UNIT-5

Define Quality
Quality can be defined as the degree of excellence or
superiority of something, whether it's a product, service,
process, or experience. It encompasses various aspects
such as reliability, durability, efficiency, performance,
safety, aesthetics, and customer satisfaction. Quality
often implies meeting or exceeding the expectations and
requirements of stakeholders, including customers,
users, regulators, and other relevant parties. Achieving
and maintaining high quality typically involves rigorous
standards, effective processes, continuous improvement
efforts, and a commitment to excellence throughout an
organization or system.

Cost of quality
The Cost of Quality (COQ) is a concept used in quality
management to assess the financial impact of poor
quality or inefficiencies in processes. It involves both the
costs incurred to prevent defects and the costs incurred
as a result of defects. The objective of analyzing the
COQ is to identify areas for improvement and optimize
resources to minimize overall costs while maximizing
quality.
The COQ is typically categorized into four main
components:

1. Prevention Costs: These are costs incurred to prevent

defects from occurring in the first place. Prevention
 costs include investments in quality planning, training,
process improvement initiatives, supplier quality
management, quality audits, and implementing quality
management systems. While prevention costs are
incurred upfront, they aim to reduce the occurrence of
defects and associated costs in the long run.
2. Appraisal Costs: These are costs associated with
evaluating the conformance of products or services to
quality standards. Appraisal costs include expenses
related to inspection, testing, quality audits, calibration of
equipment, and quality control activities. These costs
are incurred during the production process to identify
and eliminate defects before they reach customers.
3. Internal Failure Costs: These are costs resulting from
defects or errors discovered before products or services
are delivered to customers. Internal failure costs include
expenses for rework, scrap, retesting, downtime,
machine breakdowns, material losses, and additional
labor required to correct defects. These costs occur
within the organization's internal processes and are a
consequence of poor quality control.
4. External Failure Costs: These are costs incurred as a
result of defects or errors discovered by customers after
products or services have been delivered. External
failure costs include expenses for warranty claims,
product recalls, customer complaints, returns, repairs,
legal disputes, loss of goodwill, and damage to the
organization's reputation. External failure costs are
typically the most expensive and can have significant
long-term consequences for the organization.

By analyzing the COQ, organizations can identify

opportunities to reduce costs by investing in prevention
activities, improving processes, enhancing quality
control measures, and addressing root causes of
defects. The goal is to strike a balance between
prevention and appraisal costs to minimize the total cost
of quality while meeting customer expectations and
requirements.

GAP model
The GAP model, also known as the Service Quality Gap
model, is a framework used to analyze and understand
the gaps that may exist between customer expectations
and perceptions of service quality. Developed by A.
Parasuraman, Valarie Zeithaml, and Leonard Berry in
the 1980s, it highlights five key gaps that can occur in
service delivery:
1. Gap 1: The Knowledge Gap: This refers to the
difference between customer expectations and
management's perception of those expectations. Gap 1
occurs when management lacks accurate information
about what customers expect from the service.
2. Gap 2: The Policy Gap: This gap occurs between
management perceptions of customer expectations and
 the service quality specifications they develop based on
these perceptions. It arises when management fails to
translate customer expectations accurately into service
quality standards and policies.
3. Gap 3: The Delivery Gap: This gap arises between
service quality specifications and the actual service
delivery. It occurs when employees fail to perform
according to the established service standards or when
there are deficiencies in the delivery process.
4. Gap 4: The Communication Gap: This gap occurs
between what is promised to customers through
promotional efforts and what is actually delivered. It
arises when there's a mismatch between external
communications (e.g., advertising, marketing) and the
actual service experience.
5. Gap 5: The Perception Gap: This gap represents the
difference between customer perceptions of the service
received and their initial expectations. It occurs when
customers perceive a difference between what they
expected and what they received, regardless of whether
the service actually meets the specified standards.

Identifying and addressing these gaps is crucial for

service providers to improve customer satisfaction and
loyalty by aligning their service delivery with customer
expectations. The GAP model serves as a valuable tool
for diagnosing deficiencies in service quality and
designing strategies to enhance customer experiences.
 ISO:9000
ISO 9000 refers to a set of international standards for
quality management systems (QMS) established by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The
ISO 9000 family of standards provides guidelines and
criteria for organizations to ensure that their products
and services consistently meet customer requirements
and regulatory standards while enhancing customer
satisfaction.
Key components of the ISO 9000 series include:

1. ISO 9001: This is the most well-known standard within

the ISO 9000 family and specifies the requirements for a
QMS. It outlines criteria for organizations to demonstrate
their ability to consistently provide products and services
that meet customer and regulatory requirements while
aiming to enhance customer satisfaction. ISO 9001
certification is often pursued by organizations to
demonstrate their commitment to quality management.
2. ISO 9000: This standard provides an overview of the
fundamentals and vocabulary used in quality
management systems. It helps organizations understand
the concepts and terminology related to quality
management.
3. ISO 9004: This standard offers guidance for
organizations seeking to enhance their overall
performance and achieve sustained success. It provides
a broader perspective on quality management and
includes principles for continuous improvement,
leadership, and the engagement of people.
Key principles underlying the ISO 9000 standards
include customer focus, leadership, involvement of
people, process approach, evidence-based decision
making, and continual improvement.
Organizations that implement ISO 9000 standards
typically undergo a process of developing and
documenting their quality management systems,
establishing processes for monitoring and measuring
performance, conducting internal audits, and seeking
external certification through accredited certification
bodies.
Benefits of ISO 9000 certification may include improved
product and service quality, enhanced customer
satisfaction, increased efficiency and productivity, better
decision making, greater consistency in operations, and
improved competitiveness in the marketplace.
Overall, ISO 9000 standards provide a framework for
organizations to establish and maintain effective quality
management systems, leading to better outcomes for
both the organization and its customers.

Six sigma
 Six Sigma is a methodology for process improvement
that aims to minimize defects or errors and enhance the
quality of products or services by systematically
identifying and eliminating variations. It was originally
developed by Motorola in the 1980s and popularized by
companies like General Electric under the leadership of
Jack Welch.
The term "Six Sigma" refers to a statistical concept that
measures how far a process deviates from perfection,
where the goal is to achieve a level of performance that
produces no more than 3.4 defects per million
opportunities. In other words, Six Sigma aims to reduce
process variation to a level where it operates within the
six standard deviations from the mean, resulting in
extremely high levels of quality and consistency.
Key elements of the Six Sigma methodology include:

1. Define: Clearly define the problem or opportunity for

improvement and establish project goals and objectives.
 This involves understanding customer requirements and
identifying critical-to-quality factors.
2. Measure: Measure the current performance of the
process and collect relevant data to identify sources of
variation. This step involves defining metrics, collecting
data, and analyzing process capability.
3. Analyze: Analyze the data to identify root causes of
defects or errors and prioritize improvement
opportunities. This step often involves statistical analysis
and techniques such as cause-and-effect diagrams and
regression analysis.
4. Improve: Implement solutions to address root causes
and improve process performance. This may involve
testing and validating solutions through pilot projects or
simulations.
5. Control: Establish controls to sustain the improvements
and ensure that the process remains stable over time.
This step involves implementing monitoring systems,
developing standard operating procedures, and training
personnel.

The Six Sigma methodology typically follows a

structured problem-solving approach, such as the
DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) or
DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify)
framework, depending on whether the focus is on
improving existing processes (DMAIC) or designing new
processes/products (DMADV).
Six Sigma practitioners, known as Black Belts, Green
Belts, or Yellow Belts, receive training in statistical
methods and quality management tools to lead
improvement projects within organizations.
Overall, Six Sigma provides a systematic approach to
improving process efficiency, reducing waste, and
enhancing customer satisfaction through rigorous
problem-solving and data-driven decision making.

7 QC tools
The "7 QC (Quality Control) Tools" refer to a set of
techniques used in quality management and problem-
solving to identify, analyze, and address issues related
to product or process quality. These tools were originally
developed and popularized by Japanese quality guru
Kaoru Ishikawa in the 1960s and have since become
fundamental in quality management practices. The 7 QC
tools are as follows:

1.Check Sheet
2.Pareto Chart
3. Cause-and-Effect Diagram (Fishbone or Ishikawa
Diagram):
4. Histogram
5.Scatter Diagram
6.Control Charts
7. Flow diagram
1. Check Sheet: A check sheet is a simple form or
template used to systematically collect and record data
or observations. It helps in organizing data in a
structured manner, making it easier to analyze and
identify patterns or trends. Check sheets are often used
to track the frequency or occurrence of defects, errors,
or other quality-related issues.
2. Pareto Chart: A Pareto chart is a bar graph that ranks
problems or issues in descending order of frequency or
importance. It helps in identifying the "vital few"
(significant) issues from the "trivial many" (less
significant) ones, allowing organizations to prioritize
improvement efforts. The Pareto principle, also known
as the 80/20 rule, suggests that roughly 80% of effects
come from 20% of causes.
3. Cause-and-Effect Diagram (Fishbone or Ishikawa
Diagram): A cause-and-effect diagram is a visual tool
used to identify and explore the possible causes of a
problem or quality issue. It takes the form of a fishbone-
shaped diagram, with the problem or effect at the head
of the "fish" and potential causes branching off as
bones. This tool encourages brainstorming and
structured analysis to uncover root causes, which are
categorized into major groups such as people, methods,
machines, materials, measurements, and environment
(the 6Ms).
4. Histogram: A histogram is a graphical representation of
the distribution of data or observations over different
intervals or categories. It provides a visual summary of
 the variation in a dataset, allowing users to understand
the central tendency, dispersion, and shape of the
distribution. Histograms are particularly useful for
identifying patterns, trends, or abnormalities in data.

5. Scatter Diagram: A scatter diagram, also known as a

scatter plot, is a graphical representation of the
relationship between two variables. It displays data
points on a Cartesian plane, with one variable plotted on
the horizontal axis and the other on the vertical axis.
Scatter diagrams help in visually identifying correlations,
trends, or patterns between variables, facilitating
analysis and decision-making.
6. Control Chart: A control chart is a statistical tool used
to monitor and control processes over time. It displays
process data in the form of a time-ordered plot with
upper and lower control limits, allowing users to
distinguish between common cause variation (inherent
to the process) and special cause variation (indicating
an assignable cause). Control charts help in identifying
when a process is stable or out of control, enabling
timely intervention and corrective action.
7. Flowchart: A flowchart is a visual representation of the
sequence of steps or activities in a process. It uses
standardized symbols and connectors to depict the flow
of materials, information, or actions from start to finish.
Flowcharts help in understanding and analyzing
processes, identifying bottlenecks, redundancies, or
inefficiencies, and designing improvements.
These 7 QC tools provide a structured approach to
problem-solving and quality improvement, empowering
organizations to systematically identify, analyze, and
address quality-related issues to achieve better
outcomes and customer satisfaction.
 Poka - Yoke
Poka-Yoke, a term originating from Japan and often
translated as "mistake-proofing" or "error-proofing,"
refers to any mechanism or technique implemented in a
process to prevent errors or defects from occurring or, if
they do occur, to make them immediately obvious and
easy to correct. The primary goal of Poka-Yoke is to
design processes in a way that reduces or eliminates
the possibility of human error, thereby improving product
quality and overall efficiency.
Here's an example of Poka-Yoke in a manufacturing
setting:
Example: Car Manufacturing
Imagine a car assembly line where workers are
responsible for installing various components, such as
bolts, nuts, and screws, onto the vehicle. One common
source of errors in such assembly processes is the
incorrect tightening of fasteners, leading to loose parts
or potential safety hazards.
To implement Poka-Yoke in this scenario, the assembly
process could incorporate the following device:

1. Torque Wrench with Error Indicator: Instead of relying

solely on the skill and attention of the assembly worker
to tighten bolts correctly, the process could involve the
use of a torque wrench with an error indicator. This
torque wrench is designed to apply the correct amount
of torque to each bolt and includes an indicator
mechanism that signals if the torque applied is outside
the acceptable range.
 If the bolt is tightened within the specified torque
range, the wrench operates smoothly without any
indication.
 If the bolt is not tightened to the correct torque, the
wrench may emit a sound, flash a light, or display a
warning message, indicating to the worker that an
error has occurred.
 Additionally, the torque wrench may have an
automatic shut-off feature that prevents over-
tightening of bolts beyond the acceptable limit.

By using the torque wrench with an error indicator, the

Poka-Yoke device ensures that bolts are tightened
correctly every time. If a mistake occurs, the error is
immediately detected, and corrective action can be
taken promptly. This helps prevent defects, rework, and
potential safety issues, ultimately improving the quality
and reliability of the finished product.

In summary, Poka-Yoke techniques like the torque

wrench with an error indicator enhance quality control by
minimizing the likelihood of errors and making any
deviations from the standard immediately apparent,
thereby enabling prompt corrective action.
 Total Quality Management (TQM)
Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management
philosophy and approach aimed at achieving long-term
success through customer satisfaction. It involves the
continuous improvement of organizational processes,
products, and services to meet or exceed customer
expectations. TQM emphasizes the involvement of all
employees in quality improvement efforts and the
integration of quality principles into every aspect of an
organization's operations.
Key features of a Total Quality Management system
include:

1. Customer Focus: TQM places a strong emphasis on

understanding and meeting the needs and expectations
of customers. Organizations actively seek feedback from
customers and use this information to drive
improvements in products, services, and processes.
2. Continuous Improvement: TQM is based on the
principle of continuous improvement, also known as
Kaizen. Organizations strive to continually enhance their
processes, systems, and performance to achieve higher
levels of quality, efficiency, and effectiveness.
3. Employee Involvement: TQM recognizes the
importance of involving employees at all levels in quality
improvement efforts. Employees are encouraged to
contribute their ideas, knowledge, and expertise to
identify problems, suggest solutions, and participate in
improvement initiatives.
4. Process-Oriented Approach: TQM focuses on
managing and improving organizational processes
rather than just individual tasks or activities.
Organizations identify key processes, measure their
performance, and implement changes to enhance
efficiency, reduce waste, and improve quality.

5. Data-Driven Decision Making: TQM relies on data and

evidence-based decision making to drive improvement
efforts. Organizations collect and analyze data related to
quality, performance, and customer feedback to identify
trends, root causes of problems, and opportunities for
improvement.
6. Leadership Commitment: TQM requires strong
leadership commitment and support at all levels of the
organization. Leaders set the vision, values, and
priorities for quality improvement, allocate resources,
and actively participate in quality initiatives.
7. Supplier Partnerships: TQM recognizes the
importance of building strong partnerships with suppliers
to ensure the quality and reliability of inputs and
materials. Organizations work closely with suppliers to
 establish quality standards, monitor performance, and
collaborate on continuous improvement.
8. Strategic Alignment: TQM aligns quality improvement
efforts with the organization's strategic objectives and
goals. Quality initiatives are integrated into the overall
business strategy to drive competitiveness, innovation,
and long-term success.
9. Customer Relationship Management: TQM
emphasizes the importance of building and maintaining
strong relationships with customers. Organizations
communicate openly with customers, address their
concerns promptly, and strive to exceed their
expectations to build loyalty and trust.

Overall, Total Quality Management is a holistic approach

to quality improvement that involves everyone in the
organization and focuses on delivering value to
customers while driving continuous innovation and
excellence.