for purchase); (2) execution of the trading
according to the real condition; (3) cross-validation to double-check that the sold and
purchased energy are the agreed ones. The advantage of this approach is the increased
accuracy, based on predictions, but checked with real measurements of data from the
smart meters.
• Secondly, the sales and purchases of energy are based on informed users, which are
the core of the system. The predicted excess of production and the demand needs are
provided to the prosumer through a user-friendly interface. Then, the end-consumer is
empowered to decide about the proposals to sell and/or purchase energy. Moreover, the
trading final decision is also possible thanks to the interface, where the end-consumer
can make the decision about matching the sales-purchases, although the automatic
auction is also possible for non-experience users.
• Next, the research presented in this paper goes a step forward as the test environment
is a real, but controlled, scenario in contrast to Ganache simulation network.
• Finally, and related to the previous point, one of the actors within the system tested
in this paper is the DSO or aggregator. Energy that has not been matched cannot be
missed and, here, the DSO or aggregator plays the crucial role of being the buyer for
the non-matched energy.
3 Peer to Peer Energy Trading and Business Model Approach
As mentioned before, the presented paper tests the P2P network in a real, but controlled,
environment, where the energy that is produced should be consumed or dumped into the
grid. Aligned with this, the role of the traditional consumers has also changed to become
prosumers. Then, this drives to new business models where aggregators are not part
of the energy market, while the Smart Contract acts as virtual aggregator. Thus, direct
“communication channels” among end-consumers and DSOs are established through the
P2P-blockchain network and Smart Contract. This new way, as stated in [10], benefits of
using blockchain technology for a more transparent, distributed and secure transaction
log. The first clear advantage is the confidence of the end-consumers, as well as their
intervention in the energy markets, thus, empowering them and making them participants
of the process.
According to that, this paper proposes a new paradigm in the energy trading market,
where both sellers and buyers are able to exchange energy. The energy purchases and
sales are guided by a predictive algorithm that always informs the user about the excess
of energy that will be available to be sold, as well as the energy requirements according
to the demand for the energy purchases. Thus, there are two ways of behaviour:
• “User guided” energy trading: This is provided for experienced and energy-aware
users, empowering them in the final decisions. Both sellers and buyers are in charge
of the sales and purchases proposals, the matching and the final validation. The trans-
actions are “manually” generated and the developed smart contract provides the user
with a method to generate such an energy transaction. That is to say, after having
published the sales and purchases proposals, including the energy prices, the users are
in charge of selecting the matches between sellers and buyers, being possible selling
energy to multiple buyers and vice versa, but always specifying the total amount of
energy and its price to sell/buy. Besides, the amount of energy not sold will be con-
sidered as transferred to the DSO (Distribution System Operator). Figure 1 shows an
example of user guided energy trading in which the sequence of operations has been
the following one:
– Three “rounds” of energy transactions have been done. In the first round, the pro-
sumer offered 4 energy units, seller1 bought 3 energy units and seller2 bought 1 (in
this case, no energy has been transferred to the general grid). In the second round,
the prosumer offered 3 energy units, seller1 bought 2.5, seller2 bought 0.5 and no
energy was transferred to the general grid. During the third round, the prosumer
put on sale 5 energy units, seller1 acquired 3 energy units, seller2 bought 1 energy
unit and 1 energy unit was transferred to the general grid.
Fig. 1. “User guided” energy trading example

28 S. M. Gutiérrez et al.
• Auction energy trading: This second approach is depicted for non-experienced users
and the energy transactions are automatically generated by the smart contract once it
is required to do it (after the expiration of the prediction horizon). The sales and pur-
chases proposals are still manually published according to the information provided
to the users (again, empowering users with information), but matching and transaction
processes are automatically executed (including the ones linked to the DSO), sorting
out the energy sales from the cheapest to the most expensive one and purchases in the
reverse way.
Here, it is important to remark some important aspects related to the business models.
First of all, the automatic auction is currently based on the average price where both the
seller and the buyer benefit. The seller sells energy with a higher price than the offered
by the DSO, while the buyer still buys energy with price below the DSO. Secondly,
the manual validation is contrasted to the smart meter readings, which are currently not
integrated in the system, but it will be done in the future steps to automatically detect
malicious behaviours. Payment process is externalised in order not to create a token, so
it is just energy power units trading.
4 System Overview
4.1 Selection of the Blockchain Technology
The selection of the blockchain technology has been made based on the described busi-
ness models and the microgrid creation. It should be also considered the current Spanish
legislation, which limits the creation of energy communities larger than 500 m [11].
This means that the possibility to set up energy trading mechanisms is reduced to local
neighborhoods, where the players are well known.
Then, taking this into account, permissioned blockchain has been selected. Per-
missioned blockchains provide an additional level of security over typical blockchain
systems like Bitcoin due to the fact that they require an access control layer. Then, only
the administrator of the microgrid is able to accept new peers and, as stated above, the
people taking part is perfectly known. Besides, it has to be considered that a physical
connection is needed to allow the physical transmission of the energy from one user to
another. Additionally, there are multiple benefits of using permissioned blockchains:
• Efficient performance: Permissioned blockchains offer better performance than

permissionless ones.
• Proper governance structure: Permissioned networks do come with an appropriate
governance structure.
• Cost-effective: Permissioned blockchains are more cost-effective when compared with
the permissionless ones (e.g. proof of work algorithms (less computationally efficient)
are not needed (a proof of authority algorithm is enough in this case).
As stated before, the payments are not performed within the blockchain, but with an
external accounting software, that is not part of this paper.
According to the previous advantages, Hyperledger Besu1 has been chosen in con-
trast to other possibilities such as Fabric or Quorum, among others. The consensus
algorithm is PoA2 (by using Clique). The reasons for selecting this technology are:
• It supports zero gas price transactions, then, no incurring extra costs.

• It supports private transactions to increase security.
• It supports Proof of Authority algorithm, reducing the gas usage.
4.2 Developed Smart Contract
Smart contracts provide the necessary means to design and implement fully automated
contractual agreements among involved stakeholders. They mediate and monitor trans-
actions, provide transparency and enforcement of contractual clauses. In this case, the
smart contract has been developed using Solidity as programming language.
For multiple reasons, two versions of the smart contract have been developed. In one
of them, the user is in charge of generate the transactions. The other version of the smart
contract uses an automatic auction algorithm that makes it possible to automatically
generate transactions between prosumers (as per Fig. 2). In both versions, both the seller
and the purchaser have to validate the transaction: the purchaser has to validate that
he/she has received the energy stated in the transaction, and the seller has to validate that
he/she has generated and sent the amount of energy indicated in the transaction.
5 P2P Network Case Study Validation
5.1 Case Study Description
As aforementioned, in contrast to other researches, the validation has been made against a
real, but controlled, environment, not just making use of simulated networks as Ganache.
Thus, two scenarios have been deployed: (1) an initial test case with 4 Raspberry PI
with the purpose of debugging Smart Contract and Hyperledger Besu configuration;
(2) SYLTEC offices as real and controlled environment where nodes are the different
instances of the offices, which are independently managed from the electrical perspective.
Figure 3 shows the schema of the connected nodes, simulating a condominium where
each office could be mirrored to a dwelling. In this configuration, the orange node is
the one with PV plus batteries for storage, while the rest of nodes are just consumers.
Each one of the rooms has its own energy meter, thus, independent consumption. The
Besu network has been deployed in each one of the nodes, considering two bootnodes
(or masters of the network). Moreover, to enable the transactions and creation of new
blocks, CLIQUE protocol has been selected and, thus, 4 nodes are defined as signers
(the two bootnodes that are by default and two additional ones to comply with more than
half of the network).
1 https://www.hyperledger.org/use/besu.
2 Proof of Authority.
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Titel: Lord Lister No.

13: De inbraak in
den slaapwagen
Auteur: Theo von Info
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[Pseudoniem van
Mathias Blank
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Aanmaakdatum 2022-05-28
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3 vin vind 1
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bron] ” 1
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Blockchain and Applications 3Rd International Congress 1St Edition Javier Prieto Editor Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

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Blockchain and Applications 3rd

International Congress 1st Edition

ICSSIET CONGRESS The International Congress of

Introducing Blockchain Applications: Understand and

Blockchain Technology and Applications 1st Edition

Wireless Blockchain Principles Technologies and

Classical Mechanics: with MATLAB Applications 2nd

Blockchain For Dummies 3rd Edition Tiana Laurence

Classical Hopf Algebras and Their Applications Algebra

Blockchain Technology for IoT Applications Seok-Won Lee

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15179

Paulo Leitão António Pinto

Blockchain and Applications

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic)

Javier Prieto Tejedor University of Salamanca, Spain, and AIR

Program Committee Chairs

Emilio S. Corchado University of Salamanca, Spain

Andreea-Elena Drăgnoiu University of Bucharest, Romania

Mohamed Laarabi Mohammadia School of Engineering Rabat,

Gernot Salzer Vienna University of Technology, Austria

Implementation and Evaluation of a Visual Query Language

Benchmarking Constrained IoT Devices in Blockchain-Based

Attacks on Blockchain Based Digital Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

Malaw Ndiaye(B) and Karim Konaté

UCAD, Dakar, Senegal

Abstract. Smart contracts certainly provide a powerful functional sur-

This paper makes the following contributions:

This paper is organized as follows:

• Section 2 presents background study and related work.

2 Background Study and Related Work

2.1 Smart Contracts Operational Mechanism

Fig. 1. Smart contracts operational mechanism

2.2 Smart Contracts Formal Model

automata, qi is contained in the state set of contract party, qi∗ ∈ qi , (i=1,

2.3 Transaction Formal Model

T = ∪Tα ≡ ∪Tα α ∈ {n, p, g, t, v, i, d, ...} (2)

Fig. 2. Transaction model

3 Smart Contracts Sequential Execution Model

3.2 Smart Contracts Execution Model

is a state invariant. Conversely, a transition invariant can be strengthened by

In other words, an execution is normal if there is a ﬁnite sequence of consecutive

Fig. 3. Smart contracts execution model

3.3 Model and Vulnerable Smart Contracts Attack Vectors

3.4 Model and Criminal Smart Contracts

We refer to smart contracts that facilitate crimes in distributed smart contract

Table 1. Ethereum application layer vulnerabilities attacks

Model impact factor Properties Violation

Password theft. An example of a CSC is a smart contract for (private-)key theft.

Table 2. Criminal smart contracts attacks

Model impact factor Properties violation

Fig. 4. Smart contracts anomalies detection system

Termination, Fairness, Correctness, Reachability, Safety, Liveness and Real-time

Saurabh Shukla(B) , Subhasis Thakur , Shahid Hussain , and John G. Breslin

National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland

Abstract. The advancement in renewable energy sources (RESs) technology have

Keywords: Smart grid · Smart meter · Cyber-physical system · Fog computing ·

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

2 Background and Related Work

description of the problem related to peer-to-peer energy trading in a decentralized power

3 Conventional Energy Trading Model

Fig. 1. Conventional P2P energy trading

4 Blockchain-Enabled Fog Computing Model (BFCM)