b.

posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

- median eminence: base of hypothalamus
from which extends pituitary stalks
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- infundibulum: pituitary stalks
- pars nervosa (unmyelinated axons of
Endocrinology is said to be the study of different secretory hypothalamic neurons)
hormones in our body. Nervous System and - pituicytes: supportive cells
Endocrine system are two important body systems
that usually coordinates the body's functions to HYPOTHALAMUS
maintain homeostasis. ● for homeostasis
● sends signals to the pituitary to
release/inhibit pituitary hormone
production
● connects ES to NS
● for body temp, thirst, appetite, weight
control, emotions, sleep cycles, sex drive,
childbirth, bp, heart rate, digestive fluids
● influence release of hormones from
adenohypophysis:
○ releasing hormone
○ inhibiting hormone (growth
hormone and prolactin)
● neurohypophysis does not secrete hormones
(stores oxytocin and vassopressin/ADH)
Types of Endocrine Gland Stimuli
● HORMONES
1. Humoral stimulus : low concentration of
○ ADH: water absorption into the
Ca+ in capillary blood stimulates secretion of
kidneys
PTH by parathyroid glands. PTH increases
○ Corticotropin RH: corticosteroids
blood calcium.
(metabolism and immune response)
2. Neural stimulus: preganglionic sympathetic
○ gonadotropin RH: stimulate the
fibers stimulate adrenal medulla cells to
release of LH and FSH to ensure
secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and
functioning of ovary and testes
norepinephrine)
○ oxytocin: orgasm, body temp, sleep
3. Hormonal stimulus: hypothalamus secretes
cycle, release of milk, labor
hormones that stimulates other endocrine
○ prolactin RH/IH: dopamine;
glands to secrete hormones
stimulate breast milk production
○ thyrotropin RH: trigger release of
PITUITARY GLAND
thyroid SH, for metabolism, energy,
- bean-shaped, found at base of brain (sella
growth and development.
turcica)
- controls other endocrine glands; growth,
ADRENAL GLAND
metabolism, maturation
● cap-like glands located at the top of the
a. anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
kidneys
● pars intermedia (thin zone of
● adrenal cortex (outer) and adrenal medulla
basophilic cells)
(inner)
● Pars distalis (chromophils and
● glucocorticoids (increase blood glucose);
chromophobes)
mineralocorticoids (reabsorption of Na+ and
● pars tuberalis (basophilic secretory
excretion of K)
cells)
● Adrenal Cortex Regions:
Cells: chromophobes, acidophils (alpha cells),
○ zona glomerulosa>
basophils (beta), pituicytes
mineralcorticoids> aldosterone
 (targets kidneys to release K+ and
H2O ion and reabsorb Na+ ions;
prevent dehydration ; blood pressure
regulation and electrolyte balance)
○ zona fasciculata> glucocorticoids>
cortisol (fats> ATP; conserves
glucose, stored in the liver as
glycogen; anti-inflammatory, adapt
to stress; glucose metabolism and
immune system suppression)
○ zona reticularis> androgens> sex
hormones -dehydroepiandrosterone
● Adrenal medulla> stress hormones>
epinephrine and norepinephrine; secrete
catecholamine for rapid response in stressful
situations
○ vassoconstriction(lumiliit)
○ vassodilation (lumalaki)
○ glycogen broken down into glucose
○ enteric ns causes you to pee but
cortisol inhibits this.
● Long-term and short-term response
Addison’s disease : hyposecretion of adrenol cortical
hormones.
Cushings syndrome: hypersecretion of adrenal
cortex, cortisol; fat deposition, slow healing of
injury, thin and fragile skin and bones, rounded
appearance if face
Stress: any condition that threatens homeostasis
General Adaptation Syndrome: body response
1. Alarm stage :
2. Resistance stage
3. Exhaustion stage
Pancreatic Hormones
- Islet of Langerhans or pancreatic islets
- accessory organ of Digestive organ
- alpha cells: glucagon
- beta cells: insulin
- somatostatin (from delta cells)
inhibits secretion of insulin and
glucagon
● Blood glucose level mababa kapag kagigising
lang; pancreas releases glucagon; glucogen
converted to glucose and released to the
bloodstream.
● Pag mataas and sugar, insulin ang nirerelease
● Diabetes Mellitus: Type 1 and Type 2
TYPE 1 (insulin dependent)
- congenital
- Pancreas makes little or no insulin
- Glucose builds up in the bloodstream
TYPE 2 (non insulin dependent)
- older people
- pancreas makes insulin; insulin enters
bloodstream
- glucose cant get into the cells of the body,
glucose builds up in the blood vessels.
-Hypoglycemia: too little glucose
-Hyperglycemia: too much glucose
-Euglycemia: normal
THYROID GLAND
● butterfly-shaped organ in the anterior part
of the neck
● Hormones: T4 thyroxine and T3
triiodothyronine
● Isthmus connects R and L thyroid gland
● Follicular (T4 and T3) and parafollicular cells
(calcitonin)
● regulate rate of metabolism, growth and fxn
of diff body systems, calcium (calcium
homeostasis)
● Iodine+ Tyrosine: needed to produce T3 and
T4
● Hypothalamus releases TRH> Anterior
pituitary (TSH)> Thyroid> no iodine
(insufficient T3 and T4)> no inhibition>
abnormal increase in TRH and TSH> Goiter.
● Simple Goiter: enlarged thyroid, compressed
and displaces trachea and esophagus
● Graves disease/ hyperthyroidism:
overproduction of thyroid hormone, bulging
eyes (exophthalmos), enlarged thyroid
PARATHYROID GLAND
● posterior of the thyroid gland
● cells: chief or principal cells (releases PTH,
smaller, more abundant); oxyphil (lighter,
larger, lesser, increases with age, more
mitochondria; dont secrete PTH but can
differentiate into chief cells)
● Blood calcium level decrease> Parathyroid
glands triggers osteoclast to degrade bone
matrix release Ca into blood
 ● Blood calcium increase> Thyroid gland> ● Lymph: colection of the extra interstitial
calcitonin> stimulates calcium salt deposit in fluid that drains from cells and tissues that is
bone not reabsobed into the capillaries
● Lymph nodes: bean-shaped glands that
PINEAL GLAND monitor and cleanse the lymph as it filters
- pinealocytes: masses of neuroglia and through them
secretory cells ● Lymphatic vessels: network of
- melatonin: circadian rhythm, photoperiod capillaries(microvessels)
● Collecting ducts : empty the lymph into the
PITUITARY GLAND right lymphatic duct
- Hypothalamus> anterior pituitary glands>
Prolactin: milk production, devt mammary Diseases:
glands ● drawfism: hyposecretion of somatotropin
- Posterior pituitary> releases oxytocin: milk ● acromegaly: hypersecretion of
ejection, love hormone, social bonds, uterus somatotropoin
contraction: labor and childbirth ● graves: hypersecretion of thyroxine
- ADH release: vassopressin ● diabetes mellitus: hyposecretion of insulin
● pancreas has more exocrine than endocrine
tissues
(From quiz:)
● the fight-or flight response begins with
IMMUNE SYSTEM
hypothalmic stimulation of the sympathetic ns
and adrenal medulla
Immunity: ability to destroy pathogens to prevent ● defective ADH receptors: dehydration
further causes of infectious diseases. ● prostaglandins are derived from arachidonic
A. Innate/natural immunity (non-specific acid
responses) ● receptors for insulin are located in the target
a. 1st line: Mechanical barriers; skin, cell membrane
mucous membranes and secretions, ● ACTH (adrenocorticoid) relies on cAMP as 2nd
normal flora (saliva, urine, tears) messenger
b. 2nd line: innate immune cells,
inflammation, complement, Immune system
antimicrobial substances some example of organs that help in immunity:
B. Adaptive/ Acquired immunity (specific ➔ lacrimal gland
responses) ➔ salivary glands
a. 3rd line: Specialized lymphocytes ➔ cilia: mucus to trap microbes
(Bcells and Tcells: helper and killer T ➔ trachea
cells) ➔ intestine: acidic secretion to kill pathogens
Lymphatic System: in the digestive tract
● tonsils and adenoids: first line of defense ➔ vagina
against foreign invaders
● cervical lymph node (kulani): circular in Cells of the immune system
structure in the neck, groin, armpit - dendritic cells : informs T cells to respond
● thymus gland: near the heart; nag-aatrophy against protein antigens
(lumiliit) pag adult - t cells: Natural killer cells; destroy
● peyer’s patches: intestinal wall irreversibly stressed and abnormal cells
● red bone marrow (virus, tumor cells)
● spleen: largest lymphatic organ, storehouse - phagocytic cells: neutrophils and
of blood and produces wbc macrophages/monocytes
● appendix: houses good bacteria
FEVER: warning sign of infection
- increases metabolic rate, inhibit microbial
multiplication, disadvantage: inactivates
enzymes
Chemical mediators:
- protein produced by cells infected with virus
and T cells
- Types of interferon: gamma, alpha, beta
- involved in lysis od cellular antigens and
labelling noncellular antigens
Inflammation
- systemic inflammation
- local inflammation
4 cardinal signs of inflammation:
- heat
- redness,
- pain,
- swelling
leakage of fluids in the capillaries> pain and
sweeling> limit joint movement> healing
Virus: viral DNA and viral RNA
capcit; house-like structure of the virus
interferon: informs non-infected cells of the body to
turn on genes that produces antiviral protein to
protect against invading viruses
complement: classical and alternative
- blood plasma proteins
- complement system
1. opsonization: c3b-c9b attach
themselves to bacteria to call
attention of wbc
2. inflammation: c3a-c5a mast cells:
releases histamine causing allergic
response (inflammation)
3. cytolisis: c5-c9 joins and creates a
hole in the bacteria for the cell to
lyse (pop)
Adaptive immunity
● humoral immunity (b lymphocytes w/c
produce antibodies); provide immunity to
extracellular bacteria, viruses and toxins;
involves body fluids
○ type I, II,II hypersensitivity
● cell mediated (t lymphocytes); provides
immunity to intracellular pathogens
○ Type IV hypersensitivity (acute graft
rejection)
Antibodies (gamma gobulins)/ immunoglobulins
- produced by plasma cells in response ro
antigen
- variable region: where antibodies connect
(antigen-binding site)
Action of antibodies:
- agglutination: attaches to multiple cells
making a clump-blood typing
- neutralization: neutralizes the pathogens
and toxins
- opsonization: candy coating bacteria for
phagocytosis
- complement activation: antibodies bind to
pathogens> complement cascade> lysis of
cell
- enhanced nk cell activity: nk cells recognize
abnormal body cells and are lysed.
5 classes of immunoglobulins
- M.A.D.G.E
1. IgM: complement, activation, and
neutralization ; serum
2. IgA: agglutinaztion and neutralization ;
external secretion like milk
3. IgD : unknown; B cells surface
4. IgG: complement activation, agglutination,
opsonization, and neutralization; crosses
placenta to protect fetus; serum and
intercellular fluid
5. IgE: triggers release of histamines from
basophils and mast cells; serum mast cell
surfaces
● Type 1: anaphylaxis: severe-life threathening
allergies, e.g. peanut allergy
● Type 2: cytotoxic, e.g. hemolytic anmeia:
very low RBC
● Type 3: immune-complex mediated:
erythematosus
 ● Type 4: rashes (steven johnsons disease): antigens: stimulate adaptive immune repsonses
mucus and skin affected; transplant rejection haptens: small molecules (low MW) capable of
● cobining with larger molecules to stimulate adaptive
– The four types of allergic response are: response
1. Type I or anaphylactic reactions - This results in
the production of histamine and other substances
that induce swelling and inflammation.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Some examples are: bronchial asthma,
allergic rhinitis, and allergic dermatitis
Blood: Components
2. Type II or cytotoxic reactions - Cells are ● Plasma 55% (water, salts/electrolytes, ions):
damaged by the antibodies involved in type II maintain osmotic balance and pH regulation,
reactions when they activate the complement and permeability of membranes
system, a defense mechanism. ● Plasma Proteins: albumin ( 60%, osmotic
Examples include: autoimmune hemolytic anemia, pressure, pH), fibrinogen (4%, clotting),
immune thrombocytopenia and globulin (35%,
autoimmune neutropenia. antibodies,
hormones, lipid)
3. Type III or immunocomplex reactions - ● serum:
Immunocomplexes are created when these plasma without
antibodies interact with the allergen clotting factors
(antigen-antibody complexes). The reaction is
caused by these complexes. ● Formed
The examples of this type are: lupus, elements/Cells 45%
serum sickness and arthus reaction *centrifuged blood*

4. Type IV or cell-mediated reactions - This may
develop at least 24 hours after being exposed to the
allergen, type IV allergic responses are also known
as the delayed form of hypersensitivity or allergic
reactions.
Examples: tuberculosis and fungal infections
ACTIVE VS PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Active Immunity
- production of antibodies by the body itself
- development of memory cells
- long-term immunity
- natural mechanism: exposure to pathogenic
infection (challenge and response)
- artificial: controlled exposure to an
attenuated pathogen (vaccination)
Passive Immunity
- acquisition of antibodies from another sourc
- memory cells are not developed
- natural: receiving maternal antibodies (fetus
via colostrum/ newborn via breastmilk)
- artificial: manufactured antibodies via
external delivery (blood transfusions
monoclonal antibodies)
● RBCs (pinakababa) are heavier and have
bigger molecules than plasma (taas:
supernatant) platelets, and WBCs (buffy
coat)
RBC: biconcave disk, anucleated, contains
hemoglobin, transports O2 and CO2
WBC: spherical cells with nucleus; white bc they
lack hemoglobin
Granulocytes
● Neutrophil : phagocytize microorgs; 2-4
lobes connected by thin filaments
● Basophil : two lobes nucleus, bklue-purple
stain, releases histamine and heparin
● Eosinophil : bilobed, orange-red stain;
attacks worm parasites
Agranulocytes
● Lymphocyte : round nucleus, produces
antibodies, for allergic rxns, tumor control,
● Monocyte: kidney-shaped nucleus; becomes
macrophage which phagocitize bacteria,
dead cells
Platelet: for blood clotting
Formation and Destruction of RBCs
 1. Long bone produce RBC (erythropoiesis)>
need vit B, Globin, Fe> RBC circulate in 120 HEART:
days> Macrophage in spleen, liver, bone 1. Location
marrow will degrade rbc and hemoglobin > - thoracic cavity
heme and globin> Heme: transferred and - in the mediastinum, b/w lungs
deposited in the liver as ferritin / transferrin - Apex and Base
to be used in the body> Globin: amino acids 2. Size:
for protein synthesis - less than 1 pound
- 14cm long, 9 cm wide
Bilirubin: yellow pigment in urine, liver> small - like a closed fist
intestine 3. Covering
- can be converted into Urobilinogen> - pericardium : covering of heart
stercobilin (brown)> feces - fibrous pericardium (tough
- (Jaundice) connective tissue)
- parietal
Blood coagulation - visceral/ epicardium
- extrinsic pathway (damage to blood vessel) - serous cavity with fluid
- intrinsic pathway (trauma to blood vessel) 4. Heart wall
- endpoint: trigger production of - epicardium
prothrombinase factor> prothrombin - myocardium
(fibrinogen and fibrin to seal wound) - endocardium
- plasmin: enzyme that dissolves fibrin 5. Heart chamber
- clotting factors: liver (memorize I-XIII) - atrium: receive blood
- ventricle: expels blood
Rh blood group - separated by interartial septum,
- discovered in Rhesus monkey interventricular septum
- Rh-positive is more common than 6. Heart valves:
Rh-negative - tricuspid valve
- rhogam immunoglobulin drug should be - mitral (bicuspid)
delivered 72 hrs after childbirth of rh+: to - semilunar pulmonary valve
prevent reaction of Rh negative of mother - aortic valve
and rh negative of baby Paths of Blood Ciculation
- erythroblastosis fetalis: damaged RBC - pulmonary circulation: deoxygenated
among babies blood> right atrium> right ventricles> lungs>
- systemic circulation: O2 will bind with the
ABO blood system blood sa lungs (oxygenated)> left atrium> left
- +/- Rh ventricle> aorta
- Type A: self-antigen A agglutinogen sa Left side of heart: oxygenated
plasma membrane of RBC; blood plasma has Right side: lesser oxygenated blood
Antibody B
- Type B. self-antigen B agglutinogen sa - 22 days after conception, heart starts
plasma membrane of RBC; blood plasma has beating
Antibody A - 100k beats per day, pumps 5-6 quarts of
- Type AB: AB agglutinogen; no antibody, blood/minute, 2000 gallons per day
universal receipient - lower body> inferior vena cava
- type O: no agglutinogen; blood plasma has O, - upper body> superior vena cava>
universal donor
Cardiac Cycle
cross-matching: prevent problems in blood - electrical and mechanical events that occur
transfusion from the beginning of one heartbeat to the
serum: less clotting factor
 beginning of the next heartbeat is called the
cardiac cycle. -Increase Heart Rate
- Systole: period of contraction ● Sympathetic NS
- Diastole: period of relaxation ○ crisis
Conduction system ○ low bp
- intrinsic, nodal conduction system that ● Hormones: epinephrine, thyroxine
regulates heart wall contractions via ● exercise, decreased blood volume
electrical impulses
- Specialized muscle tissue regulates - Decrease Heart rate
contractions by carrying nerve impulses ● Parasympathetic
Electrocardiogram : is a recording of the electrical ● high bp and blood volume
changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle ● decreased venous return (flow of blood back
to heart)
Atrial Fibrillation ● Congestive Heart Failure: heart is worn out
- P wave: atria depolarize and pumps weakly
- QRS complex: ventricles depolarize
- T wave: end of electrical activity in Pathology
ventricles; repolarization of ventricular - angina pectoris: rapid heart beat,
muscles inadequate blood
- CHF:
PATHOLOGY • Decline in pumping efficiency of heart
- fibrillation: irregular and rapid heart rate; • Inadequate circulation
decrease blood flow • Progressive, also coronary atherosclerosis,
- tachycardia: more than 100 bpm high blood pressure and history of multiple
- brachycardia: less than 60 bpm Myocardial Infarctions
- • Left side fails = pulmonary congestion and
Cardiac Output : is the amount of blood pumped by suffocation
the ventricle in one minute. Normal: 75bpm; • Right side fails = peripheral congestion and
5ml/minF) edema

03-28-23
Regulation of Heart Rate
1. Stroke volume usually remains relatively constant
2. The most common way the body changes cardiac
output is by changing the heart rate.
● Intrinsic regulation
○ normal functional characteristic of
the heart
○ Preload: extent to which ventricular
walls are stretched
○ Starlings’s law of the heart: ability of
heart to change its force of
contraction and stroke volume in
response to change in venous return
○ Afterload: pressure that the heart
must work against to eject blood KIDNEYS
during systole
● Extrinsic regulation
○ parasympathetic
○ sympathetic
○ hormonal
URINARY SYSTEM
● Main parts: Urethers, Kidneys, Urinary
bladder, urethra
● 3 Major Functions
○ Regulatory fnx (maintenance of
fluid/bp, pH balance)
○ Secretory fnx (releases renin and
erythropoietin production)
○ Excretory fnx
● Renal cortex: outer
● Renal medulla: inner
● Nephron: filters blood to produce urine
● renal corpuscles: blood-filtering component
of the nephron of the kidney
 ○ Bowman’s capsule (malpighian
corpuscles) 1. Renal artery
○ glomerus : capillaries made of 2. Interlobal artery
endothelial cells 3. Arcuate artery
○ proximal tubule (reabsorption) 4. Interlobular artery
○ loop of Henle 5. Afferent arteriole
○ distal tubule (secretion) 6. Glomerulus
○ collecting duct 7. Efferent ateriole
Juxtaglomerular apparatus 8. Peritubular capillaries
- releases renin hormone for (when blood 9. Vasa recta
pressure in the arterioles falls) 10. Interlobular vein
● Mesangial cells: specialized cells, synthesize 11. Arcuate vein
extracellular matrix, provide structural 12. Interlobar vein
support for glomerular capillaries. Hormones
macrophages ● ADH (antidiuretic) : increases reabsorption of
water
2 Types of Nephron ● ANP(Atrial natriuretic peptide): (decreases
a. cortical nephrons: 85% shorter, cortex of reabsorption of Na+; for bp and para
kidney, produce standard urine marelease ang urine)
b. juxtemedullary nephrons: 15% next to
medulla, responsive to ADH, concentrate How does kidney regulate fluid
urine > Homeostatic blood osmolarity (high: water content
URETER is low)> osmoreceptor in the hyopothalamus> kidney
- folded mucus membrane (distal tubule where reabsorption of water happens)>
- mucosa is lined with transitional epithelium increased permeability> thirst > ADH (antidiuretic
- muscularis with two layers: inner hormone) released
longitudinal, outer circular > drinking water> ADH is not released> more water
in the kidney

URINARY BLADDER Blood pressure

- transitional epithelium: cuboidal when > falling bp> normalized by releasing renin in the
empty, squamous when stretched kidney> convert angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
(collagenous lamina propria) (lungs)> angiotensin II causes constriction of blood
- submucosa (elastic fiber) vessels (by angiotensin-converting enzyme)>
- muscular layer of 3 coats expand the aldosterone> sodium retension/ water
structure reabsorption
URETHRA
- Male urethra is longer than females Acid-base balance
- Women prone to UTI because shorter and - absorb bicarbonate and release Hydrogen
urethra kaya mas mabilis magtravel ang ions into urine
microorganism (openings: urethral orifice, - Acidosis: too much acid in bodily fluids
vagina, anus) - Alkalosis: blood becoming over alkaline
Secretory (erythropoietin)
Blood flow in the kidneys decreased O2 in blood> erythropoietin> increase
RBC> increase O2
>kidneys are connected to the heart, the pressure
exerted by the heart, affects movement of the blood Excretory
into the kidney nephron (smallest unit, 1M nephrons)
> blood plasma ang finifilter ng kidney 1. gomerular filtration : glomerular filtrate
 2. tubular reabsorption: proximal convoluted
tubule (nasesne na may pwede pa magamit
ng katawan narereabsorb)
3. Tubular secretion: distal tubule loop of
henle (descending and ascending), hindi
important yung materials> brought back to
kidneys> collecting duct> urine
4. ADH

Urine
● color: should be clear not cloudy
● specific gravity : 1.010-1.025 dissolved
materials in urine; lower value, more dilute
urine
● pH: 6-8 pH; diet has greatest effect on urine
● nitrogenous waste: urea (amino acid
metabolism), uric acid (nucleic acid),
creatinine (muscle metabolism)
 Phases of Menstrual Cycle
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MALE
1. Testes: produce sperm, testosterone, inhibin
2. Scrotum: temperature regulation
3. Epididymis: site of sperm maturation and
storage
4. Ductus deferens: sperm maturation,
storage, transport
5. ejaculatory duct: transporting sperm and
glandular secretions
6. Penis: erectile organ of sexual intercourse
7. seminal vesicle: secretes fructose and most
seminal fluid
8. prostate gland: watery alkaline fluid to raise
vaginal pH
9. Bulbourethral glnad: secretes lubricating
mucus
FEMALE
1. Ovary : site of storage anmd devt of oocyte
2. Oviduct : transport oocyte from ovary to
uterus; site of fertilization
3. Uterus: hollow chamber where embryo
develops
4. Cervix: lower part of uterus yjay opens into
the vagina
5. Vagina : organ of sexual intercourse,
produce lubricating fluids; also birthcanal
6. Clitoris: organ of sexual arousal
1. Menstrual phase The cycle starts with the
menstrual flow (3 to 5 days), caused due to
the breakdown of the endometrium* of the
uterus. Blood vessels in liquid state are
discharged, but this occurs only when the
ovum is not fertilised.
2. Follicular phase Itis followed by the follicular
phase. In this phase, the primary follicles
mature into the Graffian follicles. This causes
the regeneration of the endometrium. These
changes are brought about by ovarian and
pituitary hormones. In this phase, the
release of gonadotropins from pituitary
gland (LH and FSH) increases. This causes
follicular growth in the ovaries and the
growing follicles produce estrogen from
ovaries.
3. Luteal Phase The remains of the Graffian
follicles get converted into the corpus
luteum, which secretes progesterone for the
maintenance of the endometrium layer of
uterus. In the absence of fertilisation, the
corpus luteum degenerates, thereby causing
the disintegration of the endometrium and
the start of a new cycle. In human females,
the menstrual cycle ceases to operate at the
age of 50 years. This phase is known as the
menopause

● follicles mature> mature or Graafian follicle

(contains ovum) > ovule
● uterus : external (myometrium)
,endometrium
● ovulation: increase in temperature
● anterior pituitary: release luteinaizing
hormone> release hormone
● Estrogen is high
● progesterone
● corpus luteum> progesterone:
● endometrium kumapal; implantation of
zygote
● inflammation of endometrium;
endometriosis
 EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

regulation of GIT
● enteric nervous system: intrinsic set of
nerves
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
○ Myenteric plexus: Auerbach
1. Ingestion: taking in food thru the mouth -b/w longitudinal and circular
2. Propulsion: movement of food; swallowing, smooth muscle of muscularis
peristalsis: alternate contraction and -motor neurons control GI tract
relaxation motility
3. Mechanical digestion: chewing (mouth), ● Submucosal Plexus: meissner
churning in stomach, mixing by -within the submucosa
segmentation(small intestine) -motor neurons supply secretory
4. Chemical digestion: secreted enzymes cells of mucosal epithelium; control
5. Absorption :transport digested end products secretion of GI tract organs
to blood and lymph in wall of canal
6. Defecation: elimination of indigestible ● autonomic nervous system: extrinsic set of
substances nerves
○ Vagus nerve : parasympathetic fibers
Parts to most parts of the GI tract except
- Oral cavity, teeth, tongue last half of large intestine
- salivary glands ○ Stimulation of parasympathetic>
- pharynx increase GI secretion and motility>
- esophagus increase activity of ENS neurons
- stomach
- small intestine Regulation of GI Tract Activities
- large intestine • Autonomic nervous system
- pancreas • parasympathetic nerves stimulate GI tract
- liver activities.
- gallbladder • sympathetic nerves inhibit GI tract
activities.
Basic tissue layers of GIT • Hormonal control
1. Mucosa: innermost layer, lines lumen of • hormones from endocrine gland and from
digestive tract, (epithelium, CT, thin smooth GI tract itself help regulate GI tract activities. •
muscle) lamina propia, muscularis mucosae; Reflex mechanism
absorb nutrients, fight pathogens • regions of the GI tract (especially the
2. Submucosa: receive absorbed food stomach and small intestine) use reflexes to
molecules, has lymphatic tissue, nerve stimulate or inhibit one another
plexus regulating movement and secretion of
digestive tract, has mucin secreting glands STOMACH
3. muscularis: made of skeletal muscle/smooth - pylorospasm: smooth muscle fibers of the
muscle (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, anus), sphincter fail to relax normally
nerve plexus control frequency and strength - food does not pass easily from the stomach
of contraction to the small intestine, the stomach becomes
4. serosa/adventitia: adventitia: areolar overly full, and the infant vomits often to
connective tissue with collagen and elastic relieve the pressure
fibers (retroperitoneal) serosa: covered in - Pyloric stenosis: narrowing of pyloric
visceral peritoneum (intreperitoneal) sphincter, projectile vomiting

Cells in the gastric pit
a. Surface mucous cells: secrets mucin
b. Mucous neck cell: alkaline mucin
c. Parietal cell: hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
factor (makes gastric juices acidic)
d. Chief cell: pepsinogen (precursor for pepsin:
breakdown proteins into amino acid)
e. Enteroendocrine cell: gastrin
muscularis: mixing waves; gentle peristaltic
movement
pyloric sphincter: opens to permit passage of
chyme to duodenum
Small Intestine
• Important digestive and absorptive
functions
• 3 subdivisions: Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
• Ileocecal sphincter - transition between
small and large intestine
• Two features are important for digestion and
absorption of food in the small intestine.
1 Enzyme and mucus secretion for digestion and to
ease passage of food, and protect the lining of the
intestine from digestion.
2 A large surface area for absorption, which is
achieved by a series of folds. •
• Plicae circulares
• Microvilli
SMALL INTESTINE WALL
- increase surface area
- Plicae circulares: large circular folds which
are most numerous in the upper part of the
small intestine. • fingerlike extensions of the
mucosa
- Microvilli: tiny finger-like projections on the
apical surface of the lining columnar
epithelial cells, “brush border”
- Lacteal: lymphatic vessels which absorb
digested fats
mucosa of duodenum
- tubuloacinar glands: penetrate muscularis
muscosa
- pH 9 ; neutralizes chyme
- villi is shorter and broader
Endocrine cells in the duodenum secrete
cholecystokinin and secretin, which stimulate the
pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes and
pancreatic juice, and contraction of the gall bladder
to release bile into the duodenum.
Crypts of Lieberkuhn lie between the villi; simple
tubular glands that contain:
• Paneth cells: defensive cells found at the
base of the crypts. They pepsecrete antimicrobial
tides (defensins), lysozyme and tumor necrosis
factor α (pro - inflammatory). They stain dark pink
with eosin in H & E.
• Endocrine cells: secrete the hormones
secretin, somatostatin, enteroglucagon, and
serotonin, and stain strongly with eosin.
• Stem cells: at the base of the crypts. They
divide to replace all of the above cells, including
enterocytes.
Phases of Digestion
1. cephalic : vagus nerve stimulate gastric
secretion; Prepares the mouth and stomach
for food aboutto be eaten.
2. gastric: myenteric and vagovagal reflexes
activated; Promote gastric secretion and
gastric motility. Has a neural and hormonal
regulation.
3. intestinal : occurs in the duodenum as a
response to the arriving chyme, and it
moderates gastric activity via hormones and
nervous reflexes.
Metabolism: all chemical reactions involved in
maintaining the living state of the cells and the
organism
- catabolism : the breakdown of molecules to
obtain energy
- anabolism: the synthesis of all compounds
needed by the cells
- carbohydrates: starch, sugar source of
energy
- protein: main tissue builders
- fat: source of energy, form cellular
structure, protectiuve cushion, absorb fat
soluble vitamins
Metabolic Rate - The overall rate at which metabolic
reactions use energy.
• Hormones. Thyroid hormones (thyroxine and Vomiting reflex include the following involuntary
triiodothyronine) are the main regulators of basal activities
metabolic rate (BMR). Thyroid hormones increase
○ Taking a deep breath
BMR in part by stimulating cellular respiration. This
○ Closing the glottis and raising the
effect of thyroid hormones on BMR is called the
soft palate
calorigenic effect. Other hormones which have
○ Ceasing respiration
minor effects on BMR are Testosterone, insulin, and
○ Relaxing the gastroesophageal
growth hormone can increase the metabolic rate by
sphincter
5–15%. •
○ Contracting the abdominal muscles
• Exercise. During strenuous exercise, the metabolic
○ Promoting expulsion of the contents
rate may increase to as much as 15 times the basal
of the stomach
rate. In welltrained athletes, the rate may increase
up to 20 times. •
● Hematamesis (coffee ground appearance of
• Nervous system. exercise/ stressful situation, the
vomitus; Brown, granular material resulting
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
from partial digestion in the stomach of
system is stimulated. Its postganglionic neurons
protein in the blood.
release norepinephrine (NE), and it also stimulates
● Yellow or greenish color – bile
release of the hormones epinephrine and
● Deep brown may indicate material coming
norepinephrine by the adrenal medulla. Both
from the lower intestines
epinephrine and norepinephrine increase the
● Recurrent vomiting of undigested food may
metabolic rate of body cells. •
indicate obstruction

• Body temperature. The higher the body

Diarrhea : excessive frequency of stools; loose and
temperature, the higher the metabolic rater. •
watery; acute or chronic
● Large-volume diarrhea: watery, infections,
• Ingestion of food. The ingestion of food raises the
increased osmotic pressure of intestinal
metabolic rate 10–20% due to the energy “costs” of
contents; cause: lactose intolerance
digesting, absorbing, and storing nutrients. This
● Small-volume Diarrhea: Occurs in people
effect, food-induced thermogenesis, is greatest after
with inflammatory bowel disease; Stool may
eating a high-protein meal and is less after eating
contain blood, mucus, or pus; Maybe
carbohydrates and lipids.
accompanied by abdominal cramps and
urgency
• Age. The metabolic rate of a child, in relation to
● Steatorrhea
its size, is about double that of an elderly person due
○ Fatty diarrhea
to the high rates of reactions related to growth. •
○ Frequent, bulky, greasy, loose stools,
often with a bad odor.
• Other factors. Other factors that affect metabolic
○ malabsorption syndrome: distended
rate include gender (lower in females, except during
abdomen
pregnancy and lactation), sleep (lower), and
● Bloody stool
malnutrition (lower)
○ Frank: lesions in the rectum and
anal canal
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM PATHOLOGY
○ Occult: small hidden blood,
nausea and vomiting : common indicators of GI
detectable on test
disorders
○ melena: dark-colored (tarry) stool;
● anorexia: loss of appetite, precedes nausea
processed blood
and vomiting
● color of poop
● characteristics and vomiting pattern >
○ brown: normal
diagnosis
○ black: internal bleeding due to
● vomiting / emesis : defense mechanim
ulcer/ cancer; bismuth/iron
○ forceful expulsion of chyme
vitamins
 ○ green: food moving fast; green
vegetables
○ yellow: excess fat; celiac disease
○ red: blood as symptom of cancer
○ light colored/white: bile duct
obstruction
● GAS: develops in the digestive tractfrom
swallowed air and bacterial action on food
● abdominal distention and discomfort
○ excessive gas> belching (expulsion
thru mouth)
○ flatus: (expulsion thru anus )
● Constipation: less frequnt bowel movemnt;
small hard stools, decreased peristalsis>
increased tme fro reabsorptioin of fluid> dry
hard feces
● Chronic constipation may lead
hemorrhoids or diverticulitis
● Dehydration and hypovolemia common
complications of digestive tract disorders
Abdominal Pain
•Visceral Pain
–Burning sensation
–Dull aching pain, in the right upper
quadrant à liver capsule
–Cramping or diffuse pain à intestines
–Colicky and severe pain à severe
inflammation or obstruction
•Moving gall stone through the bile duct
•Somatic Pain
•Steady and intense pain
DISEASES
1. peptic ulcer: single, small, round cavities,
penetrating the submuscosa, duodenum and
antrum of stomach ; presence of
Helicobacter pylori: : found in ppl with PUD.
The mucosal barrier maybe damaged by the
following:
•Inadequate blood supply
•Excessive glucocorticoid secretion or
medication
•Ulcerogenic substances that break down
the mucosal layer (aspirin, NSAID, or alcohol)
•Atrophy of the gastric mucosa (chronic
gastritis)
to
Increased acid-pepsin secretion is associated with:
● Increased gastrin secretion
● Increased vagal stimulation
● Increased stimulation of acid-pepsin
secretion by alcohol, caffeine, and other
foods.
● Rapid gastric emptying
● Severe prolonged stress and too high anxiety
affect both sides of the balance.
Gallbladder disorders:
•Cholelithiasis
•Cholecystitis
•Cholangitis
•Choledocholithiasis

•Often well-localized
Acute pancreatitis
•Inflammation of the parietal peritoneum
- inflammation of pancreas> autodigestion of
•To elicit a pain response from a patient tissues
•Slowly apply pressure to the abdomen using Appendicitis
your fingers - inflammation of vermiform appendix

•Release suddenly à elicits a sharp pain at

the site

•Referred Pain

•Pain is perceived as a site distant from its origin

malnutrition: vit and mineral deficiency; chronic

anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
● Breathing/ pulmonary ventilation
○ Atmospheric pressure
○ intraalveolar pressure
○ intrapleural pressure
- medulla oblongata: primary respiratory
control center
- pons: control speed/ rate of involuntary
respiration
● external respiration: bw lungs and envt
● internal respiration: bw blood and cells
● cellular respiration: oxygen for metabolism
and carbon dioxide as waste
● Inspiration: muscle contraction, diaphragm
contracts and thoracic increases volume,
decreased intraalveolar pressure
● Expiration: relaxation of diaphragm,
decreased thoracic volume, increased
intraalveolar pressure.
● 12-15 breaths per minute
● compliance: measure of the ease with which
the lungs and thorax expand.
● respiratory capacity is the sum of two or
more volumes
● vital capacity: max volume which can be
ventilated in a single breath
○ tidal volume: volume of air inspired/
expired during normal inspiration
or expiration (500ml)
○ inspiratory volume: amount of air
that can be inspired forcefully after
normal tidal volume (300ml)
○ expiratory volume: forcefully
expired after normal tidal vol
(1100ml)
○ residual volume: still remaining in
the respiratory passages and lungs
after maximal inspiration. keeps
alveoli inflated.
● sneezing: reflex response to irritation in the
upper respiratory tract
● coughing: irritation from nasal discharge,
from inflammation, cigarette smoking etc.
○ dry/ unproductive cough:
respiratory muscle asre used
excessively, fatiguing
■ cough-suppresant
○ productive cough: secretions and
inflammatory exudate in the lungs
■ expectorant
● SPUTUM: respiratory discharge
● yellowish green: bacterial
● rusty/dark colored: pneumococcal
pneumonia
● purulent/foul: bronchiectasis
● thick, tenacious sticky: asthma/cystic
fibrosis
● blood-tinged sputum: chronic cough and
irritation ; tumor / tuberculosis
● hemoptysis: bright red frothy sputum;
pulmonary edema
Abnormal breathing patterns
● eupnea: normal, 10-18 inspiration per minute
● kussmaul respiration: “air hunger”, deep,
rapid, acidosis after strenuous activity
● wheezing: obstruction in small airway
● stridor: high-pitched crowing noise,
obstruction in upper airways
● rales: light bubbly crackliong sounds: serous
secretions
● rhonchi: deep, harsher, sounds due to thick
mucus
● absence of breath sounds: non-aeration,
atelectasis
Dyspnea: breathlessness, shortness of breath
severe dyspnea: flaring nostrils, retraction of
intercostal muscles
orthopnea: occurs when lying down
paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea: left-sided
CHF.
Cyanosis: large amt of deoxygenated hemoglobin in
blood
pleural pain: inflammation/ infection of parietal
pleura
friction rub: soft sound as rough membranes move
against each other
clubbed fingers: chronic hypoxia ; painless firm
fibrotic enlargement at the end of digit
hypoxemia: inadequate O2 in blood
hypoxia: inadequate O2 supply to cells
DISORDERS

● emphysema: dilation and permanent

enlargement of bronchioles , and loss of cells
in the alveoli (destruction of alveolar walls)
● pneumonia: fluid in the alveolar sacs
● asthma: bronchial obstruction in
hypersensitive and hyperresponsive airways
○ acute asthma: extrinsic: type I
hypersensitivity. among children
○ intrinsic: onset> adult
○ inflammation of mucosa, contraction
of smooth muiscle, increased
secretion of thick mucus in the air
passages
○ status asthmaticus: persistent
severe attacks

● chronic bronchitis: irritation from smoking

and industrial pollution
● hypertropy and hyperplasia of mucus glands,
increased production of mucus. leads to
fibrosis, low O2 levels,