DAWN OF MODERN

PHYSICS

High Yield Notes

 NOTES NOTES
DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS

REFERENCE FRAMES
Any coordinate system It is used to specify the relations
relative to which between a moving observer and
measurements are taken is the event.
known as a reference frame.
In a reference frame, an
experimenter makes position
and time measurements of
physical events(an occurrence
that is specified by where it
happens in space and time)

NON-INERTIAL FRAME OF
INERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCE
REFERENCE
It is a frame of reference in which
Newton’s law of inertia (If no resultant It is a frame of reference in which
force acts on the body, it will continue Newton’s law of inertia does not hold
its state of rest or uniform motion) true.
holds true.

Any frame of reference that is moving

with uniform velocity with reference to Accelerated frames of reference are
another inertial frame is also an inertial non-inertial frames of reference.
frame.

Mnemonic: Mnemonic:
☆Ira Fell Upwards Vastly. ☆None For All.
Ira = Inertial
None = Non-inertial
Fell = Frame
Upwards = Uniform
For = Frame
Upwards = Velocity All = Acceleration

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 NOTES SPECIAL THEORY OF
RELATIVITY
Coulomb's Law:
This theory treats problems
involving inertial frames of
reference.
It has two main postulates:
1. The laws of physics are the
same in all inertial frames.
2. The speed of light is constant
for all observers in all inertial
frames of reference, regardless
of their state of motion or the
motion of the source of light.
There is no way to detect
uniform motion by observers,
except relative to one another
(relative uniform motion).

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 NOTES CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Simultaneity: The equation representing time
dilation is as follows:
t= t0 / √1- v²/c² where t=
It refers to the occurrence of
observer time, t0= proper time,
two or more events at the same
v= velocity of the
time.
observer/reference frame and c
It is a relative concept, not an
= speed of light in vacuum
absolute one.
Observer time is greater than
There is no absolute fact about
the proper time, this causes the
the relative timing of events at
dilation of time.
distant places
The time period is the shortest
Two events that are
in the rest frame.
simultaneous in one reference
frame are not simultaneous in
another reference frame which Length contraction:
is moving relative to the first
frame of reference. If an observer is in motion
relative to two points that are a
Time dilation: fixed distance apart, the
distance would seem shorter
than if the observer was at rest
When an object is moving very
relative to the two points.
fast, it experiences time more
This happens only along the
slowly than when it is at rest.
direction of motion, not
Proper time: It refers to the time
perpendicularly.
taken for an event to occur in
Proper length: It refers to the
the rest frame. It is measured by
length measured within the rest
a clock that has the same
frame/by the observer relatively
motion as the observer
at rest
Observer time: It refers to the
The equation representing
time between events in the
length contraction is as follows:
observer’s frame of reference.
l= lo √1- v²/c² where lo refers to
Time dilates due to the relative
the proper length, v=
motion of the observer and
velocity of observer/reference
frame of reference
frame and c= speed of light in
vacuum.

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 NOTES Mass dilation:
According to the special theory
of relativity, to a stationary
observer, the mass of an object
traveling at relativistic velocity
dilates/increases.
As an object moves faster, its
observed mass increases.
m= mo /√1- v²/c²
An object cannot be
accelerated to the speed of light
in a perfect vacuum because
When v approaches the speed
of light, a larger force is required
to change the speed of object
When v=c, mass= ∞ (when v →c ,
v/c=1 so 1-v²/c² = 1-1= 0, √1-
v²/c²=0 hence m=mo/0, so m=
∞).
An infinite mass requires an
infinite force to be accelerated
and infinite forces are not
available in the universe.
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Energy equivalence:
Mass and energy are different
entities but are inconvertible,
meaning mass can be converted
to energy and vice versa
E= Δmc² where Δm depends on
the speed of the object
The rest mass energy(Eo) is the
energy equivalent of the rest
mass(mo). It is the energy stored
inside a stationary particle due
to its mass:
Eo= moc²
i. mc²>moc² so
K.E.= mc²-moc²
= m-mo(c²)
ii. c² is very large so a small
change in mass is
required to bring about a
very large energy change.
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 NOTES
BLACK BODY RADIATION
When a body is heated, it emits Wein’s Displacement Law:
radiation. This is why hot objects
glow because the radiation they
The black body radiation curve
emit is in the visible region of
for different temperatures will
EM Spectrum.
peak at different wavelengths.
When the platinum wire is
These wavelengths are inverse
heated to different
to the temperature. This means
temperatures, it acquires
that for a higher temperature,
different colors:
the peak of the curve is at a
shorter wavelength.
TEMPERATURE 1.00
COLOR At a given temperature, the
1.00 energy is not uniformly
distributed in the black body
500° C 1.00red
Dull
radiation spectrum. It has a
1.00 maximum for a particular
900° C Cherry red wavelength λmax
1.00
The product of λmax and the
1100° C
1.00
Orange temperature is equal to a
1.00 constant.
1300° C 1.00
Yellow λmax x T= 2.9x10⁻³mK (This is
1.00 called Wein’s constant)
1600° C White
1.00
Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
1.00
At different temperatures,
1.00
different wavelengths of The area under the black body
radiation are emitted 1.00 radiation curve represents the
For different wavelengths, the total energy radiated per square
amount of radiation emitted is meter over all wavelengths at a
also different particular temperature.
Black body: It is an idealized Area ∝ Absolute temperature^4
physical body that absorbs all E∝ T^4
incident EM radiation, E= σ T^4 where σ is Stefan’s
regardless of the frequency or constant and is equal to
intensity. It also radiates/emits 5.67x10-8 Wm⁻²K^-4
at the same rate as it absorbs (to This energy distribution along
stay in thermal equilibrium). It is the black body radiation curve
non-reflecting so it appears could not be explained by the
black. electromagnetic wave theory.

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 NOTES PLANCK’S QUANTUM
Coulomb's Law:
THEORY (1900)
Energy is radiated/absorbed in
discrete packets (quanta)
instead of as a continuous wave
The molecules that emit the
energy/black body radiation
have discrete amounts of
energy En=nhf where n=
quantum number which are
positive integers e.g. 1,2,3…,h=
Planck’s constant (6.626x10^-34
Js) and f= frequency of
oscillating molecule
An oscillating molecule can
absorb/emit energy only in
discrete bundles which are
called photons/quanta
Energy is emitted/absorbed by
atoms when they jump from
one quantum state to another.
E=hf where E is the energy of
one photon

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 NOTES PHOTON
Packets of energy are integral
parts of all electromagnetic
radiation and cannot be
subdivided. These packets are
called photons.
A beam of light with
wavelength λ traveling at speed
c consists of a stream of
photons and carries energy =hf
energy of photon in terms of
momentum: E=pc
where p= momentum of
photon and c= speed of light
EM radiation/quanta interact
with matter in 3 different ways:
1. Photoelectric effect
2. Compton scattering
3. Annihilation of matter

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 NOTES
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When light of low energy with a
suitable frequency is shone on a
metal surface, electrons from
the inner shell of that metal
gain energy and are liberated
from their orbits. This liberation
of photoelectrons is known as
the photoelectric effect.
A potential difference exists
between a positive plate and a
negative plate. Light is shone on
the cathode which then 1.00emits
electrons.
1.00
These electrons are attracted to
the anode, thus producing1.00
current. When the light 1.00source
is cut off, there is no current.
1.00
Determining the maximum 1.00
energy of photoelectrons: 1.00
1.00
1.00
Reverse the battery connection
in the circuit. This will cause
1.00 the
photoelectrons to be repelled
1.00
by the anode instead of being
attracted. 1.00
As a result of this, the 1.00
photoelectric current will
decrease. The potential will
become more and more
negative until it reaches the
point of stopping potential(Vo);
the potential at which the
photoelectric current is zero.
At Vo, even electrons with
maximum energy cannot move
to the anode. Maximum energy
of photoelectrons:
½ mvmax2= Voe
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If the experiment is repeated
with a beam of greater intensity,
the amount of current increases
but Vo remains the same.
If the current remains the same
but the frequency of the
incident beam changes, then Vo
changes.
The maximum energy of
photoelectrons depends on the
particular metal surface and the
frequency of the incident light
fo is the threshold frequency- if
incident photons are below this
frequency, no emission of
photoelectrons occurs. The
value of fo varies from metal to
metal. Once the incident beam
has a frequency of fo, the
emission is almost
instantaneous.
The intensity of the incident
beam of photons determines
the number of photoelectrons
emitted.
Some of the incident photon
energy is used by the
photoelectrons to escape from
the metal surface and the rest of
it appears as the K.E. of the
photoelectrons:
E= hf= work function= Φ+ ½ mv²
where Φ=work function which is
the minimum energy required
for the photoelectron to escape
from the metal surface
When K.E. of photoelectron=0,
then f=fo so hfo=Φ
K.E.max= hf-hfo. All emitted
electrons do not possess
maximum K.E.
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 Photocell:
NOTES Mnemonic:
It is a device that utilises the
photoelectric effect to
☆Inez Came Very Soon Politely
Inez = Infrared
produce a current/voltage.
Came = Cesium cathode
It consists of an evacuated glass
tube and a thin anode
Very = Visible light
rod/cathode. Soon = Sodium or
When exposed to light, Politely = Potassium cathode
electrons are emitted which
cause current to flow in the
external circuit. The flow of
current stops when the beam of
light is interrupted.
Cathode is chosen by checking
the frequency of incident1.00
radiation. For instance,1.00
if the
incident radiation is in the
1.00
infrared part of the spectrum,
1.00
then using oxidized, silver-
coated cesium cathode 1.00will
cause the emission of
1.00
photoelectrons and if it is in the
1.00
visible light region, a sodium or
potassium cathode is 1.00used.
1.00
1.00 Incident light

1.00
1.00 Collector

Emitter 1.00

A photo cell

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 NOTES
COMPTON SCATTERING
It is the scattering of a low
Mnemonic:
frequency/energy photon after
an interaction with a charged
☆Paris Lied Enough, Putting In
Severe Effort
particle (electron), causing the
energy of the photon to Paris = Photoelectric effect
decrease. Lied Enough = Low Energy
The incoming photon collides Putting = Photon
with an outer shell electron, Severe = Inner shell
causing it to be knocked out of Effort = Electrons
its orbit. As a result of this
collision, the photon itself is
scattered. This results in Mnemonic:
ionization. ☆Carrie Hid Every Photograph of
The wavelength of the scattered Sunny Ever
photon is measured at angle θ Carrie = Compton scattering
to the original direction of its Hid Every= Low Energy
travel.
Photograph = Photon
The scattered photon has a
Of Sunny = Outer shell
greater wavelength (lower
frequency) than the initial value. Ever = Electrons
A part of the incident photon
energy/momentum is
transferred to the electron.
Δλ= h/moc²(1-Cosθ) where Δλ is
X-ray photon electron
the difference between the scattered electron

scattered and initial photon

wavelength, h= Planck’s scattered photon
inelastic collision
constant, mo = rest mass of
electron and c= speed of light
h/moc is called the Compton
wavelength and has a constant
value of 2.43x10^-12m. It has the
same dimensions as length.
When θ=90°, then Δλ= h/moc.

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 NOTES PAIR PRODUCTION
When a very high energy
photon interacts with a nucleus,
the radiant energy of the
photon is converted to matter
in the form of an
electron/positron pair. The
nucleus is there to take up the
recoil energy.
The creation of two particles
with equal and opposite
charges is necessary for charge
conservation in the universe.
Rest mass energy Eofor the
electron(e-)/positron(e+)= m0c2
= 0.51 MeVc2 = 0.51 MeV
The energy required to create
two particles: 0.51 x2= 1.02MeV
If a photon has energy> 1.02
MeV, then the surplus energy is
converted to the K.E. of the
electron and positron.
E=hf=2moc2 + K.E.(e-) + K.E. (e+)
The existence of positron was
predicted by Paul Dirac in 1928
The positron was discovered by
Carl Anderson in cosmic
radiation in 1932
Every particle has an
antiparticle; positron and
electron are one such pair,
having the same mass and
charge but opposite sign
The particle and antiparticle
cannot exist together, they
always annihilate.

Incident photon
positron

nucleus

electron

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 NOTES ANNIHILATION OF
MATTER
When an electron and a
positron collide, they destroy
each other and the matter is
converted to electromagnetic
energy, in the form of the
production of two photons in
the gamma range.
The photons when produced,
will be traveling in opposite
directions to conserve
momentum.
Each photon has an energy of
0.51 MeV
2hf= 2moc²
The concept of annihilation of
matter is the basis of PET scans.

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 NOTES WAVE NATURE OF
PARTICLES
Light has dual nature; it
behaves both as a wave and a
particle.
Due to this, Louis de Broglie
hypothesized that particles
should also have the capability
to behave like waves.
This theory proposes that all
matter exhibits properties of not
only particles but also waves
that transfer energy.
Even though photons have no
mass, they have momentum
due to their energy.
For a photon, E= hf and E= pc
hf=pc p=hf/c (f/c= 1/λ), p=h*1/λ so
p=h/λ which is the de Broglie
wavelength
This formula for calculating the
momentum of a photon can
also be used for particles of
mass m moving with velocity v
mv=h/λ so
λ=h/mv
where λ is the wavelength
associated with particles when
they behave as waves.
For v=c/√2, de Broglie λ=
Compton λ

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 NOTES DAVISSON-GERMER
EXPERIMENT
This experiment provided proof
for the wave nature of electrons
by showing electron diffraction
from metal surfaces.
Electrons from a heated
filament are accelerated by a
voltage V and the beam of
electrons with energy Ve is
incident on nickel crystal.
The beam is diffracted by the
nickel crystal (by the spaces
between the nickel atoms in the
crystal). It then enters a detector
and is recorded as current I.
When the beam is accelerated,
the electrons gain K.E.:
½ mv²=Ve
mv2= 2Ve, multiplying both
sides by m, m²v².= 2Vem
Taking sq. root on both sides,
mv= √2Vme
Using the de Broglie equation:
λ=h/mv, λ=h/√2Vme
Such diffraction patterns are
also observed for protons,
neutrons, hydrogen atoms, He
atoms, etc.

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 NOTES WAVE PARTICLE
DUALITY
J.J. Thomson was the first to
experimentally demonstrate the
particle nature of electrons
Neil Bohr stated that both
particle and wave aspects are
required for the complete
description of matter and
radiation (principle of
complementarity)
Both aspects cannot be
revealed simultaneously in a
single experiment
The wave nature is shown when
traveling from a source to
where it is detected.
Particle nature is shown when
there is interaction with matter.
Propagation happens as a wave,
and energy exchange happens
as a particle.

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 NOTES ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
It makes practical use of the
wave nature of electrons.
The λ of electrons is about
100,000x smaller than that of
visible light.
Electric and magnetic fields are
used to focus the electron
beam
The electrons are accelerated by
applying a very high voltage,
giving electrons energy to
penetrate the sample.
When 50kV P.D. is applied, the
resolution of the electron
microscope is 0.5-1 nm (PTB)
and 50pm (KPK )
Magnification of SEM is up to
x500,000 and that of TEM is
50,000,000
SEM produces a 3D image of
specimen
The electron gun produces a
The intermediate lens magnifies
the image coming from the
objective lens and the
projection lens further
magnifies it and projects it onto
a fluorescent screen.
The thicker parts of the
specimen scatter the electrons
The transmitted beam has
spatial differences in density
Two types of electrons are used
for screening:
BSE(backscattered electrons)
SE (secondary electrons)
They are collected by their
corresponding detectors.
Electron
Source
Anode

beam of electrons which is

accelerated by the anode.
The condenser lens defines the
size of the beam and the Condensor

objective lens focuses the beam lenses

onto the sample.

x,y
scancoils
Objective
lens

Back-scattered
electron detector

X-ray Secondary electron

detector acceptor

Sample

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 NOTES HEISENBERG’S
UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
It is impossible to measure
exactly both the position and
momentum of an object.
Any increase in accuracy in the
measurement of the position
will be accompanied by an
increase in uncertainty of
momentum.
The product of the error in
measurement of position and
momentum is equal or more
than an integral multiple of a
constant
Particles that have a definite
position will have no fixed
momentum/velocity. On the
other hand, a particle with a
well-defined wavelength will
show a definite velocity.
These measurements have
no significance in the macro
world but have ever-lasting
effects in the quantum
world.
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The product of the two
uncertainties can never be
smaller than h: Δx. Δp >/= h
As Δx and λ have the same
dimensions and p=h/λ
Δp.Δx ≈ h/λ * λ
So Δp.Δx ≈ h
The relation between position
and λ: direct, and that between
momentum and λ: inverse
When λ is short, Δx is small and
Δp is large.
Δp.Δx ≈ ℏ/2 (ℏ=h/2π) so Δp.Δx=
h/4π
ℏ= 6.63x10^-34 Js (This is a value
of Planck’s constant that
removes the value of frequency
and allows it to be used with
radians).
It is also impossible to
accurately measure the energy
of a system in finite time.
The measurement error of any
two conjugate properties whose
dimensions happen to be Joule-
sec like Δp.Δx, ΔE.Δt, ΔL.Δθ will
be guided by Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle.
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