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STUDY GUIDE:
SL
www.ib.academy
Business and Management SL
Study Guide
Available on www.ib.academy
Author: Miloš Drezga, Bella Kelly

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Business organisation and 7

environment
– Introduction to business and management – Types of
organisations – Organisation objectives – Stakeholders
– External environment – Growth and evolution
2. Human resource 29
management
– Functions and evolution of human resource management
– Organisational structure – Leadership and management
– Motivation
3. Accounts and finance 55

– Sources of finance – Costs and revenues – Break even
analysis – Final accounts – Profitability and liquidity ratio
analysis – Cash flow – Investment appraisal – Budgeting
4. Marketing 75
– The role of marketing – Market planning – Market research
– The four Ps – E-commerce
5. Operations management 95
– The role of operations management – Production methods
– Location
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6
BUSINESS ORGANISATION 1
AND ENVIRONMENT
1.1. Introduction to business 9

and management
– The role of a business in combining resources – Functions
of a business – Business sectors – Sectoral change
– Entrepreneurship vs. intrapreneurship – Reasons for
starting up a business – Steps in the process of starting up a
business – Factors to consider when starting up a business
– Problems that a new business might face – Elements of a
business plan
1.2. Types of organisations 13

– Public vs. private sectors – For profit (commercial)
organisations – For-profit (social) enterprises – Non-profit
social enterprises
1.3. Organisation objectives 18

– Vision and mission statements – The need for change in
objectives – Corporate social responsibility and business
ethics – Purpose of ethical objectives – The evolving role
and nature of CSR – SWOT Analysis – Ansoff matrix
1.4. Stakeholders 21
1.5. External environment 23
7
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT
1.6. Growth and evolution 23

– Economies and diseconomies of scale – Small vs. big
businesses – Internal vs. external growth – External
growth methods – The impact of globalisation on the
growth and evolution of businesses – Reasons for the
growth of multinational companies – The impact of MNCs
on the host countries
8
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management 1
1.1 Introduction to business and

management
1.1.1 The role of a business in combining

resources
The role of business is to combine human, physical and financial resources to create
goods and services.
Inputs Processes Outputs

Resources that a
Turning the inputs
business uses in the The output or
into manufactured
production process provision of final
goods or the
(i.e. labour and goods and services
provision of services
raw materials)
1.1.2 Functions of a business
Human resources
• Manages personnel of the organisation.
• Deals with: workforce planning, recruitment, training, appraisal, dismissals and
redundancies, and outsourcing human resource strategies.
Finance and accounts
• Manages the organisation’s money.
• Deals with: reporting and recording financial records, abiding by legal
requirements (e.g., tax), produces final accounts.
Marketing
• Identifies and satisfies the needs and wants of customers.
• In charge of ensuring that a firm’s products sell.
• Deals with: market research, test marketing, advertising and branding.
Operations (management)
• Converts raw materials and components into finished goods.
• For a service this can be the process of giving that service.
1.1.3 Business sectors
Primary sector
• The extraction, harvesting, and conversion of natural resources.
• Most prevalent in LEDCs. Primary sectors in MEDCs use more automated
methods.
• The primary sector has little added value.
9
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management
• Examples: coal mining, vegetable harvesting.

Secondary sector
• Manufacturing or construction of products by transforming the raw materials
produced in the primary sector.
• Economically developing countries tend to dominate this sector.
• Examples: clothing production, car manufacturing.
Tertiary sector
• Provides services to the general population.
• Tend to be dominant in MEDCs.
• Examples: haircuts, taxi service.
Quaternary sector
• A subcategory of the tertiary sector.
• Involved in intellectual, knowledge based activities that generate and share
information.
• Requires a highly educated workforce, and therefore is most prominent in
MEDCs.
• Example: law firms, training and development firms.
Primary Secondary sector Tertiary sector

sector
manufacture transport advertising
extraction assembly warehousing selling
10
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management 1
1.1.4 Sectoral change
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quarternary
A shift in the relative share of national output and employment that is attributed to each
business sector over time.
As countries become more developed, they move towards secondary sectors, and
eventually tertiary and quaternary sectors.
Primary sector production yields low added value, in order to develop economically, a
shift in business activity must occur to ave higher added value.
Reasons for sectoral change
Higher household income: higher demand for services as people have available money
to spend on ‘wants’.
More leisure time: with higher standards of living, people have more time/money to
do recreational activities.
Greater focus on customer service: firms realise the importance of customer service.
Increasing reliance on support services: businesses use more sophisticated services
such as subcontractors and specialists to help the business grow.
1.1.5 Entrepreneurship vs. intrapreneurship
Entrepreneur an individual who plans, organises and manages a business,

taking on financial risks in doing so.
Intrapreneur the act of being an entrepreneur but as an employee within a

large organisation.
Entrepreneur Intrapreneur
• Owners/operators. • Employees of the organisation.

• Takes substantial risks. • Takes medium- high risks.
• Rewarded with profit. • Rewarded with pay.
• Failure incurs personal costs. • Failure absorbed by the organisation.
• Visionary. • Innovative.
• Responsibility for the workforce. • Accountable to the owner.
11
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management
1.1.6 Reasons for starting up a business
• Growth.
• Earnings.
• Transfer and inheritance: used for something that they can pass on (transference) to
their children (inheritance) to give them a sense of security.
• Challenge: drive to have personal satisfaction, being successful boosts self-esteem.
• Autonomy: being your own boss, making decisions about the business, work hours,
holidays etc.
• Security: if you are your own boss, you cannot be made redundant, dismissed, or be
replaced with technology.
• Hobbies: just for fun, or because you are passionate about something.
1.1.7 Steps in the process of starting up a

business
1. Write a business plan.

2. Obtain startup capital.
3. Obtain business registration.
4. Open a bank account.
5. Marketing.
1.1.8 Factors to consider when starting up a

business
• Business idea.
• Sources of finance.
• Human resources: who will you hire, will they need training, etc.
• Enterprise: who will lead, organise and manage the business.
• Fixed assets: land and machinery needed.
• Suppliers.
• Customers.
• Marketing.
• Legal issues: do you have all of the patents, legislations, and documentation needed.
1.1.9 Problems that a new business might face
• Lack of finance.
• Cash flow problems.
• Marketing problems.
• Poor location.
• External influences: competition in the area, economic recession.
12
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Types of organisations 1
• Unestablished customer base.

• People management problems: poor choice of employees or leadership.
• Legalities.
• Production problems.
• High production costs.
1.1.10 Elements of a business plan
• Details of the business and the owners.

• Information about the product.
• A preview of the market.
• Finance.
• Personnel and the workforce.
• Marketing of the firm/product.
1.2 Types of organisations
1.2.1 Public vs. private sectors
Private Public
• Owned and controlled by private • Owned by the government.

individuals. • Provide essential goods and services
• Can be owned by one person or by that would be otherwise inefficiently
many. provided by the private sector.
• Aim is to make profit. • Organisations wholly owned by the
• E.g., H&M and Walmart. government are state owned
enterprises.
• E.g., electricity and water companies.
Businesses
Private sector Public sector
Unincorporated Incorporated
businesses businesses
Sole traders Private limited companies (Ltd.)

Partnerships Public limited companies (PLC)
13
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Types of organisations
1.2.2 For profit (commercial) organisations
Types of for-profit organisations
Unincorporated businesses businesses where there is no legal distinction

between the owner of the business and the business itself–everything is
carried out in the name of the owners.
E.g., sole traders and partnerships.
Incorporated businesses businesses that have a separate legal entity from

their owners.
E.g., private limited companies and public limited companies.
• Unincorporated.
• Individual who owns a personal business.
• Responsible for success or failure.
• May work alone or employ others.
• Startup capital usually includes personal savings and borrowing.
Sole trader an individual who runs and owns his own business.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Fewer legal formalities. • Unlimited liability (unincorporated).

• Profit goes directly to one owner • Limited sources of finance (hard to
(direct). obtain bank loans).
• Autonomy. • High risk.
• Personalised service. • Workload and stress.
• Privacy of financial accounts. • Limited economies of scale.
• Setup costs are inexpensive and • Lack of continuity.
time-saving.
14
Partnerships a profit-seeking business owned by multiple people (at least

two).
• Unincorporated.
• Ordinary partnerships have a maximum of 2–20 people.
• Money can be pooled from partners’ personal funds which have financial stake but
don’t actually make decisions (silent partners).
• At least one partner must have unlimited liability.
• Set up costs are inexpensive and quick. • Unlimited Liability (unincorporated).

• Financial strength (more partners • Prolonged decision making.
means more personal funds). • Lack of harmony.
• Specialisation and division of labour • Profits must be shared among multiple
due to multiple partners. partners.
• Financial privacy (no need to publish
accounts).
Private Limited Company (Ltd.) a company that cannot raise share capital
from the general public. The shares are sold to private family members
and friends.
E.g., IKEA, Lego, Rolex, Chanel, etc.
• Limited liability. • Profits have to be shared among much

• No limit on the number of owners. larger number of members.
• Shares can only be sold privately. • Setting up business takes time and it’s
• Better decision making. costly.
• Easier to raise additional funds. • Company’s financial accounts are
public.
• No member has full control of the
company.
• Firms are not allowed to sell their
shares to the public.
15
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Types of organisations
Public Limited Company (PLC) Often big, multinational companies

boasting large numbers of employees that are able to advertise and sell
its shares to the general public via the stock exchange.
E.g., China mobile, HSBC, Samsung, Nike, etc.
Flotation occurs when a business first sells all or part of its business to
external investors (shareholders). This process is known as an initial
public offering (IPO).
• Shares can be sold to the public. • Takes time due to bureaucratic nature
• Efficient sources of finance are more of big companies.
available (bank loans). • Communication issues due to size.
• Limited Liability. • Final accounts are public.
• Possibility of market dominance. • Less able to offer personal services to
• Economies of scale. customers.
• Tax benefits. • Compliance costs.
• Loss of control.
1.2.3 For-profit (social) enterprises
Social Enterprise revenue generating businesses with social objectives at the

centre of business operations. These run according to business
principles but do not aim at making profit. Their surpluses from
trading may be shared with employees and customers, passed on to a
third party, used to buy resources, raise finance, employ staff etc.
Cooperatives businesses owned and run by their members, including

employees and customers. The common goal is to create value for the
members by engaging in socially responsible business activities.
• All employees have a vote.
• Profits earned are shared between members.
• More incentive to work. • Disincentive effects.

• Employees have decision making • Limited sources of finance.
power. • Slower decision making.
• Social benefits (CSR). • Limited promotional opportunities.
• Public support.
16
Microfinance providers a financial service aimed at financing disadvantaged

members of society and helping to stop the poverty cycle.
E.g., small businesses, women, minority groups.
• Disadvantaged people have access to • Immorality (micro-finance providers

this. benefit from the poor/unemployed).
• Job creation. • Limited finance.
• Social well-being incentives. • Limited eligibility (not everyone
qualifies).
Public-private partnerships when the government works together with the

private sector to jointly provide certain goods or services.
1.2.4 Non-profit social enterprises
Non-profit social enterprises businesses run in a commercial manner but

without profit being the main goal. These companies use surplus
revenues to achieve social goals.
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) non-profit social enterprise

that operates in the private sector, (i.e., it is not owned or controlled by
the government). Set up to benefit society.
E.g., UNICEF.
Charities provides voluntary support for good causes (from society’s point
of view), such as the protection of children, animals and the natural
environment. Reliant on donors, endorsements, promotion etc.
E.g., WWF.
• Social benefits. • Bureaucracy.

• Tax exemptions. • Disincentive effects.
• Tax incentives for donors. • Charity fraud.
• Limited liability. • Inefficiencies.
• Public recognition and trust. • Limited sources of finance.
17
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Organisation objectives
1.3 Organisation objectives
1.3.1 Vision and mission statements
Vision statement specifies the long term aspirations of a business; where it

ultimately wants to be. It often describes how the organisation wants to
be perceived. They aim to influence the consumers’ perception of the
business.
Mission statement a declaration of the underlying purpose of an

organisation’s existence and its core values. This statement is updated
more frequently than a vision statement.
Three levels of objectives can be distinguished: AIM

Strategic objectives: the senior leadership sets the
long-term goals, determines the actions necessary
to achieve the goals and mobilises resources to Strategic
execute the actions. (affects: whole company) How Objectives
will the goals/aims be achieved by the resources?
Tactical objectives: middle management develops
medium-term action plans to achieve the strategic
objectives of an organisation. (affects: department) Tactical Objectives
Operational objectives: lower management develops
short-term, day-to-day action plans to achieve the
tactical objectives of the organisation as efficiently
as possible. (affects: teams) Operational
Objectives
1.3.2 The need for change in objectives

• Changing corporate culture. • Risk Profile.
• Type and size of the organisation. • State of the economy.
• Private vs. public organisations. • Government constraints.
• Age of the business. • Presence and power of pressure groups.
• Finance available. • New technologies.
18
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Organisation objectives 1
1.3.3 Corporate social responsibility and business

ethics
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) the consideration of ethical and

environmental issues relating the business activity, towards all
stakeholders and not just to owners or shareholders.
E.g., the treatment of employees or how local communities would react
to new projects.
CSR aims to:
• Treat customers and suppliers fair and equally.

• Compete fairly (i.e., not engaging in predatory pricing).
• Treat the workforce with dignity and listening carefully to their needs.
1.3.4 Purpose of ethical objectives
Altruistic attitude: the company genuinely does it for social benefits, they actually care
about the impact of the company.
Strategic attitude: businesses ought to be socially responsible only if such actions help
them to become more profitable.
Self-interest attitude: the belief that it is the government’s job to protect society.
1.3.5 The evolving role and nature of CSR
• Becomes more important as companies become more competitive.

• Because of globalisation we have so much choice, meaning that companies need a
competitive edge, social responsibility might be this.
• More and more governments are imposing penalties on socially undesirable or
unethical behaviour (e.g., carbon tax).
• Increase in education means people are more aware.
• Pressure groups raise awareness and affect consumer perceptions.
19
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Organisation objectives
1.3.6 SWOT Analysis
SWOT analysis aims to identify the key internal strengths & weaknesses and
external opportunities & threats, seen as important to achieving an
objective.
The analysis of the internal Helpful Harmful

to achieving the objective to achieving the objective
strengths & weaknesses helps
attributes of the organization

business owners determine their
Internal origin
current market position, which
is crucial to know before
planning and implementing
SMART objectives. A useful
tool for:
S WStrengths Weaknesses
attributes of the environment

External origin
• competitor analysis;
• assessing opportunities;
• risk assessment;
• reviewing corporate strategy;
• strategic planning.
O T
Opportunities Threats
Examples of strengths Examples of weaknesses
• Products X is market leader in terms of • Workers are striking demanding higher

sales. wages.
• Customers are loyal to the brand. • Machinery is obsolete, lowering
production output.
The analysis of the external opportunities & threats provides businesses with the
information needed to respond to external factors that can impact the ability of the
business to achieve its strategic goals and objectives.
1.3.7 Ansoff matrix

Existing products New products
Market penetration: selling an
Existing markets
existing product in an existing

market, with the aim of Market Product
increasing the market share of penetration development
Increasing risk
said product (e.g., promotions).

Product development: changing or
creating new products for the
New markets
same market.
Market development: selling the same Market
Diversification
development
products to a new market.
Diversification: selling new products
to new markets.
Increasing risk
20
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Stakeholders 1
1.4 Stakeholders
Stakeholders individuals or groups that may hold interest in the business or

may be affected by its decisions.
We distinguish between two groups of stakeholders:
Internal stakeholders who are directly involved in the running of the business;
External stakeholders who are indirectly involved in the running of the business or are
simply affected/interested in its activity.
Stakeholders
Internal External
Owners (shareholders) Suppliers

Employees Customers
Management Communities
Pressure Groups
Competitors
Government
The interests of internal stakeholders
Owners or shareholders put up the capital which runs the business. The reward is the
gain they make from owning the business. If there was no reward, no one would
bother to invest.
Directors and senior management in small businesses, the owners are quite likely to
be involved in the daily running of the business. This is not in case in bigger
companies, where a board of directors may be involved and monitor the business’
activities. The performance of the business has a direct impact on them — if the
business performs poorly, they might be made redundant. If the business performs
well, they might be promoted or receive bonuses.
Employees are involved in daily activities and bring projects to life. If the business
underperforms, employees are often the first to fall victim and get dismissed. If the
business performs well, they might be promoted or receive bonuses.
21
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Stakeholders
The interests of external stakeholders
Suppliers: businesses depend on suppliers for resources otherwise production may be

reduced.
Customers: one of the most important external stakeholders. Businesses need
customers to sell goods and services in order to remain operational. Additionally,
many customers depend on the goods and services provided by businesses.
Communities: businesses could play important roles in a community’s development by
supporting charities, collaborating with schools or expanding projects to create
jobs.
Pressure: groups they are interested in the business as they attempt to influence its
decision making processes (e.g., forcing the local council to act against industrial
pollution).
Competitor: other firms operating in the same market want to observe their
competitors in order to predict future activities and to react accordingly.
Government: legal institutions are interested in a company’s lawful conduct. For
example, they could inspect a business’ licenses or tax records.
Mutual benefit and conflict between stakeholders’ interests
Conflicts may arise when there are many stakeholders, each with different objectives.
For example, there might be a conflict between customers and shareholders as customers
want the highest quality products for more affordable prices. Spending more on research
and development to create new products might lower the amount payable in dividends to
shareholders. Improving quality might also lead to higher costs and lower profits,
directly affecting shareholders.
As it is impossible to satisfy all stakeholders simultaneously, businesses need to focus on

the ones that are important to them. In order to determine which stakeholders need to
be satisfied, businesses compile a stakeholder analysis: visualising which stakeholders
have the most interest in the company’s activities, and which have the most influence
over the company.
Power Government
Consumers
Example of a stakeholders analysis
showing the interest and power of
four stakeholders: government,
pressure groups, consumers and Suppliers
suppliers. Pressure groups
Interest
22
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT External environment 1
1.5 External environment
External factors outside influences that can impact a business such as laws,
market trends or political changes.
A civil war for example could significantly harm businesses selling luxury goods as the
demand will drop severely.
In order to monitor all these changes in the external environment, businesses conduct a
combined SWOT and PEST analysis. These analyses take external factors into
consideration that may affect economic activities, so that businesses are able to set
SMART objectives.
PEST analysis evaluates opportunities & threats on Political, Economic,

Social and Technological factors.
Examples of opportunities Examples of threats
Political: political situation in the Political: stricter employment laws

country is very stable. increases business risk.
Economic: the economy is booming and Economic: high competition in
people have growing income. particular market segment.
Social: increasing average living Social: healthier lifestyle of consumers
conditions means more people can afford reduces sale of soft drinks.
luxury items. Technological: the invention of a better
Technological: faster 4G mobile internet medicine obsoletes the current.
network allows development of more
complex apps like voice recognition.
STEEPLE the same analysis as is done in PEST, but also includes Legal,
Environmental and Ethical.
Note: If the exam asks you to design a SWOT analysis, this automatically means you will
need to do a PEST analysis as well in order to be able to properly analyse the external
environment. Application is key – you have to look carefully through the case study in
order to be able to create a SWOT analysis explicitly applicable to the company in the case
study, and justify your answers at all times! You have to explain why something is a
strength, weakness, opportunity or a threat. Without arguments your answer will not be
considered complete.
23
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Growth and evolution
1.6 Growth and evolution
1.6.1 Economies and diseconomies of scale
Growth and evolution refers to the expansion of sales and the increased scale of
production. Growth is an important factor for businesses to consider due to the costs
involved – these can increase or decrease.
Economies of scale as the production output of an enterprise increases, the

cost per unit output decreases as fixed costs are spread out over more
units of output.
Diseconomies of scale as the business expands and the scale of its operations
is beyond the minimum efficient scale, the average costs per unit output
rises.
Diseconomies of scale may occur when:
• Communication becomes more complicated and coordination more difficult

because a large firm is divided into departments.
• The control and coordination of large businesses is very demanding; more
supervision leads to more costs.
1.6.2 Small vs. big businesses
Small business Big business
• Closer to its customers: ability to offer • Economies of scale: larger production

more personal services. output = decreased cost per unit.
• Less competition: small businesses can • Market leader status: big firms tend to
create a monopoly in a niche market. be more influential.
• Greater focus: they do not offer • Survival: greater capacity is used to
products to mass markets. spread the risk.
24
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Growth and evolution 1
1.6.3 Internal vs. external growth
Internal/organic growth a business grows using its own resources to

increase the scale of its operations and sales revenue.
External growth a business grows by collaborating with, buying up or

merging with another firm.
Organic growth can be achieved by selling new products, increasing production and sales
through marketing or finding new markets. For most businesses internal growth is slow,
but it does so at less risk than external growth and can be financed through internal
funds. External growth is a much quicker alternative to organic growth. External growth
can be a quick way to reduce competition in a market, gain economies of scale, gain
entry into foreign markets or achieve synergy.
1.6.4 External growth methods

The terms mergers and takeovers both describe the situation when firms join together
and operate as one organisation, albeit with one important difference. The term mergers
is used to describe two businesses that join to create a third new company, whereas the
term takeover refers to the purchase of one business by another.
There are few different types of mergers:
Horizontal integration: firms are in exactly the same line of business and at the same
stage of production.
Backward vertical integration: firms are at different stages of production. The merger
occurs with a business which is in the previous stage of production.
Forward vertical integration: firms are at different stages of production. The merger
occurs with a business which is in the next stage of production.
Lateral integration: merging of firms with related goods which do not compete
directly with each other.
Diversifying merger (conglomerate): merging of firms in completely different lines of
business.
Joint venture a type of external growth strategy that combines the

contributions and responsibilities of two firms to a shared project by
forming a separate legal enterprise.
The reason why firms form a joint venture is to enjoying the advantages of mergers, such
as economies of scale and reduced competition, without losing their identity. Most joint
ventures are friendly, allowing businesses to share their areas of expertise.
25
Strategic alliance an agreement between parties to pursue shared objectives

while remaining independent organisations, and without forming a
legal partnership entity. These are often formed to share costs and
risks, information and expertise.
E.g., sharing R&D costs, manufacturing capabilities, distribution
channels etc..
Franchising an arrangement where the franchisor sells the rights to sell their
products or use the company name or brand to the franchisees.
1.6.5 The impact of globalisation on the growth

and evolution of businesses
Globalisation worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, and

communications integration.
• Increased competitiveness.
• Increased difficulty of meeting customer expectations (because of high
competitiveness).
• Larger customer base.
• Economies of scale.
• Broader choice of location.
• More external growth opportunities.
• More opportunities for sources of finance.
1.6.6 Reasons for the growth of multinational

companies
• Increased customer base.

• Cheaper overseas production costs (e.g., China, India, Bangladesh).
• Economies of scale.
• Companies can avoid protectionist policies.
• Spread risks by being in multiple markets.
26
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Growth and evolution 1
1.6.7 The impact of MNCs on the host countries
• Creates jobs. • Profits are sent back to home country.

• Can boost GDP. • Can push local companies out of
• Introduces new skills and technologies. business causing unemployment.
• Introduces competition. • Low CSR: exploits the country’s
natural resources.
27
28
HUMAN RESOURCE 2
MANAGEMENT
2.1. Functions and evolution of 30

human resource management
– Human resource planning – Internal and external factors
that influence human resource planning – Common steps in
the process of recruitment – Types of training – Types of
appraisal – Dismissal, termination and redundancy
– Common steps in the process of dismissal – Changing
employment patterns and practices – Outsourcing,
offshoring and re-shoring
2.2. Organisational structure 38

– Changes in organisational structures
2.3. Leadership and 41

management
– Key functions of management – Management vs.
leadership – Leadership styles
2.4. Motivation 44
– Taylor – Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – Herzberg’s
motivation-hygiene theory – Adam’s equity theory – Pink
– Types of financial rewards – Types of non-financial
rewards
29
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Functions and evolution of human resource management
2.1 Functions and evolution of human

resource management
2.1.1 Human resource planning
Human resources (HR) all the people working in a business.
Workforce/HR planning a process that identifies current and future HR

needs to ensure that staffing is sufficient, qualified, and competent
enough to achieve the organization’s objectives.
There are four key parts of HR planning (which will be further examined later):
Recruitment hiring the right person for the right job.

Training ensuring an employee receives proper professional development (i.e., acquires
the necessary set of skills needed to complete the tasks efficiently).
Appraisal evaluating an employee’s job performance.
Termination or dismissal managing the situation of employee’s voluntary or
involuntary leave.
Labour turnover a measure used in HR planning of how many people leave

a business over a given period of time, usually expressed as a percentage
of the total labour force.
number of staff leaving over a year

Labour turnover = × 100
average number of staff employed in a year
High labour turnover
• This means that there is a reason why staff do not stay in the firm for a long period of
time.
• Perhaps there is an aspect of the business that demotivates the workforce and lowers
their productivity (resulting in extra costs for the business as it constantly needs to be
on a lookout for new staff).
• High labour turnover suggests that staff may only be staying for a short time for a
certain reason.
• There may be a key factor such as motivation, packages etc. that are affecting
retention.
• Staff hired may be incompetent.
• Remuneration packages might not be competitive.
30
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Functions and evolution of human resource management 2
Low labour turnover
• Fresh blood may encourage innovation and new ideas.

• Existing employees are loyal to the business, and likely more motivated to work.
• Managers have recruited the right people for the right job.
• A very low labour turnover means that the business is stable but also lacks progress;
‘fresh blood’ in the business is important to stimulate innovations and new ideas.
2.1.2 Internal and external factors that influence

human resource planning
External factors impact the size and availability of the pool of potential
employees for the business.
These can include:
Technological change: e.g., better technology can lead to more working from home.
Demographic change: e.g., an aging population, reduced birth rate or migration etc.
These factors affect the size of the labour pool and the skills they have to offer.
The state of the economy: e.g., in a recession, the unemployment rate is higher which
allows business to ‘pick and choose’ people with right skills and experience (also
they are willing to accept lower wages).
Demographic change
• Changes in demographic populations.
• Ageing populations: Increased dependent population, reduced labour mobility,
changes in consumption patterns, change in employment patterns.
Changes in labour mobility
• Friends and family affect geographic mobility.
• Relocation costs.
• Cost of living.
• Language and cultural differences.
New communication technologies
• Electronic/online recruitment.
• Online meetings.
• Flexitime and teleworking.
• Online training courses.
31
Internal factors changes from within the business itself.
These can include:
Changes in business organisation: businesses change the way they are organised in
order to better meet their strategic objectives.
Changes in labour relations: labour unionisation causes businesses to give in to some
of their requirements in order to keep the business running and the workforce
motivated.
Changes in business finance: financial difficulties cause businesses lay off some
workers to minimise the costs.
2.1.3 Common steps in the process of recruitment
Due to changes in internal circumstances (e.g., higher demand, introduction of a new job
etc.), a business may need to start the process of recruitment. Recruitment can be
divided into 3 steps:
1. Identification: recruitment starts with defining the job description: details the
basic roles and responsibilities of a job, and a person specification: to
communicate what skills, qualifications and experience candidates need for the job.
The business also needs to decide whether it is best to recruit internally: find a
current employee that could carry out the new job or recruit externally: find a
completely new person from outside the business.
2. Application: to find the best applicants, businesses make a job advert:
communicating the job description and person specification to inform potential
candidates. The job advert should be placed so that it reaches its target audience.
The business can decide to process the applications externally: hire a recruitment
agency to handle the application process for them.
3. Selection: after some time the applicants may be shortlisted based on how well
they fit the job, interviews may be scheduled in order to select the best applicant
for the job.
Internal recruitment hiring people from within the firm to fill a new
position.
External recruitment the process of hiring people from outside the

organisation.
32
2.1.4 Types of training
On the job training done while the employee is doing their normal job
while at the workplace.
E.g., a senior employee helps the junior employee comprehend all the
tasks and acquire new skills needed to carry out the job efficiently.
• Cost effective: using in-house • Trainees may pick up bad practices.

specialists. • Internal trainers may lack up to date
• Training is more relevant as it is training.
specifically for the firm. • Trainers cannot complete their own
• Reduces disruption to daily operations work whilst training new workers.
as it is on site. • May be incomplete due to a lack of
• Helps establish relationships and resources.
promote teamwork. • Productivity may be low until all skills
• The location is convenient for workers are learnt.
and trainers.
Induction training the training received when first starting a job, this is a
type of on the job training.
• Establishes expectations and good • Can be time consuming.

working habits from the start. • Key staff need to be freed from their
• Helps new workers understand the duties.
corporate culture. • Information overload for new recruits.
• Speeds up settling in process. • Induction can be lengthy in large firms.
• Morale is boosted when new recruits
feel more confident.
Mentoring another type of OTJ training involving a dyad of a mentor and a

mentee. The mentor shares their experiences with the mentee to help
them gain skills and knowledge.
• Synergy is created as it shares personal • Time consuming for mentors.

experiences. • Mismatched pairings can be stressful.
• Mentoring can be informal/formal. • Requires long-term commitment which
• Good mentors create a positive can disrupt business operations.
environment for mentees to act • Training mentors might be costly.
without fear of punishment.
33
Off the job training happens outside working hours, where the employees
are being trained away from the job. This could involve workshops,
conferences etc.
• Experts who may not exist internally • There is a potential loss of output
are able to be used. whilst workers attend the offsite
• A wider range of training can be training course.
provided. • Hiring specialist trainers can be very
• There are no distractions from expensive, and
colleagues at an offsite venue. transport/accommodation costs may
• Networking can take place, so add cost.
employees can meet new people. • It is debatable whether all skills are
transferable to the business.
• Finding time for staff to get off work
can be difficult.
Cognitive training focuses on helping employees develop their thinking and

processing skills. This type of training is of crucial importance for
businesses that require their employees to make quick, wise and
effective decisions, link investment banking, marketing departments of
companies etc.
• Helps workers improve their mental • May not cater for workers with
processes acquire new knowledge, aid different goals.
decision-making and solve work-related • Can be expensive.
problems. • Might not meet the needs of an
organisation.
• Difficult to measure effects of the
training.
Behavioural training focuses on helping employees develop certain

interpersonal skills such as stress management, communication, dealing
with emotions etc.
34
2.1.5 Types of appraisal
Staff appraisal is the processes of reviewing the performance of employees

against pre-set objectives.
There are four different appraisal strategies:
Formative appraisal: an ongoing process that focuses on giving the employees

recognition for what they have done well and indicating possible mistakes so that
they can learn from them.
Summative appraisal: measures an employee’s performance based on standards set by
the business, making it easy for the business to sum up how a particular employee
performed against the standards. Usually done at the end of a particular project.
360 degree appraisal: feedback on the employee’s performance is not only received
from the manager, but also from co-workers (appraisal from multiple perspectives).
This type of appraisal is usually combined with one of the previous two to give
another perspective on the performance.
Self-appraisal: employees reflect on their own performance by rating themselves on
various performance indicators. This type of appraisal is usually combined with
those explained earlier.
2.1.6 Dismissal, termination and redundancy
Business can deal with voluntary or involuntary leave of employees in several ways:
Termination: happens when employees leave the business at the end of their contract
because they want to work on their professional development, change career, retire
etc. These employees expect to receive a reference from their ex-employer.
Dismissal: happens when an employee has broken some of the terms of their contract,
which could be due to missing work, poor discipline, dishonesty etc. These
employees do not receive a reference from their ex-employer.
Redundancy: happens when a job is no longer required, making the employee
redundant through no fault of her own. Causes can be, e.g., a drop in production,
a merger or takeover, automation etc.
35
2.1.7 Common steps in the process of dismissal
Evidence must be gathered during all stages of the dismissal process. Managers must
effectively communicate the message to avoid rumours spreading.
1. Verbal Warning
2. Official written warning if misconduct is repeated
3. Dismissal
2.1.8 Changing employment patterns and

practices
New technologies and new social trends have influenced work practices in many
countries. Some examples are:
Teleworking: employees work a set amount of hours at the office and the remainder
from home.
Flexitime: employee has to work a set amount of hours per week, the allocation of time
spent completely depends on employee’s preferences.
Migration for work: due to better infrastructure and better connectivity of the whole
world, people can easily migrate daily, sometimes even great distances, for work.
Portfolio working: a person employed in a number of different jobs, carried out
simultaneously, usually on a part-time or temporary basis.
Part-time employment.
Migration of workers: a person who works in a country or state of which he/she is not
a national.
2.1.9 Outsourcing, offshoring and re-shoring
Outsourcing the process of transferring internal business activities to an

external firm in order to reduce costs.
• Outsources may carry out work to • To cut costs, subcontractors may ‘cut
higher quality standards. corners’ (unethical).
• Outsourcers will bid for work (i.e., try • Quality management can become more
to give you the best price). difficult.
• Reduces labour costs when workers are • Subcontractors must be monitored to
outside the business. ensure quality standards are being met.
• Allows the business to concentrate on • Outsourcing may cause redundancies.
core functions. • May be unethical due to the
exploitation of workers in LEDCs.
36
Offshoring relocating business activities and processes abroad.
• Companies can benefit from external • To cut costs, subcontractors may be

factors such as currency exchange. ‘cutting corners’ (unethical).
• Cheaper wage costs overseas. • Quality management can become more
• Overseas locations may have better difficult.
access to raw materials. • May be unethical due to the
exploration of workers in LEDCs.
• Companies have been seen to evade tax
by doing this.
Reshoring the transfer of business operations back to their countries of

origin.
• Improves quality management. • Can be more expensive.

• Transporting goods from overseas to • Provides a USP.
home countries is expensive.
37
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Organisational structure
2.2 Organisational structure
Levels of hierarchy the level of responsibility in the business. Each level

means that there is a senior and a junior.
Chain of command the formal route that a decision in an organisation must

follow. Traditionally, this means that decisions travel from the top
(CEO) to the bottom (workers) of the hierarchy.
Span of control the number of subordinates directly under the authority of

a manager and whom managers are responsible for.
Delegation giving one’s subordinate the authority to make a particular

decision or carry out a particular task while still keeping the
responsibility for the outcome of that task or decision. This usually
happens when the span of control is wide.
Centralisation indicates that all major decisions in the business are made by
a small group of employees (usually managers) that work closely with
the head of the business (CEO).
Decentralisation the opposite of centralisation. The core strategic decisions

made by senior managers, while middle managers have other
decision-making responsibility.
Bureaucracy the relative importance of rules and procedures. If a business is

relatively bureaucratic, there are many rules, regulations and set ways
of doing things; this means that personal initiative or delegation is not
expected.
De-layering removing a layer in the hierarchy of the business. It means the

removal of a layer of management. It is intended to make the business
less bureaucratic, which increases the decision-making capability of
middle managers. Also, it reduces costs as not so many managers need
to be employed.
38
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Organisational structure 2
Types of organisational structures
Tall organisational structure common in well-established businesses; it is

characterised by many levels of hierarchy, narrow spans of control, long
chains of command, centralised decision-making and limited delegation.
Flat organisational structure the opposite of the tall structure; it is

characterised by few levels of hierarchy, wider spans of control, shorter
chains of command, decentralised decision-making and increased
delegation.
Organisational structure by hierarchy a traditional way of representing

structure of a business. It shows the chain of command in a particular
business.
E.g., senior managers > middle managers > junior managers >
workers.
Organisational structure by function an organisational structure where

employees are grouped by departments they belong to (marketing,
finance, HR). After that has been determined, employees are then
organised by seniority.
Organisational structure by product an organisational structure based on

what a particular business produces. This involves dividing workforce
based on what a company produces.
Organisational structure by region present in businesses that carry out

certain aspects of the business activity in different parts of the world.
E.g., they have departments in Europe, America, Australia etc.)
Note: When asked to analyse any of these organisational structures on the exam (i.e.,
advantages and disadvantages), you will need to (1) use the specific terminology outlined
in the syllabus point but also (2) refer to leadership in the organisation and motivation of
the workforce — how does a particular organisational structure affect motivation of the
workforce compared to another.
39
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Organisational structure
2.2.1 Changes in organisational structures
Along with the basic organisational structures, some businesses have attempted to adapt
their structure in accordance with the changes in the business environment. Two
different ways to deal with changes in business environment are project-based
organisation and shamrock organisation.
Project-based organisation a market structure in which employees are

organised around different projects that a firm carries out.
Project-based organisation is supposed to be more flexible and responsive to market

demand (therefore more typical of market-oriented businesses). There are project
managers that delegate and are responsible for a particular project. After the project is
done, the team is split up and reassembled to begin another project. Each team
“borrows” members of different departments to complete the projects such as
accountants, operations managers etc.
• Higher level of delegation: the project • Increased training costs.

manager delegates tasks to different • Not all members of the workforce will
team members, which tends to be be able to fit into this organisation
motivating for those workers as they structure.
feel empowered.
• Each team member will do their part of
the job efficiently since they are
specialists in their field.
Shamrock organisation a market structure in which a business trims its

workforce to retain only multi-skilled core, which is concerned with
the creation of a product. All other supporting, non-central functions
are outsourced to the periphery.
This model suggests that businesses can reduce costs and gain competitive advantage by
trimming their workforce.
Thus, on the shamrock, we have 3 leaves:
1. Core managers: employees that are essential for the business

2. Contractual fringe: activities that are outsourced to specialist businesses
3. Flexible workforce: made up of part-time, temporary or seasonal workers that are
employed when necessary
40
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Leadership and management 2
• Allows for complete specialisation of • The insourced workers will suffer from
the core: they will concentrate on lack of job security which might lead to
innovations and gathering new ideas. decreased motivation and lower
• The flexible workforce will be easier to productivity.
hire and fire. • Not all members of the workforce will
• Can save on staffing costs. be able to fit into this organisation
• Can hire experts in certain fields due to structure.
outsourced workers.
2.3 Leadership and management
2.3.1 Key functions of management
There are 5 major functions of management:
Planning: managers need to set strategic, tactical and operational objectives that affect
different parts of the organisation.
Organising: managers need to make sure the business has sufficient resources to achieve
objectives, which requires good organisation.
Commanding: managers need to make sure all individuals know which duties they are
to perform and to provide instructions if needed.
Coordinating: managers must bring together the various resources to achieve objectives.
Since many different tasks happen at the same time, managers need to make sure
that all these are done at the specific time and place they are supposed to be done.
Controlling: managers have power to control for quality of different processes and
change them if necessary. They also have the power to increase or decrease the
scale of operations depending on the circumstances in the market.
41
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Leadership and management
2.3.2 Management vs. leadership
Management Leadership
Time and devotion • Management is more 9–5. • 24 hours a day.
• Handles strategic decisions.
Roles and • Administer day to day • Accountable for more.
responsibilities operations. • More innovative.
• Deal with how and when. • Deal with what and why.
Influence on others • Adhered to due to power. • Inspire and motivate by
• Focus on tasks. example.
• Focus on people.
Risk taking • Follow predetermined rules. • More radical.
• Tackles tasks by abiding by • Take risks to move the
policies. organisation forward.
Vision • Deal with stable • Create a culture of hope.
environments. • Shine during times of
change.
2.3.3 Leadership styles
Autocratic
• Leader holds as much power and decision-making authority as possible.

• Consults minimally with the senior management.
• Typical for companies that have a lot of unskilled and untrusted workers.
• Close supervision and detailed instructions.
• Usually associated with the tall organisational structure.
• Authority is clear; decisions are made • Employees do not develop

quickly. decision-making skills and cannot
operate independently.
42
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Leadership and management 2
Paternalistic
• Leader aims to assume the role of a ‘father’ figure, where the employees are
his or her family.
• Has great concerns for the employees and provides them with a sense of
safety.
• Extreme loyalty and trust with employees and their full commitment.
• Employees take great pride in the • Leaders might not have an objective eye
organisation, and do whatever is when assessing the performance of
necessary so they don’t let the leader workers.
down.
Democratic
• Employees are usually involved in the decision-making process, but the

leader still has the final say.
• One of the most popular leadership styles since it is motivating for
employees and they feel empowered and part of a team.
• Usually associated with the flat organisational structure and with
project-based and shamrock organisation.
• Workforce is motivated since they are • Since the workers are involved,
consulted in the decision-making decision-making process is longer.
process. • Not efficient when it comes to making
quick decisions.
43
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Leadership and management
Laissez-faire
• In French: “to leave alone”.

• A lot of freedom is given to the employees.
• Extremely democratic form of leadership.
• Tends to work when the workforce is extremely motivated, skilled, educated
and open-minded.
• Usually associated with the flexible forms of organisational structures.
• Employees enjoy the freedom this • Interests of individuals might differ

leadership style provides; they are more from the interest of the organisation.
innovative and creative. • Reduced productivity if the workforce
is not in the same ‘mental state’ as the
leader.
Situational
• No leadership style is deemed the best.

• The type of leadership that will be pursued will depend on the situation.
• In emergency situations, businesses • Changing leadership style too often

might switch the leadership style to the might result in confusion of the
most convenient one. workforce.
44
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Motivation 2
2.4 Motivation
Theorist Theory Findings

Taylor Scientific management Pay, above all is the main source of motivation
Maslow Hierarchy of needs Levels of human needs, from physiological to

self actualisation
Herzberg Two-factor theory Hygiene factors (which do not motivate alone)

and motivators
Adams Equity theory Workers are motivated if there is fairness in

remuneration packages
Pink Drive theory Autonomy, mastery and purpose are the drivers
of motivation in modern societies of
the 21st century
2.4.1 Taylor
• Employees are primarily motivated by money.

• Productivity can be improved by aligning output and efficiency targets with
remuneration.
• Division of labour (scientific management): breaking down different aspects of a job
or task and assigning different people to each particular part of the work.
• Piece rate system: workers are paid a standard level of output and receive a higher
rating they exceed that level.
Drawbacks
• Ignores the non-physical contributions of workers.

• Hard to measure in some professions.
• Ignores non-financial factors that motivate people.
• Fails to acknowledge that workers can be innovative and independent.
• Entails monotonous tasks, leading to employee dissatisfaction.
• Sets clear goals for the workforce and the consequences of their work are transparent.
• Gives workers a sense of target.
• Does not take into account individual differences.
• Views workers as machines with only financial needs.
45
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naschittering van z’n hoogen, gouen rug en verpaarste kap.
Gloed-teer straalde Meizon, in trillende glorie op ’t witte pleister van

tuinmanshuis, van de laan uit te zien als fellichtende reuzige krijtvlek,
schitter-ver, blauwig afdampend waasglans, bijzij uithoekend naast
de goudgroene grot, zonneplas van vóórbosch. Over grondje van
beukenlaan, éven zonnend paars-rood beschemerd, sprankelden en
flonkerden grillige zonspatten, door bladerengaatjes neergepijld in
gebroken glans, verdampend als fijn paars-blank licht. En tusschen
de verdonkerende beukenstammen aan weerszij, zweefde fijn
schaduwleven, zacht violet-teer, verkoelde de lichtnevel, waar
insekten in zoemden en slierten, sòms met glans-strependen
dwarrel, dàn drijvend in stilstaande vleugeltrilling op goud
uitpoeierende lucht.
Heel de laan, met haar beuken-rood voorspel van hooge karmijnen

sier, rood, smachtend roode regen van ruischend licht, naast goud-
doorkoortsten groenen bladerentooi, door elkaar [286]heengeslingerd
in takkenpracht, goud-poortte daar, in wondre luistering naar
Meigroene lied, naar streel-lichte, lokkende vogelen; minne-gevloei
van zilveren zangetjes overal uit de lucht, de zoet-geurende, zalige
lucht. En rondomme, ’t zoet-zachte gekwinkeleer uit de zilveren
gorgeltjes van zanglijsters en leeuw’rik de lokkende zangaanloopjes
van parelende minneliedjes, eindloos zoet, wiegend gestreel van
fijne vlei-fluitjes.
Zoo, in Mei-droom vloeide koele, groene schemer uit en in de

beukenpoort, als voorhof van ’t landgoed, met z’n grot van
fonteinende, opspritsende zonnevlammen aan ’t eind, heet vloeiend
goud, waar alles naar toe dreef, alles in verdronk en verdampte.
Langs Wiereland en Duinkijk, overal uit de tuinderijen, op vervlakten

duingrond, tusschen bedden groenten en aardbeien in, harpten in
wonderteere standen de vruchtboompjes, bebloesemd, rose
sneeuwig en purperend blank, zoet bruidswit, doorvlekt van
scheutjes rose, maagdelijk teer. Stil harpten hun takken en stil, de
knoestig dikke, fijn-groen bemoste stammetjes stonden daar,
omjoeld van lichtend groen, in hun broos bloesemleven, in roerloos
gepeins, over eigen vruchtbare schoonheid. Overal, rond de
vruchtboompjes, uit de tuinen, wasemde òp, kruiig kittelend aroma
van versche groenten, sappige gistigheid, zoete seringen,
verwaaiende in koelen windwuif, geurgevloei langs akkers en
wegjes. En van overal, kastanjebloesem en jasmijnen zongen méé
in den zoeten wellustzang van zacht-rookige geuren uit tulpen en
hyacinten-akkers.
De tulpen stonden er met hun vlam-kelken open, te duizelen, diep in

het licht. Eén felle duizel van kleuren, tulpenbrand, die het land te
schroeien lei in laaiende kleuren. Langs de akkers, op weg naar
Zeekijk, waar de duinen eerst heel aan ’t eind, vaag opgolfden in
violet waas, aan twee kanten, schoten telkens vooruit, tulpenvelden
en hyacint-akkers. Maar ’t dichtst om Wiereland, ver van hoogduin,
tusschen de bewerkte, vlakke tuinderijteelt, rijden ààn, nuancen van
paars kleurleven, en witte, zacht golvende hyacinten-zee. [287]Het
licht stond er voor te beven, te sidderen, kroop en boorde driftig in de
kelken, als hommeltong in honingmerk, bruiste er rond, dronken-
zwaar van geuren, smolt er in het bloemaroom. Heele zeebrokken
paars, op licht groen bladerloof, golfden áán, zangerige symfonie
van licht, naar àl dieper blauwpaars, tot plots in anderen akker, de
vloed terugsprong in donkere deining van rood, tusschen
schuimenden sneeuwval van witte hyacinten, midden in. En rond die
blanke lawine, op doorschijnend loofgroen, dat te flitsen zilverde in
zon, bronzen, kaneel-doorpoeierde kleuringen, wulpsch-roze, zoete
brand van roodbruin en lila. Stoetjes van uitrookende geur-klokken,
legende-doorwaasde feeërie, kleurfestijn in ’t sprokenland.…
Rondom, één wijde aanspoeling, aangolving van kleur-klokjes, die

sidderden, zwollen in ’t zonnegoud, brand van bloemen, in al
gamma’s; kleurwemel die koortsend te zingen, te ijlen lag onder
azuren lichtteeren Meihemel.—
Maar feller nog, rond half-verdorde hyacinten, festijnden met hun

rook-rooden adem, de grootere, fellere kleurenbrand van tulpen, die
lichtfeest vierden pas. Als een orgie van vlammen, kroop, sloeg,
rilde, leefde, ijlde ’t licht dáár op de aarde.
Héél-stille groene hoeken, stil van sappige moestuinteelt, in

Meizoeten toon, aan greppels en beekoevertjes, in lentepraal
volgestrooid met druipglanzende boterbloempjes, omzoend van
onschuld-madeliefjes met d’r gele koontjes, naïeve kijkertjes,
halsjes-rekkend uit ’t malsche grasgroen, tusschen de fijn geschulpte
akkerhoorn,—heel die stille hoekjes, teer wit, broos wit,
sneeuwspatjes rond gouên vonken in ’t klare groen,—lagen plots
verdrongen door vlammenbrand van tulpen, helsch-hevig en
schroeiblakerend, als levende kleurkreet; vermiljoen, daar
aangeblazen tot hellevuur in kelken, vlammen die in wondren brand,
zichzelf styleerden in levend spel van vonklijnen, uitlekten en rank
weer òpgroeiden tot flonkerende wijnschalen, op blauw-waas van
loof, grijs-zacht bedauwd. Heel de bosschage, duin-woest, op hooge
glooiingen uitgegroeid boomgroen, wild hakhout, met z’n sier van
roze en witte koekoek, z’n blanke lafenis van vloeiend vogelenmelk,
z’n slanke waterster,—lag [288]daar, als weggeslagen en verdoft
achter de kleurkreten der tulpen. Tulpen van spattend vuur, kelken
wijd-open, waar invloeide schuimende zomer-wijn, borrelde bruisend
in de roemers, boordevol geschonken, dat de zonnedrank als
lichtvocht er droop over de kelkranden.
En vlak daarnaast, erover, ertusschen, duizelden kleurgamma’s van

hoog goudgeel, en goud-gloeiende honigkelken, die bruisten en
vonkten, vlak tegen het rooie tulpenvuur, in rondsidderenden,
zengenden gang langs den grond. En verder, weer akkers, vol
donkerend tulpenpurper, als in verdoofden zwijmel uitgedroesemd,
met enkele schalen slank er boven uit, stengelende, lichtende
kelken, er nog tusschen, als schitterende roemers, hoog geheven in
het laaiende licht, dat er bruisend in vervonkte en spatte als
schuimende zonnewijn. En rond daarom weer, als nooit eindigende
zee, aangolving van nog donkerder kelken, rood doordauwde tulpen,
wazig geplooid in half uitknoppende bloem, waar al driftig het
zonnegoud tegen opspatte, de beschulpte randjes verterend in
gloed.—Daarachter weer koraal-rood gevlam, met ertegen
opgedrongen, diep gele en witte lawines van lichtende, luiende
kleurklokken.… En heel apart, als vreemde, zoetste, tooverende
akkersier, in geheim-zachten geur, die er boven bleef drijven als
nevel, tulpen van teederst zangerig lila. Kelken, uitgeschulpt in ’t
fijnste rose, blankig doorroomd. Kelken, hoog en groot, als omblazen
in waas van venetiaansch glas, met rond-dwalende weerschijnen,
besluierd teer-blauw, en roze-rood hier, wazig en blank purper daàr,
fijn gebogen in stengelsier. Ver van het helsche demonenrood, het
gillende vuur, waarin het licht gepijnigd bruiste, dìe akkers met hun
teeren kelkenbouw, uitgegroeid als glanzig uitwaaierend spel van
venetiaansche roemers, doorwaasd in kleurmist. Koel en toch
vonkend, broos, teeder en toch rank-sterk, zonder brio-brand,
doorgeurd en zwemmend onder den nevel van hun eigen zoetsten
gouden honinggeur, als temperend de ijlende lichtkoorts van de
rondomme vlammen-akkers.—
En vreemd, in ’t lage land, met z’n vochtdamp en prachtig

[289]mistend lichtzilver, gloeide daar overal van tulpen, rooie, gele,
paarse brand; kleuraangolving van narcissen en hyacinten, zònder
oplossing in ’t lichtende, heldere schitter-innige weigroen, en de
goud doordampte stille achtergronden van vervlakt duin, zònder rust
in ’t avondnevelige waterland, met z’n goudvocht en trillende
vloersen.—
Als was daverende stoet Oosterlingen neergestort en verpulverd op

de lage landen, als had titanische vulkaan-ruk één heet kleur-
doordoopt brok zuideraarde uitgeslingerd en weggespoten, midden
in den verbluften Hollandschen Mei, met z’n malsche wei-groening
en grazige zoetheid, zoo onopgelost bleven daar gloeien de
bollenakkers, helsch opengebarsten brand, uit eerst koesterend
groen van prachtig sierloof.
[Inhoud]
II.
In festoenen hing zoo de Meidag te tooveren, was wintergrauw in
Wiereland weggezakt, goudde ’t licht, schooner soms waar geen
bollenakkers te koortsen geurden, in de tuinen, op stille laantjes en
paadjes; lichtgesprenkel van zon, splinterend rond drommen,
goudgroen boomblaar. Omjubeld van licht en kleur stonden de
landwerkers in den Meidag, in pracht van werkgebaar, op de groene
akkers, warm-rood en blauw bekield, in ’t opene zonneveld of
kleurschemerend tusschen rijzenpaadjes.
Plots kwam Meimaand weifelen, verstierf de goudpracht van de

jubelende dagen. Als in zatten wellust leien de bollenakkers elken
dag weer hun geuren uit te hijgen, tusschen het geploeter der kerels,
die niets meer zagen van kleurpracht rondom. Plots was daar,
dampige horizon aangewaasd, wuifden wolkenslierten als reuzige
veeren, berkenzilverend den hemel door, trok grijzig luchtspel uit zee
áán. ’t Groen dreef in tintige wazen, en Hollandsch-ijl, dampte er
weer gebroken licht door ’t landschap.
De kleurlyriek van Mei donkerde àl zwaarder weg, achter luchtgrauw

en zilverende gevaarten. Hengelaars, éven achter [290]Wierelandsch
haventje, in polderbegin, stonden onrustig aan de rustieke
weidammetjes in ’t watervlak te turen, dat soms schitterspatte,
zilvervloeiend en rimpelend, of stug terugkaatste wolkdreigende
regenlucht, ontzaglijk welvend over polderruimte, waar het stille zilte
licht, wijd-neergeplast, nattig glansde over veld en wei. ’s Avonds
vooral, lei Wierelandsche polder, stil en oneindig, steeg er dampige
watergeur uit de kronkelende plassen, soms éven lichtelijk doortint
van avondrood, ging er koele rietfluister langs slootjes en kwaakte er
stijgende kikkerzang uit de droomerige, innige oevertjes. Vochtig en
doorzilverd wasemden de dagen daar uit. Soms droef plots, in ’t
verguurde weer, eenzaamden boven fort en dijken, vage
kerktorentjes, als violette puntjes op horizonrond. En zacht, in
wissel-licht, schemerden de avonden weer aan, ruischte en
fonteinde ’t riet, teer en geheimvol, als fluisterend van nog komende
zoete Mei-verlangens; doofde droomerig, op kleine sloepjes en
schuitjes, weggegroend tusschen slootkantjes en pluimriet, de
kleuren en tinten stil uit. En áánwieken kwam in breede zeilvlucht en
zwier, ’n ooievaar door de eenzaame polderlucht, steeg aan anderen
kant òp, van donkerende weivlakte, klein leeuwerikbeestje,
uitparelend hóóg, zoeten zang, als gewiegde toontjes van fluitlied,
stijgend in jubel, doorslierd van zilveren klankjes, tègen het late
wolkenspel in, al hooger zwevend tusschen oneindigheid van
donkerend weigroen en wijd-eenzame avondlucht.
Er ging gemor onder de tuinders van Wiereland en omtrek.

Snerpende vorst hield ’s nachts aan. Wat jonge groente stond gelig,
blad-verdord, doorspoeld van regen en ’s nachts vroren fijne
vruchtbloesems dood. Schade, schade van allen kant. Nergens
meer schoot ’t gewas de aarde uit. Alles klefde en modderde vuil.
Overal was geloer van angstige tuinderskoppen naar den grond, op
de bedden, angstig gekijk naar onheil en schade. ’t Weer bleef
dreigen kil, en windguurte vlijmde langs de akkers, de kerels in ’t
gezicht, dat hun handen soms krampten in kou-onmacht.
—Da sel main ’n loatertje worre, gromden ze tegen elkaar, [291]in

nood voor hun oogst. Mee klaagden de kweekers, die bang waren
voor hun bollen.
Aan Duinkijk, naar zee, stond ’n groepje tuinders te praten, met één
kerel op den akker.
—Daa’s puur bot afspronge van alle weer, zei dof ’n lange uit ’t
stoetje.
—Daa’s net, de vorst hep hier huishoue.… kaik t’met alle

blommetjes dood op die oarbai-bedde.… en kaik die frambose.… die
appele!.… die pruime!.… kaik kaik! die peere! d’r is kwoalik veur vier
duite meer àn!
Stil liep ’t stoetje door, bleef de werker op z’n akkers, zorgelijk turend
naar z’n bedden en vruchtboomen.
Dagen op dagen bleef regen drenken en vorst door de aarde killen,

vunsde er vocht uit regengrond, dampig en nattig. Onrustig joegen
de tuinders elkaar òp in hun verborgen angst. Dat was nog nooit
gezien, zoo slechte maand.
Toen plots, sloeg Meiweer òm, kwam goudpracht weer lichten in

goudgroenen gloed over het volgedromde boomenstedeke en dorp.
—Heel vroeg in de ochtenden, blankte en purperde de
bloesempracht van vruchtboomen weer, als nooit te voren.
Uit de beukenlaan liep ’n lange, magere tuinder met de zeis op den

rug, zilveren bliksems vlijmend en flitsend boven z’n hoofd, als
zenboom bewoog op z’n krommige schouers. Achter dichtgegroeide,
begroende rijzenlaantjes met erwten, op de akkers, klonk klare
mannestem, zangerig en diep, in de hooge gouen lichtglorie en
morgenblauwte, tusschen zang van kerse-diefjes, alt-volle
melodiëerende merels en nachtegaalslag, schuchter, toch vloeiend.
Eén wild getjirp en getjilp, fluiterig gedraal van zoet-lokkende
lentezangetjes en geluidjes, waar doorhéén galmde, in vibreerende
sonore diepte, de menschenstem, verborgen achter ’t groen van
vruchtboomen en haag, dat ’t daverde door de zoet-geurende
zonneruimte. Overal harpte takkensier in moestuinen, en weelde-
bloeseming. De groene hagedoorn stroomde van licht, en op al de
labyrinthpaadjes en laantjes verjubelde groen-goud, lagen hoog
doorzond, de doodstille wegjes in den reinen Meiglans om
Wiereland, volgestrooid en doorwaaid met [292]zoetsten geur, licht-
bedroesemend in zwijmel. In pracht van stilte en licht, stond ’t wilde
hakhout rondom te dauw-druppen, en bladergroen te zwemmen in
zonnegoud. Wondere lentelicht dauwde en vloeide er, één
sneeuwing van maagde-blank uit de vruchtboompjes, in hun
mystieke gratie van heerlijken takgroei, geheimvol neigende
standen, als spraken ze ’n taal van zachte tinten, gebukt onder het
zware, vrucht-sappige leven. De boomen en boompjes, van noot,
morel, peer, appel en pruim dààr, harpten in bruidswit,
bloesemsneeuw, in blankste gamma, overwaaid met goudstof dat er
van kapellenvleugels poeiert, blank-ijl, in het dansende dronken
geurlicht. De bloesemen erop, breed-uit in takwiegeling, als stille
glans-ruikers van heilige pracht, toch beschroomd in hun overvloed,
teer in hun maagde-adem, als verblankte bruidszielen, omstraald
door de Meitoortsen van goudglans.
Verwrongen de takken, de kleine verkromde stammetjes gebukt,

ernstig van vol leven dat ze droegen, stonden andere pereboompjes
weer als geheiligde kommuniekinders, in gewijde schittering, stil nu
en hoogblank, in het zachte groene land, roerloos. Tusschen die in
weer, op ’t doordauwde grasgefonkel rijden òp, zacht-rose
sneeuwige appelboompjes, als hooggegroeide boeketten, in zacht-
wadend goud; stammetjes, bescheiden teruggekrompen, als in angst
voor de zoete purpering van bloesemweelde. Weer andere, kleiner
en ranker, gebogen in bidhouding, heilige bekoring van groei, stil
gebaar van schoonheid, toch overzegend met lichtende bloeseming,
ònder de hoogeren, in luisterend leven. En overal van de paden, op
lichte koele wuifjes, zoelde ààn, geur van linden, kastanje en sering.
In wondre verjonging praalde het stugge grauwe winterstedeke weer,

van goudschemer en groen. Langs de weggetjes, woest gestruik bij
slooten, zeefde Meilicht, stonden hoogslanke, wilde waterboeketten,
fijnrose koekoek. Teere zilvering blankte langs de greppeling, woest
doorgroeide oeverbeekjes, hoog belommerd, met zilverend
pluimgras, riet, goud-gloeijende brem en doovenetel. Felle
boterbloempjes glansden als gepolijst; en overal [293]rondom,
hooggele toetjes en vlekjes van roze koekoek, even paars getoorts
van hondsdraf, laag gekruip van madeliefjes en akkerhoorn.—Soms
in de blanke Meimaand, uit de fijne darteling van lichtende glanzen
en deinende, brooze tinten, schoten òp hoog-roode papavers,
kopjes-wiegelend op slanke stengeling.
Ook de straatjes van Wiereland, nauwe kronkel van arbeiderswijkjes,

zwommen in bloeseming en geur, groenden in boomenpracht,
waaiden vol Meihoning en doordrènkende grasgeur. Overal waaide ’t
vol lichtjes en zonneflitsjes, vol goud-gevonk en lommering, zoemde
gevleugel van insekten en goudhaantjes, die aandreven als vurige
arabeske, in slingerende lijn door de lucht, vliegjes met groenstalige
schijnseltjes en goud-beschubde lijfjes.
Zoo bleef de Meiemaand rondgaan in ’t stedeke en dorpjes-zeeweg.

Door de tuinen en uitgebloeide bollenvelden, vergeurden de
seringen hun weemoedsgeur in avondrood, kwam ’t schemergoud in
nog heiliger nimbusval glanzen, roodblond en gloedloos, droom-teer,
als van bijbelschen boschbrand, niets verterend. ’t Licht verstierf
over de kleine, stille dorpshuisjes, even néervloeiend voor de
raampjes, plintjes, kozijnen, ze bewasemend vol rooden goudglans,
als staarden ze òp de ruitjes, naar de Zon, die wijd-plechtig verzonk,
in wolken van wond’re violet, en staartglans van pauwendauw.
[Inhoud]
III.
Loom slofte Kees den weg naar zee af, met doffen klomp-schuur,
zandwolken voor zich uitpoeierend. Eindelijk dan was ie bij de
sekretarie van Duinkijk, doodop van verveling en lanterfanterigheid.
In de zoete lenteavond-scheemring van weibrok, achter Van

Ouwenaar’s landgoed, vaagden vorm-fijn, twee stille, peinzende
paardjes, grazend in halslagen kop-hang. Avond was aangefloersd
in heilige rust. Overal rond droomden wazig, in duister dampig violet,
tonige bosschages, en hoog aan een zij van den [294]weg, dromden
dennen, donker op zwaar begroeide glooiingen, waarachter ver,
woeste duinstreek schemer-mistte, tusschen jachtgrond van Van
Ouwenaar, tot aan zee. Waziger in rust, dommelde andere tuinkant,
vlak-bewerkte moestuinderij, met ver, teer paars verschiet op
duingolvingen. Uit de pastorie, schuin over Kees woning, glansde
avondlampje op ’n kamer, roodzacht kapje, in goud-oranjen
lichtkring. Stil zat dominee in mijmer, in ’n rieten tuinstoel, aan den
weg. Sigaren-rook krulde wolkerig loom om z’n in schemer
verduisterd gezicht. Loome koe-gestalten, in de wei, vlak vooraan,
stapten over donkerend avondgroen gras, in loggen gang, stap voor
stap. Onder hun koppenduister raspte graas-geluid òp, ritseling in de
avondstilte, zacht als eerste haperende zeisslag van maaier.—
Kees voelde niets om ’m van de weirust. In ’m gromde wrok, driftige

lust om iets uit te schreeuwen. Hongerdrift was ’t die ’m wrevelde, en
verveling dat ie nog overal z’n kop stootte, wààr ie vroeg naar werk.
Tegen pluktijd, hooitijd, zou ’r misschien wat voor ’m zijn. Koortsige
drift jeukte er in ’m, om iemand te pakken, te ranselen, als ze ’m
maar een woord in den weg zouen leggen. Hij voelde, dat ie ’r gek
van zou worden, overal teruggestooten en tòch lachjes en
schampere lolgezegden over z’n niks doen. Op ’n bulterig brok
duinweg, uitgegraven voor tuinderij, vaagde ’n gestalte op de akkers,
donkerend.
Dat most kweekertje Reeker zijn.—Zou sain d’r nog erais veur ’t lest
vroage.
—G’noafed Reeker!.…
—G’noafed.… Kees nie?.… joa! Kees!.… zei Reeker. Zangerig-klaar

galmde z’n stem van de akkers in de scheem’ring.
—Mooi weer hee?.…
—Daa’s net.… fierkant somer.… wá’ doe jai nou?.…
—Ikke hep sien noa ’t onhail.… se hebbe d’r gister hier drie honderd
muise pakt.… da tuig.… freet wortel en bol op.… je sou se
kroàke!.…
Kees luisterde niet meer, stond even droomerig te turen ’t veld òver,
met een been op prikkeldraad. Boven een wijen [295]akkerhoek
vloeide nog wat geel hemellicht, met rooie teere sikkelveeren
doorwuifd.—De nacht dekte donkerder, al donkerder land en
boomen. Reekertje was opgeloopen, stond stil onder het gelige
luchtbrok, in het avondgedroefde, verzonken akkergroen, toch in
duistering van gestalte. Vol klonk Kees’ stem door avondstilte.
—He je t’met gain kerel noodig Reeker?
—Spait main, moar t’met ke’k nog mi main jonges besti of.… In de
pluk.… op tuin.… dan is ’t wá’ aers!.… Bai de groote hoal.… dàn
m’skien.… Moar nou.… ’t is niks daàn, hoor.… f’r wá’ hei je selfers
nie ’n lappie hee?.…
Kees stond te turen, in één houding, schemer-akkers op, waar stilte

wijd-om staarde.…
Wá’ nou.… vroeg die kerel naar de bekende weg?.… Wist ie nie dá’
t’r veur sain geen grond was?.…
—Wá’ nou?.… je wee tog suiver, dat t’r hoast niks niemedal grond
is.… en daa’k niks kraig sonder borg.… al ses.… wá’ ses?.… al tien
keer bi’k weest bai netoàris en bai alderlai volk hier.… moar vast niks
hoor!.… vast niks!.… d’r is nie één die goed wil stoan.… ka’ jai d’r
nie wá’ op finde?.…
Kees had nog wat ouë vriendschap met de Reekertjes. Vroeger had
ie veel vooral voor hèm gedaan bij strooptochten. Nou dacht ie, dat
dìe vent nog wel es wat helpen kon.… Maar „’t speet” Reekers weer
duivels. Stil wrokte de tuinder in zichzelf, dat ie d’r mee begonnen
was. Wat had ie te klesse mit soo’n hongerlijer.… die skooier!.… Nou
ja, vroeger,.. vroeger was vroeger! Toen most hai ook stroope.… Hai
borg?.… dá’ kon ie denke!.… Pas d’r self indroaid.… en dan
ankomme mit soo’n lid!.… Ieder most moar veur s’n aige sorge.…
sien dat tie ’r boven op kwam!.…
Zoo had ’t even stil, in z’n hoofd geredeneerd..
—Neenet Kees, aarzelde z’n stem in de starende schemerstilte van

akkers en straatweg.… dá’ wee je, aa’s ’k je pelsiere ken.… mi d’een
of den aêr.… groag!.… duufels groag!.… Moar borg stoan.… dá’
kennie.… Main waif sou me van veure d’rin, van achter d’ruit
trappe!.… Eenmoal [296]andermoal.… ik hep selfers kooters.… ikke
mó’ main aige rekenskap gaife!.… Eenmoal.… andermoal.… aa’s ’k
je pelsiere ken.… mi d’een of den aêr.… Groag!.. ik erinner main nog
bestig, dá’ je main vroeger.… veul vroeger.… te freete hep gaife.…
da je main op stroop.… wel van de twintig beesies.… tien hep
loate.… eenmoal andermoal Kees.… tjonge.… aa’s ’k wa hep!.…
moar.…
Kees tuurde weer in den akkerschemer, die stiller staarde, verder

naar duin.… Niks zei ie, maar ’t wrokte heet, heet van binnen.
Dá’ tuig! niks had d’een voor d’aêr over, of ze motte wete dat ’t vast
goed gong.… dan.… dan ha’ je je man.… Moar ’n kwinkwanker aa’s
hai, hellepe mi ’n lappie.… ’n skorem sonder rooie duit.… dá’ gong
nie.… Veur d’r aige siel en salighait poere.… Verder kon ieder d’r
krepeere.… wá’ tuig.… nie een die d’r noà je omkeek!.…
Baloorig was Kees doorgesloft, rhytmisch in klosgang langs de

wegstilte.—Stiller droomden de verdonkerde boomen in de
scheemring; ’t gele luchtbrok, boven den tuinder was verbleekt in
groenige vaalheid. Zoele geurtjes wuifden op windefluister aan, door
hakhout en gras. Zachter verzonken de akkers in ’t wije geduister, en
overal rondom ruischte het groote avondzwijgen van land en lanen.
Doodstille huisjes, ver van elkaar, verdoften in sluimerrust, glansden
in teer raampjesgoud van lamplicht, zacht droomrig, als heilige
kluisjes. Voor ’m lag de lange wilgenlaan naar zee in boomschemer,
waar dunne luchtstreep boven waasde, teer-groenig, heel ver.—
Vogeltjes kweelden en weedomden rondom, in zoete zangetjes,
zaligdroeve murmel van vleiende fluitertjes. En nu en dan zeilde ’n
zwaluw, vlak over z’n hoofd naar den grond, de duindonkering in.
Angst en wrevel kwam in z’n hart op, nou ie Wimpie ging zien.
Wrevel om de geloofsfratsen, al begonnen met de Vasten, en de
Maria-maand, Mei.—Woedend was ie geweest dat ’t mannetje den
goeien Vrijdag puur droog broodhomp had geslikkerbikt en niks
meer!—En dàn, dat snikken om z’n kruiske [297]op Asch-
Woensdag.… van stof mòakt.… tot stof sel je weerkeêre.…
Netuurlik!.… Skoàp!.… Wat ’n Paschen en Hemelvoartsdag ’t feur ’t
manneke weust was!
Was de pluktaid d’r moar;.… de oarebaie,.… de peule, de vroege

groentes!.… Wa sou die se smere!.… Femorge had ie Wimpie op ’n
poar kiste mi s’n bedje in ’t sonnetje set.—Veur ’t huisie!.… Wa’ ’n lol
dá’ kereltje had hep!.. Enne.… wat ie bleek sien hep? godskristis.…
kon die d’reis selfers ’n lappie grond kraige?.… Soue se sain nou
moar feur los wille!.… Wa’ da kereltje invalle was!.… een-en-al
been!.… die f’rekte vaste.… bai ieder feestdag! ’t skoap! f’morge hep
ie lache en songe.… mi se ooge knippertje speult teuge de son!.…
In joàre had ie gain licht soo sien.… stakker!.… Enne nou Ant weér
mi’ d’r swangert laif.… Dat tie nou tog nie van d’r afblaive kenne
hep.… Had soo duivels s’n aige sait.… Had ie moar ’n hoekie.… ’n
lappie.… Snof’rjenne wá’ sou die poere!.… Tut ie d’r bai neerviel!.…
Nou niks.… veur ieder kon ie krepeere.… D’r woàre wel meer aa’s
hai.… veul, veul meer!.… moar die krege d’r nog es los werk!.… die
gonge stiekempies noa kerk.… likte pastoor of dominie.… of dokter
of netoaris.… Nee, da gong sàin nie af.… dá’ bleef sain in s’n keel
sitte.… Nou stroope dààn.… ook gain freete.… wá’ nou?.… Dá’ rooit
ná’ niks.… ná’ niks.… aa’s tie nou erais poere gong, ergens wait hier
vandaan!.… kon die d’r moar is de wereld in.… Moar wie holp
sain.… wie?
Enne Wimpie?.… hai sou ’t vast besterrefe.… enne tog.… ’r moar

van komme ’t most.… Waa’s tie nou moar knecht! Se konne ’m veur
sain part soo veul bloedsuige aa’s ze woue.… aa’s tie moar wa
had.… kaik! d’r was ie ’r.…
Tegen ’n duinhoogte, woest naar voren dreigend uit vlakken grond,

diep in ’t pad, lag z’n huisje, donker, met geel lichtje, uitprikkend
achter naakt ruit. Avondlucht, wijd en geheimvol groen-teer
schemerde wijd áán, van de duin-zee.
Angst duizelde in z’n hart, nou ie instappen ging met leege handen,
eeuwig met leege handen.… En woest, met wrevelgevoel, [298]kwam
ie zichzelf opporren! Wat donder! wá’ kon hai ’t helpe!.… Aa’s s’n
waif ’t ’m zuur moake gong, sou die d’r van mekoar splintere.… En
aa’s d’r moer wá’ sai sou die d’r ’n kruk op d’r test stuksloan.…
Gram-zwaar in barsche-zwijg, stapte ie in, kwakte zich op bed,
zonder ’n woord, zonder Wimpie zelfs te durven aankijken.—
’n Week later klompkloste Kees weer in den avond, den weg naar
zee àf, opgeruimd en veerkrachtig. Dirk, z’n broer, had ie
gesproken.. Hij kon meehelpen. Ouë Gerrit had gegromd, en bang-
strak gezeid, dat als Kees op ’t land stond er ongeluk kwam over ’t
huis. Maar Dirk, Piet en Guurt waren vóór ’m, hadden geantwoord
dat ie hongerde, dat ’t zoo niet langer blijven kon; dat ’r te veel werk
was voor hun handen, dat ’r anders toch ’n vent gesteld moest
worden, daalder daags.… En Kees was al heel blij als ie zeven pop
kreeg voor de heele week.—
Nou liep ie rustig naar huis, blij om Wimpie, dat ie eindelijk, eindelijk
heel stil kon zeggen, dat ’r wat was, dat ie ’m ààn kon zien, en z’n
wijf ’m nou es niet kon uitschelden, waar ’t kereltje bij lag.—
Zoet woei lenteavond licht z’n longen in, en telkens even rekte ie
zich de spieren, spande ie z’n kracht, om vooruit te weten of ie ’t nog
wel uithouen zou, of ie nog wel wieden, kruipen, hurken, harken en
spitten kon in den grond.—
Volgende week stond Kees op de Beek.—Z’n vader had ’m niet

gegroet, niet aangekeken zelfs. Ouë Gerrit wist dat Kees kon
aardwroeten in de tuinen als de beste, maar hij had gruwelijk ’t land
aan ’m, was bang voor z’n spullen en Kees’ geloer; geloofde stellig
dat ’r ongeluk op ’t huis lag, als hij in z’n nabijheid werkte. Toch, Dirk
wou Kees hebben, hield wel van den kerel, zonder vast zich
rekenschap te geven, waarom. Blij was ie, dat ’r ’n paar flinke
handen meewerkten, nou de Ouë maar weinig meer hielp. En Guurt
had Kees ’n gehavende broek van Dirk gegeven, met schoone kiel.
[299]
Kees, aan ’t wieden, rustiger nu in z’n arbeid, schoof handig z’n
peulenschoffel tusschen de boonen. Dirk werkte af, rond de rijzen in,
met z’n handen nawiedend, waar de schoffel niet bij kon.
De zon stond al hoog, en hitte dampte er òp uit de zweetkoppen der

werkers, die gloeiden, pal in ’t zonnegesteek. Dirks blonde kop stond
in glans, en de rossige vlekken er in, brandden als
schedelvlammetjes achter z’n petje. Kees, reuzig, met ’n vuil-gelen
strooien hoed, schonkigde boven de rijzen uit, die knoesterig en
kaal-vermergeld, in het sappige gewas en kleurlicht, dorden. De
lichtgroene aardbei-bedden, akker aan akker, omrasterd van
prachtkleur verglinsterende hagenwanden, als ingesloten tuinen,
dampten uitgestrekt, met warrelende witte bebloeseming. Overal op
de akkers rond de werkers, vlekten kleuren in ’t sappige groen, rood,
wit en hoog glansgeel gespikkeld van bloemen en bloesem, licht-blij
daverend in ’t zonnegevonk.—
Vijandige oom Hassel stond ’n greppel verder met z’n zoons,

zwaargebouwde kerels blauwkielen, bedrijvig wroetend in de aarde.
Ouë Gerrit kromde met den rug naar z’n broer toe, dol jaloersch,
zwellend van gift op al wat oom Hassel had en deed, glunderig
loerend naar z’n akkers, die met sla en aardbeien voor waren in
groei. Ook frischte al ’t diep-groen sier-loof van wortelen bij ’m op.
Dat maakte Gerrit helsch. Hij wou ’t zijn kerels wel wat uit den grond
zien trekken, zoodat ’t gauw, heel gauw ver boven teelt van z’n broer
uit zou staan.—Toch was ie blij dat bij hèm ten minste ’n hoek
rhabarber al hoog in stengel en blad bloeide, prachtig jong, vlak voor
den neus van z’n broer, waar die op kijken moest, terwijl bij dièn de
rhabarber, laag in ’t blad, kwijnde.—Telkens loerde Gerrit stilletjes en
voorzichtig, om te zien, glunderig of broer Hassel niet naar z’n
rhabarber keek.… En telkens ook keek z’n broer naar hem, of Gerrit
niet naar zijn aarbeien en wortels loenschte. Dan stootten ze op
elkaar in met hun loer, keken ze weer tegelijk, strak voor hun uit, met
woedende gezichten, omdat geen van de twee wou [300]laten zien,
dàt er haat, jaloerschheid tusschen hen was, ze iets om elkander
gaven.
Oom Hassel stond te schoffelen, groote magere vent, in gelig

werkhemd.—
Drie kerels, buiten z’n zoons had ie al in dienst voor rooien en

wieden.—
Z’n oudste Willem, keek uit naar de rooiers, die hurkend, diepe
geulen slagwielden in ’t zand, met hun knieën. Gretig graaiden hun
handen in den stuifgrond, in zware rukkende, klauwige scheuren de
aarde omwoelend, om de bollen met wortelfijn draadnet er uit te
graven.—Een rooier zong dronkemansliedje, onder het wroetend
uitstuiven van den heeten zandgrond, in klauwigen grabbel. Piet
Hesse, naast ’m, klokte gretig koue koffie uit z’n kruik, naar binnen.
—Hesse, wèrk! nijdigde Willem bazig.… dá’ lange suipe van jou kost
geld.…
—Nou seg!.… aa’s je me nou! verontwaardigde in woestdriftigen kijk

daggelder terug. Maa’g ik nou nie suipe?.…
—En jai kerel, jai skreeuwt de heule buurt op ’n klus.… ikke sou
main stroatje d’rais dichtknaipe ’n uurtje.… is dâ singe?!.…
Nijdig had Willem Hassel z’n bazig praatje uitgeschamperd,

negeerend ’t brutaal kijken van Piet Hesse.—Kalm geweerde ie z’n
schoffel op schouder, liep ie heen en weer, en stil-bedrukt keken de
andere werkers òp naar de blinkige staalstreep van z’n schoffelmes.
Angstige, kruiperige valschheid zat er in hun plotselinge stilte. Niet
één van de groote kerels, die iets tegen durfde zeggen, of ze

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1. Business organisation and 7

3. Accounts and finance 55

1.1. Introduction to business 9

1.2. Types of organisations 13

1.3. Organisation objectives 18

1.5. External environment 23

1.6. Growth and evolution 23

1.1 Introduction to business and

1.1.1 The role of a business in combining

Inputs Processes Outputs

1.1.2 Functions of a business

1.1.3 Business sectors

• Examples: coal mining, vegetable harvesting.

Primary Secondary sector Tertiary sector

manufacture transport advertising

extraction assembly warehousing selling

1.1.4 Sectoral change

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quarternary

Reasons for sectoral change

1.1.5 Entrepreneurship vs. intrapreneurship

Entrepreneur an individual who plans, organises and manages a business,

Intrapreneur the act of being an entrepreneur but as an employee within a

• Owners/operators. • Employees of the organisation.

1.1.6 Reasons for starting up a business

1.1.7 Steps in the process of starting up a

1. Write a business plan.

1.1.8 Factors to consider when starting up a

1.1.9 Problems that a new business might face

• Unestablished customer base.

1.1.10 Elements of a business plan

• Details of the business and the owners.

1.2 Types of organisations

1.2.1 Public vs. private sectors

• Owned and controlled by private • Owned by the government.

Private sector Public sector

Sole traders Private limited companies (Ltd.)

1.2.2 For profit (commercial) organisations

Types of for-profit organisations

Unincorporated businesses businesses where there is no legal distinction

Incorporated businesses businesses that have a separate legal entity from

• Fewer legal formalities. • Unlimited liability (unincorporated).

Partnerships a profit-seeking business owned by multiple people (at least

• Set up costs are inexpensive and quick. • Unlimited Liability (unincorporated).

• Limited liability. • Profits have to be shared among much

Public Limited Company (PLC) Often big, multinational companies

1.2.3 For-profit (social) enterprises

Social Enterprise revenue generating businesses with social objectives at the