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CALCULUS SET FREE
 Calculus Set Free:
Infinitesimals to the Rescue

Charles Bryan Dawson

University Professor of Mathematics, Union University, USA

3
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
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© C. Bryan Dawson 2022
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Impression: 1
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a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021937201
ISBN 978–0–19–289559–2 (hbk.)
ISBN 978–0–19–289560–8 (pbk.)
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192895592.001.0001
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Contents

Preface for the Student ix

Preface for the Instructor xi
Acknowledgments xv

Review 1
0.1 Algebra Review, Part I 3
0.2 Algebra Review, Part II 15
0.3 Trigonometry Review 35
0.4 Functions Review, Part I 59
0.5 Functions Review, Part II 83
0.6 Avoiding Common Errors 99

I Hyperreals, Limits, and Continuity 133

1.0 Motivation 135
1.1 Infinitesimals 139
1.2 Approximation 153
1.3 Hyperreals and Functions 167
1.4 Limits, Part I 177
1.5 Limits, Part II 191
1.6 Continuity, Part I 209
1.7 Continuity, Part II 223
1.8 Slope, Velocity, and Rates of Change 243

II Derivatives 259
2.1 The Derivative 261
2.2 Derivative Rules 275
2.3 Tangent Lines Revisited 291
2.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 307
2.5 Chain Rule 319
2.6 Implicit Differentiation 331
2.7 Rates of Change: Motion and Marginals 343
2.8 Related Rates: Pythagorean Relationships 353
2.9 Related Rates: Non-Pythagorean Relationships 367

III Applications of the Derivative 383

3.1 Absolute Extrema 385
3.2 Mean Value Theorem 401
vi Contents

3.3 Local Extrema 413

3.4 Concavity 429
3.5 Curve Sketching: Polynomials 443
3.6 Limits at Infinity 463
3.7 Curve Sketching: General Functions 479
3.8 Optimization 495
3.9 Newton’s Method 515

IV Integration 527
4.1 Antiderivatives 529
4.2 Finite Sums 543
4.3 Areas and Sums 565
4.4 Definite Integral 581
4.5 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 597
4.6 Substitution for Indefinite Integrals 609
4.7 Substitution for Definite Integrals 619
4.8 Numerical Integration, Part I 627
4.9 Numerical Integration, Part II 643
4.10 Initial Value Problems and Net Change 659

V Transcendental Functions 671

5.1 Logarithms, Part I 673
5.2 Logarithms, Part II 687
5.3 Inverse Functions 699
5.4 Exponentials 717
5.5 General Exponentials 731
5.6 General Logarithms 743
5.7 Exponential Growth and Decay 761
5.8 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 777
5.9 Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions 795
5.10 Comparing Rates of Growth 811
5.11 Limits with Transcendental Functions: L’Hospital’s Rule, Part I 827
5.12 L’Hospital’s Rule, Part II: More Indeterminate Forms 839
5.13 Functions without End 853

VI Applications of Integration 867

6.1 Area between Curves 869
6.2 Volumes, Part I 887
6.3 Volumes, Part II 907
6.4 Shell Method for Volumes 919
6.5 Work, Part I 935
 Contents vii

6.6 Work, Part II 949

6.7 Average Value of a Function 957

VII Techniques of Integration 967

7.1 Algebra for Integration 969
7.2 Integration by Parts 981
7.3 Trigonometric Integrals 995
7.4 Trigonometric Substitution 1009
7.5 Partial Fractions, Part I 1021
7.6 Partial Fractions, Part II 1037
7.7 Other Techniques of Integration 1051
7.8 Strategy for Integration 1065
7.9 Tables of Integrals and Use of Technology 1077
7.10 Type I Improper Integrals 1091
7.11 Type II Improper Integrals 1107

VIII Alternate Representations: Parametric and Polar Curves 1119

8.1 Parametric Equations 1121
8.2 Tangents to Parametric Curves 1137
8.3 Polar Coordinates 1149
8.4 Tangents to Polar Curves 1167
8.5 Conic Sections 1179
8.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 1203

IX Additional Applications of Integration 1217

9.1 Arc Length 1219
9.2 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates 1233
9.3 Surface Area 1249
9.4 Lengths and Surface Areas with Parametric Curves 1263
9.5 Hydrostatic Pressure and Force 1271
9.6 Centers of Mass 1285
9.7 Applications to Economics 1297
9.8 Logistic Growth 1313

X Sequences and Series 1327

10.1 Sequences 1329
10.2 Sequence Limits 1343
10.3 Infinite Series 1357
10.4 Integral Test 1377
10.5 Comparison Tests 1391
10.6 Alternating Series 1411
10.7 Ratio and Root Tests 1425
viii Contents

10.8 Strategy for Testing Series 1443

10.9 Power Series 1455
10.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 1471

Index 1495
Answers to Odd-numbered Exercises 1509
Preface for the Student

For many, the study of calculus is seen as a rite of passage—to conquer calculus is to pass through the gate-
way to the sciences, engineering, mathematics, business, economics, technology, and many other fields.
For some, the study of calculus is indicative of achievement, a hallmark of a quality education. A few can’t
wait to study calculus, their curiosity overflowing with enthusiasm. Yet others see calculus as an annoy-
ance, something to tolerate in pursuit of more important or more interesting subjects. This book is for all
of you.
Whatever your reason for studying calculus, it is my hope that this text facilitates not just the mastering
of technical skills and the understanding of mathematical concepts, but also training in thinking in a patient,
systematic, disciplined, and logical manner. Although technical skills can be useful for some students in
their careers, and the understanding of mathematical concepts can be of use to even more, the habits of
mind created by careful thinking can be of use to everyone, at any time, in any place.

Preparation for success

If you have learned to drive a car, then you may recall how driving took much conscious thought at first;
but later, with practice, driving became much more of a background task. The same is true of addition
and multiplication facts; the task 2 + 4 takes very little mental energy. This is the hallmark of deep learning:
when a task has been learned thoroughly, then it can be performed accurately with little effort.
Success in calculus is much easier if basic algebraic and trigonometric skills have been learned this
deeply. If the quadratic formula and laws of exponents can be applied accurately upon demand, then the
mind is free to concentrate on the concepts at hand. If not, then instead of juggling three new concepts
consciously, a dozen or more distracting items that must be relearned compete with the new concepts for
mental energy, hampering one’s learning of the new material.
Mental skill-building is much the same as physical skill-building; it takes time and consistent effort on
the part of the learner. Lifting weights several times per week for a month is a much more effective strategy
than waiting until the night before the skills test to try to cram the entire month’s reps into one evening’s
workout. Body-building simply does not work that way, and neither does learning mathematics.
One final bit of advice: learn from failure. Everyone makes errors, even textbook authors with decades
of experience in the subject. No one is perfect. But when you make an error, make sure you understand
why it was an error, why a different approach must be used, and how to avoid making the same error in
the future. There is often something to be learned from your errors. Mistakes are not to be feared, but to
be used to your advantage!

Features of this textbook

What makes this textbook different? The most obvious answer is that it uses infinitesimals, which are
infinitely small numbers that you might not have encountered in your previous courses.
x Preface for the Student

Although infinitesimals were an essential part of the development of calculus, they have been absent
from nearly all calculus textbooks for more than a century. The largest factor in the switch away from
infinitesimals was the fact that, at the time, no one had been able to develop rigorously the required number
system. This state of affairs changed during the 1960s, and now the use of infinitesimals is once again
seen as mathematically legitimate. Using notation and procedures that I have developed and published,
the study of certain portions of calculus in this text is both more intuitive and simpler algebraically than
in other calculus textbooks.
Additional features include:

• A readable and student-friendly narrative. The narrative is written to help you think through the
development of concepts and think through solutions to examples. Following the thinking process
helps you create meaning and retain ideas more easily.
• Reading exercises. Reading exercises are meant to be worked when encountered during reading.
The solution is placed in the margin one to three pages later.
• Hundreds of diagrams. Consistency of color use throughout the text’s diagrams helps with
interpretation.
• Margin notes. Margin notes are used to add explanations, tips, cautions against making common
errors, and historical notes.
• Examples. Hundreds of examples with complete solutions are included. Some solutions are written
compactly, demonstrating the level of detail expected of student work. Others include more details
of how to think through the solution.
• Thousands of exercises. Exercises range from the routine to the challenging. Many sections include
“rapid-response” exercises meant to help you distinguish between objects or algebraic forms. Some
exercises are very similar to examples in the narrative. Other exercises require you to think creatively
or explore the ideas more deeply. Sometimes exercises from much older textbooks are included, such
as those labeled “(GSL)” from the classic early-20th-century text of Granville, Smith, and Longley.
• Answers to odd-numbered exercises. The answers to odd-numbered exercises sometimes include
hints, brief explanations of why some attempted answers are incorrect, alternate forms of answers,
or both simplified and non simplified answers to help you determine the source of an error.
• An extensive index.

It is my prayer that this textbook is a blessing to you, that it helps you understand the concepts and
develop the skills of calculus as you continue your educational journey. Enjoy!

Bryan Dawson
University Professor of Mathematics
Union University
July 2021
Preface for the Instructor

This textbook covers single-variable calculus through sequences and series, and corresponds to the first
two semesters of college-level calculus at most universities in the United States. The organization is similar
to that of other popular calculus texts.
What makes this textbook different is its use of infinitesimals (and hyperreal numbers in general) for
all limiting processes, including the definitions of derivative and integral. The notation and procedures
used with hyperreal numbers in this textbook (which differ from those used in other nonstandard analysis
sources) were developed by me1 and were introduced in articles in The American Mathematical Monthly
(February 2018) and The College Mathematics Journal (November 2019), with additional articles planned.
The utility of the hyperreal numbers reaches into other areas of the calculus as well, such as comparing
rates of growth of functions and a related procedure for testing series.
In addition to making calculus concepts more intuitive, the use of infinitesimals corresponds more
closely to the way our colleagues in other disciplines teach students to analyze their ideas. The procedures
used in this textbook for limits are also connected more directly to the definitions, are algebraically simpler,
and are met with a much greater degree of student success.
Additional differences from other textbooks include the splitting of some material into two sections to
facilitate more easily the multiple-day coverage typical of those topics, as well as some minor reorganization
of topics compared to other books.

Features of this textbook

Features of this textbook include:

• A readable and student-friendly narrative. The narrative is written to help students think through
the development of concepts and think through solutions to examples.
• Reading exercises. Reading exercises are meant to be worked when encountered during reading.
The solution is placed in the margin one to three pages later.
• Hundreds of diagrams. Consistency of color use throughout the text’s diagrams helps with
interpretation. For instance, graphs of functions are blue whereas tangent lines are orange.
• Margin notes. Margin notes are used to add explanations, tips, cautions against making common
errors, and links to biographies on the MacTutor History of Mathematics website.
• Examples. Hundreds of examples with complete solutions are included. Some solutions are written
compactly, demonstrating the level of detail expected of student work. Others include more details
of how to think through the solution.
• Thousands of exercises. Exercises range from the simple and the routine to the challenging. Many
sections include “rapid-response” exercises meant to help students distinguish between objects or

1
See the Acknowledgments section for one exception.
xii Preface for the Instructor

algebraic forms; these exercises could be considered for in-classroom use. Some exercises are very
similar to examples in the narrative. Other exercises require students to think creatively or explore
the ideas more deeply. Sometimes exercises from much older textbooks are included (or adapted
for inclusion), such as those labeled “(GSL)” from the classic early-20th-century text of Granville,
Smith, and Longley.
Enough exercises are included to allow you to have choices of which odd-numbered exercises to
include to craft an appropriate homework set. Even-numbered exercises correspond roughly to odd-
numbered exercises for additional student practice. Although it is now common to find solutions to
textbook exercises on the internet, I still follow the custom of only providing the answers to odd-
numbered exercises in the textbook.
• Answers to odd-numbered exercises. The answers to odd-numbered exercises sometimes include
hints, brief explanations of why some attempted answers are incorrect, alternate forms of answers,
or both simplified and non simplified answers to help students determine the source of an error.
• A review section on avoiding common errors. Each subsection of section 0.6 focuses on one
particular type of error so that you can refer students to help as needed. For instance, students who
are prone to cancellation errors can be referred to section 0.6 “Cancellation.” The exercises in each
subsection are designed to help students recognize whether such an error has been made, in the
hopes of helping them avoid such errors in the future.
• An extensive index.

Another, perhaps unusual, feature of this textbook is that it does not contain fictitious names in word
problems and it does not contain any gender-specific words after the prefaces.

Teaching infinitesimals
Sections 1.1–1.3 contain basic ideas, notation, concepts, and procedures for manipulating hyperreal num-
bers. Just as we allow calculus students to use real numbers without first subjecting them to Dedekind cuts,
students should be allowed to use hyperreal numbers without reference to ultrafilters. As with a student’s
introduction to any other type of number, these sections help a student learn what infinitesimals and other
hyperreals are, how to manipulate them algebraically, and where they fit on number lines. Note that the
symbols ε and δ are not used for infinitesimals in this book, because these symbols may be used for real
numbers in later courses.
Sections 1.1–1.3 are fundamental for working with hyperreals and therefore should be covered thor-
oughly and mastered by the student. I cover one section per 50-minute class period, spending three class
days total on this material.
Section 1.3 gives students the opportunity to practice the calculations involved in finding limits; then,
in section 1.4, students can concentrate on the concept of limits having already learned the manipulations.
This separation also allows the flexibility to skip limits and cover sections 1.8 and 2.1 on the derivative
immediately after section 1.3, or cover sections 4.2–4.4 on sums and the definite integral immediately after
section 1.3. However, it is assumed that at some point the students learn the material in sections 1.4–1.7.
What is sometimes known as the direct substitution property of limits, which is called evaluating limits
using continuity in this textbook, is not covered until section 1.7. This allows the verification of continuity
 Preface for the Instructor xiii

in section 1.6 to be both natural and meaningful. What other textbooks call limit laws are not necessary in
this curriculum; the equivalent is implicit in the manipulations of sections 1.1–1.3.

More about section dependencies

Chapter 0 is entirely optional. I usually cover sections 0.4 and 0.5 prior to beginning chapter 1. Section
1.0 is also optional and may be skipped; much of this material is repeated in section 1.8.
Section 3.6, limits at infinity, can be covered immediately after section 1.5. Although sections 3.5 and
3.7 on curve sketching are not strictly necessary for later material, it is my opinion that most students learn
properties of graphs best if they sketch a few by hand.
Section 4.1 can be delayed until just before section 4.5, on the fundamental theorem. Sections 4.8 and
4.9 can be delayed as long as you desire.
The order of chapters 5 and 6 can be swapped, and the order of sections in chapter 6 can be varied.
Sections 5.13, 7.7, and 7.9 are easily omitted. Although the use of l’Hospital’s rule in sections 5.11 and
5.12 is traditional (and I still cover it), many of the limits of these sections can be calculated in other ways,
such as using techniques from section 5.10 and from series in section 10.10.
Sections 9.2 and 9.4 depend on portions of chapter 8, but other sections in chapter 9 can be covered
after chapter 7 or, with a judicious selection of exercises, along with chapter 6. Sections 8.1–8.4 can be
covered as early as immediately following chapter 5, if desired.
Finally, as is usual in calculus textbooks, numerous sections contain subsections upon which no later
material depends. This allows you to cover favorite (sub)topics. However, coverage of every problem type
demonstrated in the narrative may not always be practical.
Acknowledgments

I thank my wife for her patience with me while embarking on the long journey of writing this book. Without
her support, this project would not exist.
The first colleague to join me in teaching calculus using these infinitesimal methods was Troy Riggs
.
(Union University). Troy suggested the use of the symbol = for rendering a real result (see section 1.3) and
was the first to use the symbol in the classroom. He and I spent more hours than either of us wish to admit
discussing the use of infinitesimal ideas, and these discussions were essential to this project’s success.
Others who classroom-tested a preliminary version of this text are George Moss (Union University),
Nicholas Zoller (Southern Nazarene University), and Mo Niazi (Southern Nazarene University).
Thanks also go to the hundreds of students who provided encouragement and feedback, both explicitly
and implicitly. Knowing how students interact with the material has shaped many aspects of this book.
Additional thanks to colleagues include editorial boards and referees of articles and book proposals; ad-
ministrators who granted a research leave and other release time to write; and many others who participated
in hallway discussions, attended my workshops, or provided encouragement.
The seed for investigating infinitesimal methods in calculus was planted by a student in a calculus class
in 2004, Robert Michael, who asked many questions about infinitesimals to which I did not have adequate
answers. That seed sat dormant for several years, but when it sprouted, it grew larger than I could have
imagined.
Some journeys take generations. My paternal grandfather’s formal education ended after the eighth
grade (as it did for all but one of my grandparents). He was a sharecropper, leasing the same land year
by year for nearly four decades. Someone once asked him why he never purchased land of his own. His
reply was that if he purchased land, he could leave a legacy for one of his children; if he instead spent
that money for college educations, he could leave a legacy for all five of his children. My father majored
in mathematics and then enriched my mathematical education enough as a child to instill a curiosity that
led to an academic career. In addition to passing that legacy on to my own children, it is my privilege as a
professor to help other families build their legacies. What a blessing!
Last, I thank my Creator, not only for giving me life, but also for giving me the insights key to the
development of the infinitesimal methods and for not letting me quit when I wearied of the journey.

I will bless the Lord who has given me counsel;

My heart also instructs me in the night seasons.
—Psalm 16:7 NKJV

I have often prayed that this textbook will be a blessing to both students and instructors. May it always
be so.

Bryan Dawson
University Professor of Mathematics
Union University
July 2021
Chapter 0
Review
Algebra Review, Part I
0.1
Some of you have already learned algebra and trigonometry at a deep
level and are ready to jump in to chapter 1 with confidence. Others The word algebra derives from the name
of the first book about algebra, Hisab
need to spend time in this chapter, perhaps much time. The more al-jabr w’al-muqabala, written by Abu Ja’far
accurately and readily one can perform algebra, the more easily one Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi.
can learn calculus. If it is needed, an investment in time and effort Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwa-
now will pay great dividends later. rizmi, 780–850 (approximately)
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Because the material of chapter 0 is a review, the narrative is rela- Biographies/Al-Khwarizmi.html. The Mac
tively sparse. Motivation and development of formulas are not always Tutor History of Mathematics archive,
hosted by the University of St. Andrews
presented. in Scotland, is one of the most trusted
sources for the history of mathematics. The
website has been in operation since before
Real number line the turn of the century. Links to biographies
of mathematicians in this book are to the
MacTutor archive.
The first numbers a child learns are the counting numbers, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
and so on, also known as the natural numbers N. These numbers are
pictured on a horizontal line, equally spaced, with larger numbers to
the right and smaller numbers to the left (figure 1). 1 2 3 4
Figure 1 Counting numbers on the number
Next one learns the integers Z, which include the natural numbers, line
their negatives, and zero. These are also placed on the number line
(figure 2).
Then came numbers of the form ab , where a and b are integers.
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
These are the rational numbers Q. Rational numbers are also placed Figure 2 Integers on the number line
proportionally on the number line, as always with larger numbers to
the right and smaller numbers to the left. It is common to represent
The term rational is derived from the word
numbers as points on a line, as shown in figure 3. Rational numbers ratio. Rational numbers are ratios of integers.
have decimal expansions that either terminate or repeat, such as

1
= 0.5 − 2 1 7
2 1 2 3

or −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
4 Figure 3 Rational numbers (in orange) as
= 1.3 = 1.33333 . . . . points on the number line
3

Irrational numbers √have decimal expansions that neither terminate

nor repeat, such as 2 = 1.4142 . . . and π = 3.14159 . . . . They
also find their place on the number line. The collection of all of these
4 Review

numbers is called the real numbers R (figure 4). The real numbers fill
out the number line; they can be placed in one-to-one correspondence
with the points on the line. Even so, stay tuned for more numbers in
1
chapter 1!
−2 2 √2 π

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Inequalities
Figure 4 Real numbers (in orange) as points
on the number line The statement a < b means the number a is less than the number b,
and a is to the left of b on the number line. The statement a > b means
the number a is greater than the number b, and a is to the right of b on
the number line.
Any inequality can be written in two differ-
ent ways: 4 < 9 means the same thing as
9 > 4.

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 5 A number line. Because 1 is to the left of 3, 1 < 3. Multiply both

numbers by −1 and the order reverses: −1 > −3

Notice in figure 5 that although 1 is to the left of 3 on the number

line, −1 is to the right of −3. Thus, 1 < 3, but −1 > −3.When multi-
plying (or dividing) an inequality by a negative number, the direction
CAUTION: The word smaller can be am- of the inequality must be reversed.
biguous. One might use smaller as synony-
mous with “less than,” in which case −3 is
smaller than −1. One might use smaller as
synonymous with “closer to zero” (smaller INEQUALITIES: MULTIPLYING OR DIVIDING BY
in magnitude), in which case −1 is smaller NEGATIVES
than −3.

When multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by a

negative number, the direction of the inequality must be reversed.

The reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by The same is true when taking reciprocals. Although 2 < 7, notice
1
that number; the reciprocal of 35 is 35 .
in figure 6 that 12 > 17 . The larger the denominator, the smaller the
fraction.

−1 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
72

Figure 6 A number line. Because 2 is to the left of 7, 2 < 7. Take reciprocals

of both numbers and the order reverses: 12 > 17
 Algebra Review, Part I 5

INEQUALITIES: RECIPROCALS

When taking reciprocals of both sides of an inequality, the direc-

tion of the inequality must be reversed.

Solving linear inequalities is similar to solving linear equations. Care

must be taken, however, to change the direction of the inequality under
the circumstances just described.

Example 1 Solve the inequality 4x + 2 < x − 7.

Solution First we subtract x from both sides: The goal is to isolate the variable x on one
side of the equation by itself.

3x + 2 < −7.

Next we subtract 2 from both sides:

3x < −9.

Finally, we divide both sides by 3: Because we are dividing by a positive num-

ber, the direction of the inequality does not
change.
x < −3.

The solution to the inequality is x < −3.

Solutions to inequalities may also be presented in graphical form.

The idea is to indicate which numbers on the number line satisfy the
inequality. For x < −3, the variable x satisfies the inequality as long as
x is to the left of −3 (figure 7):

−3

Figure 7 The inequality x < −3, shaded in green. The open circle indicates
that −3 is not included

Drawing an open circle indicates the point is not included. An

alternate version that is sometimes used is to draw a parenthesis
instead (figure 8).
Recall that a ≤ b means that either a < b or a = b. )
−3
Figure 8 The inequality x < −3, shaded in
Example 2 Solve the inequality −7x + 1 ≤ 4. green. The parenthesis indicates that −3 is not
included
6 Review

Solution First we subtract 1 from both sides:

−7x ≤ 3.

Next we divide both sides by −7, which requires switching the direc-
tion of the inequality:

3
x≥ .
−7

The solution to the inequality is x ≥ − 37 .

Because the value x = − 37 is included in the solution to example 2,

when presenting the solution in graphical form, the circle is filled in
(figure 9):

−3
7

[ Figure 9 The inequality x ≥ − 37 , shaded in green. The filled circle indicates

−3 that − 37 is included
7
Figure 10 The inequality x ≥ − 37 , shaded in
green. The bracket indicates that − 37 is included An alternate version of the diagram is to use a bracket instead of a
filled circle (figure 10).

Intervals
Interval notation, and the various types of intervals, are summarized
in table 1. Parentheses indicate the endpoint is not included; brackets
indicate the endpoint is included. The symbols ∞ and −∞ are not
numbers, but merely indicators that the interval has no endpoint on
the right or the left, respectively. Intervals that do not contain any of
their endpoints are open intervals; intervals that contain all of their end-
points are closed intervals. Because neither ∞ nor −∞ are endpoints,
then [a, ∞) is a closed interval. Bounded intervals have two endpoints;
unbounded intervals range to ∞ or −∞. The two numbers or symbols
in the interval are always written with the smaller value or −∞ on the
left and the larger value or ∞ on the right. In table 1, the green shading
on the graphs indicates the solution set.

Example 3 For the inequality 3 < x ≤ 5, (a) write the inequality in

interval notation and (b) classify the interval (open/closed, bounded/
unbounded).
 Algebra Review, Part I 7

Table 1 Notation, visualization, and classification of intervals

inequality interval graph open/closed bounded?

a<x<b (a, b) open bounded
a b
a≤x≤b [a, b] closed bounded
a b
a<x≤b (a, b] neither bounded
a b
a≤x<b [a, b) neither bounded
a b
a<x (a, ∞) open unbounded
a
a≤x [a, ∞) closed unbounded
a
x<b (−∞, b) open unbounded
b
x≤b (−∞, b] closed unbounded
b
all x ∈ R (−∞, ∞) both unbounded

Solution (a) Because 3 is not included, we use a parenthesis for

that endpoint, and because 5 is included, we use a bracket for that
endpoint. The interval is (3, 5].
(b) The interval is neither open nor closed because it contains one,
but not the other, endpoint. The interval is bounded because it does
not range to ∞ or to −∞.

Example 4 Graph the interval: (a) [4, ∞), (b) (−5, −3).

Solution (a) The interval [4, ∞) includes 4, so we draw a filled circle

at 4 to indicate its inclusion. The shading (green) has no bound on the
right.

4
(b) For the interval (−5, −3) we do not include either endpoint, so
we draw open circles at −5 and at −3. The shading (green) is between
those two numbers.
Bounded open intervals such as (−5, −3)
share a notation with points in the xy-plane.
Context is nearly always enough to deter-
mine which is meant.

−5 −3

Intervals are characterized by the property that all numbers be-

tween two of the interval’s numbers are also in the interval. If there is −4 0 3 5
any “gap” in the set, then it is not an interval. The set (−4, 0) ∪ (3, 5) Figure 11 The set (−4, 0) ∪ (3, 5) is not an
is not an interval; see figure 11. interval because there is a “gap” from 0 to 3
8 Review
CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID
The heuristic “absolute value changes − to
+” is the source of many algebraic errors and
should be avoided. For instance, if x = −5,
then
| − x| = | − (−5)| = |5| = 5 = −x,
so for this value of x,
| − x| ̸= x.
“Removing the negative” does not work
for absolute values of variable expressions,
because −x is not necessarily a negative
number.
CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID
|a + b| ̸= |a| + |b|
|a − b| ̸= |a| − |b|
Absolute value
The idea of absolute value can be visualized as the distance from the
number to zero on the number line (figure 12).
−2 0 3
|−2|= 2 |3|= 3
Figure 12 Absolute value as the distance on the number line between the
number and zero
Because the number 3 is located 3 units away from zero on the
number line, |3| = 3. Because the number −2 is located 2 units away
from zero on the number line, | − 2| = 2.
Alternately, we can think of folding the number line at the
number 0, folding the left side of the number line onto the right side.
The absolute value of a number is where it is located after the fold-
ing. The formal definition of absolute value says that we leave positive
numbers alone but “reflect” or “fold” the negative numbers by taking
their negatives.
Definition 1 ABSOLUTE VALUE For any real number a,

a, if a ≥ 0
|a| =
−a, if a < 0.
Because −2 < 0, the definition (using a = −2) says that |−2| =
−(−2) = 2.
PROPERTIES OF ABSOLUTE VALUE
For any real numbers a and b,
|a · b| = |a| · |b| and
a |a|
= (assuming b ̸= 0).
b | b|
The properties of absolute value give us rules we can use to simplify
expressions. For instance,
|−5x| = |−5| · |x| = 5|x|.
 Algebra Review, Part I 9
√
How can we simplify x2 ? Many assume the answer is x, but this
is not correct, because the square root operation always gives √us the
nonnegative number with the square that is inside. For instance, 16 = √
4 and not −4 and not ±4. Therefore, The solutions to x2 = 16 are x = ± 16 =
√
±4, but the symbol 16 means only the
√ √ positive value, 4.
42 = 16 = 4,

whereas CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID

√
p √ x2 ̸= x
(−4)2 = 16 = 4 (not − 4).

This illustrates the following fact:

√
x2 = |x|.

SQUARE ROOTS OF SQUARES

Absolute value equations √
x2 = |x|
and inequalities
Which numbers satisfy |x| = 3? The two numbers x = 3 and x = −3
are the only solutions to this equation. See figure 13. −3 0 3
|−3|= 3 |3|= 3
Figure 13 The two numbers located 3 units
from zero
ABSOLUTE VALUE EQUATIONS
The phrase “x = ±a” has the same meaning
If a ≥ 0, then as “x = a or x = −a.”

|x| = a if and only if x = ±a.

Example 5 Solve x2 = 16.

Solution We begin by taking the square root of both sides of the

equation and simplifying:
√ √
x2 = 16
√
|x| = 4. Remember that x2 = |x|.

Next we solve the absolute value equation:

x = ±4.
10 Review

The two solutions to the equation are x = 4 and x = −4.

It is customary to skip the middle two steps when solving the

CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID equation of example 5, writing
Writing

2
x = 16
x=4 x2 = 16,
misses one of the solutions! x = ±4.

Fold the number line at zero, folding the left ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES, <
side onto the right side. Then |x| < 7 rep-
resents those numbers to the left of 7 when If a > 0, then
folded. Shade those values. Unfold the line,
and what is shaded? The numbers between
−7 and 7: |x| < a if and only if − a < x < a.
|
−7 0 7

Example 6 Solve |4x − 1| < 3.

A compound inequality is two inequalities that Solution First we rewrite the equation as a compound inequality:
are satisfied simultaneously: −2 < x < 5
means that both −2 < x and x < 5 at the
same time. |4x − 1| <3

−3< 4x − 1 <3

Then we proceed to isolate x in the middle of the inequality by

adding 1 to all three parts of the compound inequality and dividing all
parts by 4:

−3 < 4x − 1 < 3
−2 < 4x < 4
The solution can
be written in interval no-
tation as − 12 , 1 . The solution can also be 1
− < x < 1.
illustrated graphically: 2
−1 1
2 The solution is − 12 < x < 1.

If the variable is both inside and outside the absolute values, then the
situation can quickly become more complicated. The solution method
 Algebra Review, Part I 11

of example 6 needs to be modified and expanded to solve an inequality

such as |2x − 3| < 5x.
Fold the number line at zero, folding the left
side onto the right side. Then |x| > 7 repre-
sents those numbers to the right of 7 when
folded. Shade those values. Unfold the line,
ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES, > and what is shaded? The numbers to the left
of −7 and the numbers to the right of 7:
If a > 0, then |
−7 0 7
|x| > a if and only if x < −a or x > a.

Example 7 Solve |9 − x| > 1.

Solution First we rewrite the equation as two separate inequalities: CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID
Writing −1 > 9 − x > 1 is incorrect be-
cause this says that −1 > 1, which is false.
A compound inequality has two inequalities
|9 − x| >1 satisfied simultaneously; “and” is implied.
Here, “or” is needed instead.

9−x <−1 OR 9−x >1

Each inequality is solved separately by subtracting 9 from both sides An alternative is to add one to both sides (left
equation) or subtract one from both sides
and dividing both sides by −1, changing the direction of the inequality: (right equation) and then add x to both sides.

9 − x < −1 OR 9 − x > 1,
−x < −10 OR −x > −8,
Although the solution set is not an interval, it
x > 10 OR x < 8. may still be written using interval notation as

The solution is x < 8 or x > 10. (−∞, 8) ∪ (10, ∞).

The solution can also be illustrated graphi-

cally:

Distance on the number line 8 10

Consider the distance on the number line between the numbers 3 and
7 (figure 14). Subtracting the two numbers may or may not give that
distance:

7 − 3 = 4,
3 − 7 = −4.
12 Review

3 7

4 units

Figure 14 The distance between the numbers 3 and 7

However, taking the absolute value of the difference between the

numbers does the trick:

|7 − 3| = |4| = 4,
|3 − 7| = | − 4| = 4.

The absolute value of the difference still works even if one number
is positive and the other is negative (see figure 15):

|(−5) − 3| = | − 8| = 8
|3 − (−5)| = |8| = 8.

−5 3
8 units

Figure 15 The distance between the numbers 3 and −5

The calculation works equally well when both numbers are negative
(try it).
Often in calculus, formulas for intuitive ideas such as length, area,
volume, average value, and many others can be developed in a manner
similar to the development of the formula for distance on the number
line. Rather than offer a “proof ” of such formulas, which would re-
quire us to have already defined (or described axiomatically) the term
in question, we offer the formula as the definition of the term instead.

Definition 2 DISTANCE ON THE NUMBER LINE

The distance between two real numbers a and b is |a − b|.

Example 8 Determine the distance between the numbers −2 and −8.

Solution Using the definition, the distance between −2 and −8 is

|−2 − (−8)| = |−2 + 8| = |6| = 6.

 Algebra Review, Part I 13

An alternate solution is |(−8) − (−2)| = |−8 + 2| = |−6| = 6.

The order in which the two numbers are subtracted does not matter
because we take the absolute value of that difference.

Example 9 Write an expression for the distance between z and π.

Solution Using the definition, the distance between z and π can be

written as either

|z − π|

or

|π − z|.

Exercises 0.1 Rapid-response exercises are to be answered

very quickly, and often involve object recog-
nition. These types of exercises usually do
1–10. Rapid response: has correct interval notation been used? not appear on exams. Rapid-response exer-
Answer “correct” or “wrong.” cises do not appear in every section.

1. (4, 7] 6. [5, ∞]
2. )4, 7] 7. (−∞, 47 ]
3. (7, 4) 8. (3, −15)
4. (5, ∞) 9. [5, 9[
5. (∞, 5) 10. (4 < x ≤ 5]

11–16. Rapid response: when rewriting the absolute value in-

equality, is a compound inequality appropriate? If so,
answer “compound inequality”; if not, answer “separate
inequalities.”

11. |4x − 7| < 9 14. 2 > |9x + 5|

12. |6x| > 5 15. |27x − 12| < 4
13. 4 < |2x + 3| 16. |7x − 3| < 11

17–24. (a) Solve the inequality. Express the answer in interval

notation. (b) Graph the solution on a number line.

17. 9x − 5 < 8 19. 4 − 3x ≥ x − 2

18. 6x − 11 < 7 20. 7 − x ≤ 9x + 5
14 Review

21. 3x < 7 − 4x < 3x+12 23. −2x + 1 ≤ −8

22. −4x − 9 > 11 24. 14 < 8x + 2 ≤ 22

25–26. (a) Solve the inequality. Express the answer in interval

notation. (b) Graph the solution on a number line.
25. 5(x − 2) − (x + 1) > 11x
26. 4(2x + 1) − (x − 3) ≥ 4 − x

27–30. Simplify the expression.

√
27. x − x2 29. | − 12x|
√ √
28. | 16x| 30. 9x2

31–40. Solve the inequality.

31. |4x − 7| < 9 36. |7x − 3| < 11

32. |6x| > 5 37. |3x + 5| < −2
33. 4 < |2x + 3| 38. |8 − x| ≥ 6
34. 2 ≥ |9x + 5| 39. |3 − 4x| ≥ 5
35. |27x − 12| ≤ 4 40. |12x + 56| > −35

41–46. Find the distance between the two given numbers on the
number line.

41. −5 and 7 44. 6 and 9

42. −5 and −7 45. 12 and 7
43. −6 and −9 46. −12 and 7

47–50. Write an expression for the distance between the two

quantities.

47. x and y 49. x + 4 and y − 3

48. −x and −y 50. 3x and 7
Algebra Review, Part II

A line has one dimension. Lengths or distances are one-dimensional

0.2
units. We describe the length of a board or the length of a race using
units such as feet (ft) or meters (m). A measuring tape used to find Both English units and metric units are used
freely in this book.
lengths or distances is a physical number line. Locations on roads are
marked with mile or kilometer markers that essentially turn the road
into a physical number line.
A plane has two dimensions. Areas are two-dimensional units. One
dimension—a length or distance—is inadequate to describe the size
of a field. A rectangular field that is 1 km long and 100 m wide is
not as large as a rectangular field that is 1 km long and 1 km wide;
saying that a field is 1 km long is not a complete description. Areas are
given in square units, such as square feet (ft2 ) or square kilometers
(km2 ). Locations in a plane (or other two-dimensional surface, such Specialized units of area such as acres and
hectares are also used, but they are still two-
as the surface of the earth) are given using two values. We may say dimensional units.
“go 1 mile east and 2 miles north” or give a location’s longitude and
latitude. Instead of a number line, we need a coordinate plane.
Space has three dimensions. Volumes are three-dimensional units.
The same truckload of dirt could be spread thinly over an entire acre or
dumped in a pile; neither length nor area gives an adequate description
of its size. To say that a rectangular storage bin is 2 m wide and 1 m
long does not indicate its capacity, for such a bin could be 20 cm high
or it could be 4 m high. Volumes are measured in cubic units, such as
cubic inches (in3 ) or cubic meters (m3 ). Locations in space require
three values. An airplane’s location is described not just by latitude
and longitude, but by altitude as well. Instead of a number line or a
coordinate plane, we need a three-dimensional coordinate system.
In the previous section we reviewed one-dimensional algebra us-
ing number lines. In this section we review two-dimensional algebra
using coordinate planes. Three-dimensional coordinate systems are
discussed later in calculus.

Coordinate plane
One way to describe the location of a point in a plane, which has two
dimensions, is to use two number lines placed perpendicularly. We call We study a separate coordinate system
for two dimensions, polar coordinates, in
the horizontal number line the x-axis (positive coordinates to the right, chapter 8.
negative to the left) and the vertical number line the y-axis (positive
16 Review
René Descartes, 1596–1650
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.
uk/Biographies/Descartes.html
coordinates up, negative coordinates down), with the axes intersecting
at their zero points. We call that intersection the origin. See figure 1.
y
quadrant II quadrant I
origin
x
quadrant III quadrant IV
Figure 1 The coordinate plane, also called the xy-plane or the Cartesian plane
b (a, b)
x
a
Figure 2 The location of a point described by coordinates in the xy-plane
The axes partition the plane into four regions, called quadrants, num-
bered as in figure 1. The location of a point is given by the x- and
y-coordinates. The x-coordinate of a point is the number on the x-
axis for which the point aligns vertically; the y-coordinate of a point
is the number on the y-axis for which the point aligns horizontally.
See figure 2. The coordinates are denoted by a pair of numbers in
parentheses, separated by a comma, with the first number being the
x-coordinate and the second number, the y-coordinate. This plane
is called the xy-plane, the coordinate plane, or the Cartesian plane (in
honor of René Descartes). These coordinates are sometimes called
rectangular coordinates.
To plot a point means to identify and mark its location in the xy-
plane.
 Algebra Review, Part II 17

Example 1 Plot the points (a) (2, 1), (b) (−1, −3), and (c) (3, − 52 ).

Solution (a) To plot the point (2, 1), we locate 2 on the x-axis and
move 1 unit up, or we locate 1 on the y-axis and move 2 units right.
See figure 3.

1 (2, 1)
x
2

Figure 3 Plotting the point (2, 1) in the xy-plane

(b) To plot (−1, −3), we locate −1 on the x-axis and move 3 units
down or we locate −3 on the y-axis and move 1 unit left. (c) Likewise,
to plot (3, − 52 ) we locate 3 on the x-axis and move 2.5 units down, or
we locate − 52 on the y-axis and move 3 units right. See figure 4.

(3, −5/2)
(−1, −3)

Figure 4 Plotting the points (−1, −3) and (3, − 52 ) in the xy-plane
18 Review

Set-builder notation describes a set by naming
the type of object on the left and conditions
satisfied by the object on the right:
{object | condition}.
Graphs of equations
The word graph is used as both a noun and a verb. As a noun, it repre-
sents a set of points. For instance, the graph of the equation y = x2 − 4
is the set of points

The set {(x, y) | y = x2 − 4}.

2
{(x, y) | y = x − 4}
As a verb, graph means to produce a picture of the graph (the set of
gives a point in the xy-plane as the object, points). This picture is also referred to as the graph of the equation. One
with the condition that the y-coordinate is
the x-coordinate squared, minus 4. All points method of producing such a picture is to plot a few points that are on
that satisfy the condition are in the set. The the graph and connect them as appropriate.
symbol | can be read as “such that.”

Example 2 Graph the equation y = x2 − 4.

For some types of equations, there are alter-
native methods to graph the equation quickly
or to visualize the graph quickly.
Choosing values of x can be seen as an art,
influenced by the form of the equation and
based on skill gained with practice.
Solution We begin by calculating points to plot. We choose values of
the variable x (the independent variable, so called because its values are
chosen independently of any other variable) and then use the equation
to determine the corresponding value of the variable y (the dependent
variable, so called because its value depends on the value of x). The
values of x and y are the x- and y-coordinates of the points to be
plotted. We choose the values x = −3, . . . , 3, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Points on the graph of y = x2 − 4

x y point
−3 5 (−3,5)
−2 0 (−2,0)
−1 −3 (−1,−3)
0 −4 (0,−4)
1 −3 (1,−3)
2 0 (2,0)
3 5 (3,5)

Next we plot the points (figure 5).

 Algebra Review, Part II 19
y

Figure 5 A few plotted points on the graph of y = x2 − 4

Finally, we connect the dots—not by using straight line seg-

mentsbetween points, but by making a smooth, connected curve The connect-the-dot game is justified in
chapter 1. Drawing the graph in a smooth
(figure 6). manner (without corners) is justified in
chapter 2.

Figure 6 The graph of y = x2 − 4. The graph is the set of points colored blue

The points where the graph of an equation intersects the x-axis are
called x-intercepts; points where the graph of an equation intersects the
y-axis are called y-intercepts. See figure 7.
The y-intercept on the graph of y = x2 − 4 may be found by setting
x = 0:

y = 02 − 4 = −4.
20 Review

The x-intercepts on the graph of y = x2 − 4 may be found by setting

y = 0:

0 = x2 − 4
4 = x2
±2 = x.

x-intercept at x = −2 x-intercept at x = 2

y-intercept at y = −4

Figure 7 The graph of y = x2 − 4 with x- and y-intercepts as indicated

Distance formula
How do we find the distance between two points in the plane, P1 and
P2 ? If their coordinates are given as (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), respectively,
then consider the third point (x2 , y1 ) that aligns vertically with P2 and
horizontally with P1 , as pictured in figure 8.

y
P2
(x2, y2)
th?
le ng

P1 (x2, y1)
(x1, y1)
x

Figure 8 Determining the distance between points P1 and P2

Drawing the vertical and horizontal segments forms a right trian-

gle, so the Pythagorean theorem applies. The length of the horizontal
 Algebra Review, Part II 21

segment is the difference in the x-coordinates: |x2 − x1 |. The length In the Pythagorean theorem, a2 + b2 = c2 ,
of the vertical segment is the difference in the y-coordinates: |y2 − y1 |. with leg lengths a, b ≥ 0 and hypotenuse c ≥ 0.
Taking square roots of both sides gives
See figure 9. Using the Pythagorean theorem, the distance between P1
√
and P2 , written d(P1 , P2 ), is c= a2 + b2 .
p
d(P1 , P2 ) = |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2
p
= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

y P2
(x2, y2)
)
,P2
P1
d( | y2 – y1 |

(x2, y1) Alternate definitions of distance in the plane

P1
(x1, y1) | x2 – x1 |
x out in a square grid. The route from point
Figure 9 Determining the distance between points P1 and P2
This is called the distance formula and it serves as our definition of
the distance between two points in the plane.
Definition 3 DISTANCE FORMULA The distance between two
points P1 = (x1 , y1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 ) is given by
p
d(P1 , P2 ) = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
exist. One, called the taxicab metric, is moti-
vated by considering a city with blocks laid
(x1 , y1 ) to point (x2 , y2 ) by taxi has to go
along the streets, not through all the build-
ings. The distance traveled by the taxi is
the sum of the east–west (map horizontal)
and north–south (map vertical) distances, or
along the legs of the right triangle of figure
9. The distance is defined as d(P1 , P2 ) =
|x2 − x1 | + |y2 − y1 |.

Example 3 Find the distance between the points (2, 6) and (1, −4).

Solution Setting (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 6) and (x2 , y2 ) = (1, −4), the distance
formula gives
p
d ((2, 6), (1, −4)) = (1 − 2)2 + (−4 − 6)2 CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID
√
p √ 12 + 102 ̸= 1 + 10
= (−1)2 + (−10)2 = 1 + 100
√
= 101.
√
The distance between the two points is 101. If desired, a decimal
approximation can be given.

Slopes of lines
Consider a line ℓ that is neither vertical nor horizontal (figure 10).
Draw two horizontal lines that cross line ℓ. Because horizontal lines
22 Review

are parallel to one another, the corresponding angles at which the hor-
izontal lines meet ℓ must be congruent (by the corresponding angles
theorem from geometry).

Figure 10 A transversal ℓ with crossing horizontal lines; angles (marked in

green) are congruent

The same is true for vertical lines as well. Horizontal and verti-
cal lines meet at right angles. Therefore, the triangles in figure 11 are
similar (they have the same angles).

Figure 11 A transversal ℓ with crossing horizontal and vertical lines; the

triangles are similar

One important fact from geometry about similar triangles is that the
ratios of corresponding sides are equal in the two triangles. Labeling
sides a, b, c, and d as in figure 12, a pair of equal ratios is
a c
= .
b d

l
a

b
c

rise is
Figure 12 A transversal ℓ with crossing horizontal and vertical lines; run
the same wherever the horizontal and vertical lines are drawn
 Algebra Review, Part II 23

The “rise” of the line as it moves along the hypotenuse of one of

the right triangles is a or c, whereas the “run” of the line is b or d. This
rise is therefore the same for any such triangle we draw; it
quantity of run
is a property of the line. We call this property the slope of the line.
How can the value of the slope be calculated? If we know the coor-
(x2, y2)
dinates of two points on the line, (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), then the rise is
y2 – y1 = rise
y2 − y1 and the run is x2 − x1 (see figure 13), and the slope is (x1, y1)
x2 – x1 = run
rise y2 − y1
slope of line = = . Figure 13 Deriving the formula for the slope
run x2 − x1 of a line

Definition 4 SLOPE FORMULA

The slope of a nonvertical line through the points (x1 , y1 ) and
(x2 , y2 ) is
y2 − y1
slope = .
x2 − x1

Example 4 Find the slope of the line through the points (1, 7) and (2, 4). In the construction industry, the slope of a
roof is called its pitch and is expressed in
terms of rise to run. A “6-in-12 pitch” is
Solution Using (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 7) and (x2 , y2 ) = (2, 4) in the slope a rise of 6 inches for a run of 12 inches,
formula yields or what the slope formula says is a slope of
1
2 . In northern areas of Europe and North
America where heavy snowfall occurs, it is
y2 − y1 4 − 7 −3
slope = = = = −3. common for building codes to specify a min-
x2 − x1 2−1 1 imum pitch for roofs.

The slope of the line is −3.

Choosing (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 4) and (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 7) gives the same

result: y − y1 7−4 3
slope = 2 = = = −3.
x2 − x1 1 − 2 −1
It does not matter which point is chosen for (x1 , y1 ) and which is
chosen for (x2 , y2 ).
As we move to the right, the run is positive. As we move upward,
the rise is positive, and as we move downward, the rise is negative.
Therefore, a line that slopes upward to the right has a positive slope,
whereas a line that slopes downward to the right has a negative slope.
See figure 14.

(x2, y2) (x1, y1)

rise = y2 – y1 > 0 rise = y2 – y1 < 0
(x1, y1) (x2, y2)
run > 0 run > 0

Figure 14 (left) Lines sloping upward to the right have a positive slope; (right) lines sloping downward to the right have
a negative slope
24 Review

A horizontal line (figure 15) has the same y-coordinate for every
point. Therefore, its rise is always 0 and its slope is 0. Horizontal lines
and their slopes of 0 play a special role in calculus and are used quite
often.

(x1, c) (x2, c)

Figure 15 The horizontal line y = c has slope 0; by the slope formula, slope =
c−c
x2 −x1 = 0

A vertical line (figure 16) has the same x-coordinate for every point.
Therefore, its run is always 0, and the slope formula results in division
by zero, which is undefined. It is for this reason that we define slope for
nonvertical lines only. Vertical lines have meaning in calculus, although
they are not encountered as often as horizontal lines.

(c, y2)

(c, y1)

CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID

The phrase the line has no slope can be in-
terpreted to mean that the slope is 0 or that
the slope is undefined. For this reason, the Figure 16 The slope of the vertical line x = c is undefined; trying the slope
phrase has no slope is ambiguous and should formula results in slope = y2c −
−c
y1
= y2 −
0
y1
, which is undefined
be avoided. The slope is 0 and the slope is
undefined are unambiguous phrases and are
therefore much better to use. Lines with slope 1 and −1 meet the coordinate axes at angles of
45◦ ; see figure 17.

y y
y y
slope 1 slope 1
x
45° 45°
x 45° 45°
45° 45° x
45° 45°
x
slope −1 slope −1

Figure 17 Lines with slope 1 and −1 meet coordinate axes at 45◦ angles

The larger the absolute value of the slope, the “steeper” the line;
see figure 18.
 Algebra Review, Part II 25

The slope concept is generalized in calculus, where the slopes of y

curves, and not just lines, are studied. 5
2
1 1
2
1
Point-slope form of the equation of a line 5
x0
− 15
Suppose we wish to know the equation of a line with slope m through − 12
−1
the point (x1 , y1 ) (figure 19). The equation of the line gives the rela- −2
tionship between the x- and y-coordinates of points on the line. If the −5
Figure 18 The larger the |slope|, the “steeper”
point (x, y) is on the line, then the slope formula applied to the points the line; slopes of lines are labeled in orange
(x, y) and (x1 , y1 ) must yield the number m, which is given as the slope
of the line:
y − y1
slope = m = .
x − x1

Clearing the fraction by multiplying both sides of the equation by the

denominator results in

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

We call this the point-slope form of the equation of a line.

slope m
(x, y)
POINT-SLOPE FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE
(x1, y1)
The equation of the line with slope m through the point (x1 , y1 ) is
Figure 19 A line with slope m through the
point (x1 , y1 ). Any point (x, y) on the line must
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ). result in a slope of m when the slope formula is
applied

In the formula, x and y are variables whereas x1 , y1 , and m represent

specific numbers.

Example 5 Find the equation of the line with slope –2 through the point
(1, 4).

Solution We are given the slope of the line, m = −2, and a point on
the line, (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 4). Using m = −2, x1 = 1, and y1 = 4 in the
point-slope form of the equation of a line yields

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
y − 4 = −2(x − 1).
26 Review

The variables x and y remain in the answer.
The quantities m, x1 , and y1 are not variables
and should not appear in the answer.
The equation of the line is y − 4 = −2(x − 1). However, the answer
is traditionally expressed in a different form, the form y = mx + b. To
place the equation in the traditional form, we first distribute the slope
−2 through the parentheses:

y − 4 = −2x + 2.

We finish by adding 4 to both sides of the equation:

y = −2x + 6.

The equation of the line is y = −2x + 6.

The reason for expressing the equation in the form y = mx + b is

that the form lends itself readily to graphing and interpretation, as we
shall see shortly.
In geometry you learned that two points determine a line. There-
fore, given two points we ought to be able to determine the equation
of the line through those points.

Example 6 Find the equation of the line through the points (1, 2) and
(5, −1).

Solution If we are to use the point-slope form of the equation of a

line, we need to know the line’s slope. This information is not given,
but the slope formula tells us the slope of the line through two points.
Using (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 2) and (x2 , y2 ) = (5, −1), we have

y2 − y1 −1 − 2 −3
slope = = = = m.
x2 − x1 5−1 4

Now we have the information we need to use the point-slope form of

the equation of a line. Using m = − 34 , x1 = 1, and y1 = 2 yields

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
3
y − 2 = − (x − 1)
4
3 3
y−2=− x+
4 4
3 11
y=− x+ .
4 4

The equation of the line is y = − 34 x + 11

4 .
 Algebra Review, Part II 27

We can use the other point as (x1 , y1 ) instead and reach the same
solution. With x1 = 5 and y1 = −1,

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
3
y − (−1) = − (x − 5)
4
3 15
y+1=− x+
4 4
3 11
y=− x+ .
4 4

After the first step, the equations look different; but, after placing them
in the traditional form, they are seen to be the same.

Slope-intercept form of the equation

of a line
Suppose we know that a line has slope m and y-intercept b. The y-
intercept gives the value of y at which the line crosses the y-axis, so
the point (0, b) is on the graph of the line (figure 20).
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line with slope m y
and point (x1 , y1 ) = (0, b) gives

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
y − b = m(x − 0) b—
y − b = mx x

y = mx + b.
Figure 20 A line with y-intercept b goes
through the point (0, b)

SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM OF THE EQUATION

OF A LINE

The equation of a line with slope m and y-intercept b is

y = mx + b.

The traditional form of the answer as used in examples 5 and 6 is the Because the y-intercept of an equation is de-
termined by letting x = 0, the y-intercept of
slope-intercept form. That makes it easy to recognize the y-intercept; the equation y = mx + b is at y = b.
28 Review
y
x and y-intercept of the line to mark points quickly on the graph. The
Figure 21 The y-intercept of the line
y = 2x − 3, marked by a blue dot
Two points determine a line, thus five points
is overkill. But, increasing the number of
points plotted also increases accuracy when
drawing graphs by hand.
for the equation y = −2x + 6, the y-intercept is 6 and the slope is −2.
For the equation y = − 34 x + 11 11
4 , the y-intercept is 4 and the slope is
− 4 . This combination of information is all we need to graph the line
3
relatively quickly.
Example 7 Graph the line y = 2x − 3.
Solution Instead of plotting points as in example 2, we use the slope
line is in slope-intercept form, with slope m = 2 and y-intercept −3.
We begin by placing the y-intercept on the graph (figure 21).
rise :
Next we interpret the slope as run
rise 2
slope = = ,
run 1
making the rise 2 when the run is 1. Starting at the y-intercept, we
move to the right 1 unit and up 2 units to find another point on the
graph, and repeat as often as desired (figure 22).
Figure 22 Points on the line y = 2x − 3. The dotted lines represent a run of
1 and a rise of 2 between points
Because − −1 = 2 as well, we may also use a run of −1 and a rise of
2
−2. In other words, beginning at the y-intercept, we may also move 1
unit left and 2 units down to find more points (figure 23).
We finish by drawing the line through the points (figure 24). With
practice, this process can be performed relatively quickly.
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“Goodness, gracious!” exclaimed Lee. She was deeply disappointed
at this unromantic chronicle. And it gave all her preconceived ideas
of matrimony an ugly jar. “My papa and mamma were just devoted to
each other,” she said. “It must be terrible not to be.”
“Oh, I expect people get used to it. And there are a lot of other things
to think about. My stepmother has a very jolly time, and father
doesn’t come home very much when we are in London; and in the
autumn we have a lot of people in the house—Emmy rents a place in
Hampshire.”
“Then your father isn’t a lord?”
“No; Uncle Basil is.”
The lord in the family was the only redeeming feature of this sordid
story; he gave it one fiery touch of the picturesque. Suddenly she
forgot her disappointment, and patted Cecil’s scratched and grimy
fingers.
“You haven’t been a bit happy, like other little boys, have you?” she
said, “and you are so kind and good. I’m sorry, and I wish you could
live with memmy and me.”
That Cecil loved sympathy there could be no manner of doubt. He
expanded at once upon the painful subject, consigning the devotion
of his granny, his seven aunts, his stepmother, the kindness of his
uncle, and his unfettered summers, to oblivion. He could not see
Lee’s face in the shadow of the rock, but he felt the tensity of her
mind, concentrated on himself. They forgot their anxious parents, the
dark clinging night, the awful silence, hunger and fatigue. Lee forgot
all but Cecil; Cecil forgot all but himself. When he had exhausted his
resources, Lee cried:
“I’ll always like you better than any one else in the whole world
except memmy! I know I will! I swear I will!”
“Couldn’t you like me better than your mother?” he asked jealously.
Lee hesitated. Her youthful bosom was agitated by conflicting
emotions. Feminine subtlety dictated her answer.
“I can’t tell yet. When I’m a big grown-up person I’ll decide.”
“What’s the use of doing anything by halves? I don’t. I like you better
than anybody.”
“I’ll have to wait,” firmly.
“Oh, very well,” he said crossly. “Of course, if I knew some boys
here, it wouldn’t matter so much.”
“Then if you had boys to play with you wouldn’t love me? Oh, you
unkind cruel boy!”
“No—you know what I mean; I’d like you just the same, but I
shouldn’t need you so much. There’s nothing to get angry about—
Now?— What?— Oh!”
For Lee was weeping bitterly.
Cecil suddenly remembered that he was cold, and hungry, and tired,
and lost. And he was confronted with a scene. What Lee was crying
about he had but a vague idea. For a moment he contemplated a
hug,—on general principles,—but remembered in time that when his
father attempted cajolement his stepmother always wept the louder.
So he remarked with the nervous haste of man when he knows that
he is not rising to the occasion:
“We’ll stay here till morning and then I’ll take your apron off and put it
on the top of a long stick and somebody’ll be sure to see. It’s exactly
like being shipwrecked.”
“I never was shipwrecked,” sobbed Lee; “I’m sure I shouldn’t like it.”
“We’ve had adventures, anyhow, and that’s what you wanted.”
“I don’t like adventures. They’re not very interesting, and I’m all
scratched up, and hungry, and tired.”
“We’ve not been attacked by a bear. You ought to be thankful for
that.”
Lee, who would have been comforted at once by the hug, arose with
dignity, found a soft spot and composed herself to sleep, forlorn and
dejected. Cecil haughtily extended himself where he was. But he,
too, was sensible of a weight on his spirits, which hunger, nor
fatigue, nor cold, nor straits, had rolled there. In a few moments he
took off his jacket and went over to Lee and slipped it under her
head. She whisked about and caught his head in her arms, and they
were fast asleep in an instant.
 CHAPTER VI
LEE awoke first. She remembered at once where she was, and sat
up with a sense of terror she had not experienced in the darkness of
the night. The fog was gone, the sun was well above the horizon.
She and Cecil were alone on a mountain peak so high above the
world that the blue depths of space seemed nigher than the planet
below. The redwood forest at the foot of the mountain looked like
brush; on a glassy pond were hundreds of toy boats; beyond was a
toy city on toy hills. Far to the South another solitary peak lifted itself
into the heavens, dwarfing the mountain ranges about it. Lee
glanced to the left. Nothing there but peak after peak bristling away
into the north, black and rigid with redwoods.
But it was not the stupendous isolation that terrified Lee. It was a
vague menace in the atmosphere about her, an accentuated
stillness. Over the scene was a grey web, so delicate, so
transparent, that it concealed nothing. Lee rubbed her eyes to make
sure it was really there. It might have been the malignant breath of
the evil genius of California. As she gazed, the mist slowly cohered.
It became an almost tangible veil through which San Francisco
looked the phantom of a city long since sunken to the bed of the
Pacific. The sun glared through it like the suspended crater of an
angry volcano. The forests on the mountain all at once seemed
dead. The very air was petrified. The silence was awful, appalling.
Lee caught Cecil by the shoulder and pulled him upright.
“Something terrible is going to happen,” she gasped. “Oh, I wish we
were home! I wish we were home.”
Cecil rubbed his eyes. He barely grasped the meaning of her words.
There was a dull muffled roar, which seemed to spring from the
depths of the planet, a terrible straining and rocking, and the very
heart of the mountain leaped under them.
Cecil saw Lee make a wild dart to the left. Then he was conscious of
nothing but a rapid descent amidst a hideous clatter of rock, and the
sensation that he was sliding from the surface of the earth into
space. Down he went, down, down, with the rumble below and the
roar of loosened earth and rock about him. Inside of him he fancied
he could hear the icicles of his blood rattle against each other. In his
skull was a horrible vacuum.
The slide stopped abruptly. Cecil looked dully about him, wondering
why the still trembling rocks had not ground him to pulp. He
stumbled to his feet mechanically, worked his way beyond the slide,
then climbed toward the cone from which he had been so abruptly
evicted. His knowledge of what he sought was very vague, a primal
instinct. Presently he saw Lee running toward him. Behind her was a
man in the rough garb of a mountaineer.
“It was an earthquake,” cried Lee, as she flung herself into Cecil’s
arms, “and he’s going to take us home.”
 CHAPTER VII
BETWEEN a night of maternal agonies and an earthquake which
wrenched the city to its foundations, Mrs. Tarleton’s spirit was very
nearly shaken out of her frail body.
Mr. Maundrell, after despatching two detectives in search of the
truants, spent the greater part of the night pacing up and down the
upper hall. He called upon Mrs. Tarleton late in the evening, and
assured her that his son was a manly little chap, and would take
good care of Lee. As the night waxed he called again. Miss Hayne
was holding salts to the invalid’s nostrils, and fanning her. Mrs.
Tarleton implored him to remain near her; he was so cool he gave
her a little courage. He consented hastily and retreated. When the
earthquake came he entered Mrs. Tarleton’s room unceremoniously
and stood by her bed, throwing a shawl over her head to protect it
from falling plaster. The chandelier leapt from side to side like a
circus girl at the end of a rope, then came down with a crash which
drew an exhausted shriek from the bed. The wardrobe walked out
into the middle of the room, the pictures sprang from the walls. Mrs.
Tarleton, stifled, flung the shawl from her head. Mr. Maundrell stood,
imperturbable, beside her, a monocle in his eye, critically regarding
the evidences of California’s iniquity. She began to laugh hysterically,
and he fled from the room and begged Miss Hayne—who had
rushed out shrieking—to return.
He went down to his own rooms. It was eight o’clock in the morning.
People in various stages of undress were grouped in the halls
volubly giving their experiences. Not a woman but Mrs. Hayne had a
dress on, not a woman had her hair out of curl-papers. The men had
paused long enough to fling on dressing-gowns and blankets. They
were visibly embarrassed.
Three hours later Mr. Maundrell was in his sitting-room reading an
earthquake “extra.” The door opened and a small boy, with a cold in
his head, dirty, ragged, scratched, and apologetic, entered and
awaited his doom. Mr. Maundrell glanced up. Cecil shivered.
“Go and take a bath,” said his father curtly. “You are positively
sickening. And kindly do not bore me with your adventures. I have
really had as much as I can stand.”
 CHAPTER VIII
LEE went neither to school nor to her meals for a week. She nursed
her mother with the ardour of maternal affection and remorse. For
the first two days Cecil dared not approach that door; it seemed
written large with his misdoings. On the third he knocked timidly,
then put his hands behind him.
Lee opened the door, threw back her head, and half closed her eyes
—to conceal the delight in them.
“Well,” she said freezingly. “I am glad to see you haven’t forgotten all
about me—I am sure I am!”
Cecil attempted no apology. He produced a bag of candy, and an
apple nearly as big as his head.
“I thought you’d like these as you couldn’t go out to get any,” he said
with tact.
Lee almost closed her eyes. She drew back. “You are so kind!” she
said sarcastically.
Cecil must have had great ancestors. He replied never a word. He
stood with both arms outstretched, the tempting offerings well within
the door, and under Lee’s very nose.
Her eyes slowly opened. The corners of her mouth invaded her
cheeks. Her hands rose slowly, fluttered a moment, then closed
firmly over the tributes to her sex.
“Won’t you come in?” she asked graciously.
Cecil promptly closed the door behind him.
“I’m coming every afternoon to take care of your mother,” he
announced.
“The idea of a boy being a nurse,” said Lee disdainfully; but she
brought her lashes together again.
“You go and take a nap. Which medicine does she take next?”
Lee allowed herself to be overborne, and fell asleep. Mrs. Tarleton
opened her eyes suddenly to meet a hypnotic stare. Cecil did
nothing by halves.
Mrs. Tarleton smiled faintly, then put out her hand and patted his.
“You are a good boy, Cecil,” she said.
The good boy reddened haughtily. “I’m not trying to be thought a
milksop,” he remarked.
“Oh, I know, I know! I mean most boys are selfish. I knew you would
bring Lee safely back.”
“I wouldn’t mind if you said you forgave me.”
“I do. I do. Only please don’t do it again.”
He gave her the medicine. She closed her eyes, but he saw that she
did not sleep. Occasionally she frowned and sighed heavily. Finally
she opened her eyes again.
“I wish you were a little older,” she said abruptly.
He sat up very straight. “I’m quite old,” he said thickly. “I’m much
older than Lee.”
“I mean I wish you were really grown and your own master, and as
fond of Lee as you are now. I must die soon; I had hoped to live until
Lee was grown and married, but my will won’t last me much longer. It
is of that I think constantly as I lie here, not of my pain.”
“I’ll marry Lee if you like,” said Cecil obligingly. “I like her very much;
it would suit me jolly well to have her in England.”
Mrs. Tarleton raised herself on her arm. Her thin cheeks fairly
expanded with the colour that flew to them. The boy could see the
fluttering of her exhausted heart.
“Cecil,” she said solemnly, “promise me that you will marry Lee. I am
a good judge of human nature. I know that you would be kind to her.
I know of no one else to leave her to. Promise me.”
“I promise,” said Cecil promptly. But he had an odd sensation that
the room had grown suddenly smaller.
“If I die before you go, take her with you if your father will consent.
She has a little money and will not be a burden. If your father won’t
take her come back for her when you are of age. Remember that
you have given your solemn promise to a dying woman.”
“Yes, ma’am,” said Cecil faintly. He was young and masculine and
unanalytical; but instinct told him that Mrs. Tarleton was unfair, and
he cooled to her, and to the sex through her, for the time being. He
slipped out as Lee awoke.
The next day when he returned, the unpleasant sensations induced
by Mrs. Tarleton had almost vanished. On the fourth day, as he and
Lee were sitting before the fire popping corn—Mrs. Tarleton’s nerves
being under the influence of morphine—Lee remarked with some
asperity:
“I wish you wouldn’t stare at me so.”
“I was just thinking,” he said. “I am going to be your husband, you
know.”
“What?” Lee dropped the popper into the fire. Her head went back,
her nostrils out. “Who said you were, I’d like to know? I didn’t.”
“Your mother asked me to marry you, and I said I would. So I’m
going to.”
The American girl arose in her wrath, and stamped her foot.
“The very idea! Try it, will you? The idea, the idea of saying you’re
going to marry a girl just ’cause you want to!—without asking her! I
just won’t marry you—so there!”
Young Maundrell rose to his feet, plunged his hands into his pockets
and regarded her with angry perplexity. He knew what he would
have done had she been a boy; he would have thrashed her. But a
girl was a deeper problem than earthquakes. He descended to
diplomacy.
“Of course I’ll ask you if you prefer it that way.”
“You just bet your life I do.”
“Well—” He got very red and trembled all over. He threw his weight
first on one foot and then on the other. His nails clawed at his
trousers pockets.
“Well?”
“Oh—ah—that is—you can marry me, if you like— Oh, hang it, Lee! I
don’t know how to propose. I feel like a rotter.”
“That isn’t the way,” said Lee icily. She hastily reviewed her glimpses
of standard works.
“You must go down on your knees,” she added.
“I’d see myself dead sooner,” cried Cecil.
“You must.”
“I won’t.”
“Then I won’t marry you.”
“I don’t care whether you do or not.”
“But you promised!”
“I’m not going to be an ass if I did.”
Said Lee sweetly: “I don’t much care about the going down on the
knees part. I’m afraid I’d laugh. Just say, ‘Will you marry me?’”
He sulkily repeated the formula.
“Now we’re engaged,” said Lee complacently; “and the popper’s
burnt up. But we’ve got a lot popped, and I’ll make a syrup and stick
some together into a nice ball for you. It’s lovely to eat when you’re
in bed.” She leaned forward and adjusted his agitated necktie. “You
look as if you just owned the whole world when you get mad,” she
said.
And the male ate his sweets and was pacified.
 CHAPTER IX
THE tide in Mrs. Tarleton rose once more; on Monday she was able
to sit up, and Cecil took Lee for a walk; but returned betimes, having
received a brief parental admonition that if he did not, he’d be caned.
After that, they explored Market Street every afternoon, and on
Sunday trotted off to church together.
On the following afternoon, as Lee was walking down the hill from
school, she saw an excited group of boys in the street, before the
side entrance of Mrs. Hayne’s boarding-house. As she approached,
she inferred that two were fighting, as some eight or ten others were
cheering and betting.
Lee raised herself on tiptoe and looked over the shoulder of a short
boy. The belligerents were Bertie Reynolds and Cecil Maundrell. Her
first impulse was to scream—an impulse which she quickly
repressed. Her second was to cheer Cecil. This she also repressed,
remembering that she was a girl, or, as her mother would have put it,
a Southerner.
She mounted a box and watched the battle, her hands clenched, her
eyes blazing, her heart sick; for her Cecil was getting the worst of it.
He looked as sturdy as a little oak, and he planted his blows
scientifically; but his antagonist was twice his size, lean and wiry,
and full of nervous fire. Moreover, the surrounding influences were
all for the American: Cecil was not only English, but he had snubbed
these boys of Mrs. Hayne’s boarding-house for three consecutive
weeks. Vengeance had been in the air for some time.
The boys fought like young savages. Their faces made Lee shudder
and ponder. But that impression passed, for there was worse to
come. Cecil got a huge lump over his right eye. Cecil got a damaged
nose. Cecil’s immaculate shirt turned an angry scarlet. Cecil got a
blow under his jaw, and went down.
Then was Lee’s opportunity. She leaped from the box, straight into
the ring—which was giving unearthly cat-calls—and took Cecil’s
head in her arms.
“You just help me carry him inside, you horrid, hateful bully,” she
commanded young Reynolds. “Take his feet—there!”
The national instinct prompted obedience, and Cecil was safely
deposited on the lower step of the side entrance, Reynolds retiring in
haste before the concentrated fury in Lee’s eyes and teeth and nails.
She gathered Cecil into her bosom, and wept bitterly.
“I say!” murmured the wounded hero. “Don’t cry! I’m all right. I’ve got
a beastly headache, that’s all.”
“Those loathsome boys!” sobbed Lee.
“Well, they know I can fight, if I didn’t beat.” But his voice was thick,
and there was no pride about him anywhere.
Lee’s tears finished, and were succeeded by curiosity.
“What did you fight about?” she asked, drying her eyes on her
ensanguined pinafore.
“They all said the United States licked England twice, and I said it
didn’t. They said I didn’t know history, and I—well, I told them they
were liars, and that Reynolds offered to fight for the crowd, and we
fought.”
“Don’t get excited,” said Lee soothingly. “Do you think you can walk
up to your room? You’ll feel better if you lie down, and I can do a lot
of things for you.”
He got to his feet, climbed wearily to his room, and flung himself on
the bed. Lee was in her element. She sponged him off, and fetched
ice, and bound up his damaged face. She felt his nose to see if it
was broken. It was swelling rapidly, and he shrieked as she prodded
it. Lee wished that she did not feel a disposition to laugh, but her
hero certainly looked funny. When she had bound two compresses
about his face—his upper lip was also cut—she closed the inside
blinds, and sat down beside the bed. It was her duty to go to her
mother, but she was loath to leave her comrade.
“Lee,” said a stifled voice, “pull off my boots.”
Lee rose, hesitated a moment, then removed the boots, and threw
his jacket over his feet. She walked to the window, peered through
the slats, then returned to the bed.
“The United States did lick England,” she said.
Cecil was on his elbow in an instant.
“It did not,” he cried hoarsely. “If you were a boy I’d thrash you.”
“I finished United States history last term. We licked you in the
Revolution and in 1812.”
Cecil was erect on the edge of his bed, glaring at her out of his
attenuated eye, over the rising sun of his nose. “I tell you you didn’t,”
he growled. And his bandages slipped, and his wounds bled.
Lee flung her arms about him in an agony of remorse and pushed
him back among the pillows.
“I’m just horrid,” she sobbed; “I don’t know why I said that.” And once
more she bathed and bound him.
“Lee,” whispered a weary voice. “Say that you didn’t lick us.”
Lee gave him a little hug. “Of course not,” she said, as to a sick child;
“of course not.”
 CHAPTER X
IT was something over a week later that Lee awoke suddenly in the
night and sat erect, with stiffened muscles. Her skin was chilled as if
her sleeping body had been caught in a current of night air. A taper
burned in a cup of oil. She glanced towards the door. It was closed.
Her cot was in a corner, out of the reach of window draughts. Her
shoulders approached each other. Something was certainly wrong,
quite different from the usual routine of night. The taper faintly
illumined the large room over which her expanding eyes roved. A red
light flashed across the wall like a scythe, accompanied by the dull
grumble of the cable car. Everything in the room was as she had
arranged or left it for the night. Even the flannel petticoat Mrs.
Tarleton had been embroidering for her daughter was on the table
where she had dropped it. The needle stood up straight and
focussed a beam of light. It was the same commonplace comfortable
room, with whose every feature Lee was intimate; yet over these
features to-night rested a thin film of something unfamiliar.
Lee gave way to unreasoning terror. “Memmy!” she called,
“memmy!”
Mrs. Tarleton was a light sleeper, but she did not answer.
Lee sprang to the floor and ran towards her mother’s bed. She
paused within a foot of it, her knees jerking. Mrs. Tarleton lay on her
side, her face to the wall, her arm along the counterpane. In both
arm and hand was the same suggestion of unreality, of change, as in
the room.
Lee fled out into the hall and down the stairs to Cecil’s room. His
door was unlocked. He awakened to find himself standing on his
feet, striking out furiously.
“It’s only me,” gasped Lee, who had received a smart blow in the
shoulder. “Something’s the matter with memmy. Come quick.”
“All right, I will. You stay here and I’ll go into father’s room and
dress.”
He lifted Lee to the bed and went into the next room. Mr. Maundrell
entered a moment later and lit the gas. He looked keenly at Lee’s
scared white face, then went out by the hall door. He did not return
for some little time. When he did he met his son and Lee—who was
enveloped in Cecil’s overcoat—ascending the stairs. He turned them
back.
“Mrs. and Miss Hayne are with your mother,” he said. “Get into
Cecil’s bed and go to sleep. I will take him in with me.”
“I never leave memmy to other people,” faltered Lee; and then she
put her hands to her ears, and shuddered, and crouched against
Cecil. “I can’t sleep,” she gasped. “Don’t leave me alone.”
“Very well,” said Mr. Maundrell hastily. “You go into the sitting-room,
both of you. Cecil, you had better make her a cup of tea.”
Cecil half carried Lee into the sitting-room, put her on the sofa, lit all
the burners, and fell to making tea with nervous fingers and every
sign of deep embarrassment. When he had finished he walked
rapidly over to Lee, jerked her upright, and held the cup to her lips.
“Drink it!” he said in his most peremptory manner. Lee gulped it
down. Cecil returned to the table, drank a large measure, then went
back to Lee and put his arms about her.
“Now,” he said with an effort which brought his brows together and
sent the blood to his hair, “you can cry if you like.”
Lee promptly buried her head in his bosom and wept wildly, with
abrupt and terrible insight. Cecil could think of nothing to say, but he
gathered her in and gave her little spasmodic hugs. He felt very
much like crying himself, and at the same time wished with all his
heart that it were three days later. He concluded that a girl must get
all cried out in that time.
 CHAPTER XI
ALL of Mrs. Tarleton’s old friends sent flowers, and many of them
attended the funeral service, which took place in the death chamber.
Mrs. Hayne had decided that a church funeral would be too
expensive, and her boarders would have objected to the association
of a coffin with the back parlour. Lee, holding Cecil’s hand tightly, sat
in a corner, looking smaller and darker than ever in her black frock,
the novelty of which had mitigated her grief for the moment. All of the
ladies kissed her and told her that she must be sure to come to see
them; and Mrs. Montgomery, who had just returned from Europe,
and was very much agitated, asked her to come home with her at
once. But Lee only shook her head. She and Cecil had other plans.
Her cot was taken into Miss Hayne’s room and she went to school as
usual. Her grief waxed rather than waned, and she stooped so that
Mrs. Hayne put her into braces, which confirmed her gloomy views
of life. But her woman’s instincts were very keen, and she knew that
if she was to have the solace of Cecil’s companionship, she must
reserve her tears for solitude. He was very kind, and informed her
that he loved her the better because she had such a jolly lot of grit
and kept her back up (Lee had not mentioned the braces), and that
his father—who hated Americans—had condescended to say that
Lee was a jolly little thing, and had more character and good sense
at the age of eleven than his own selection had accumulated in five-
and-thirty years.
She and Cecil took many long walks, and rode back and forth on the
Oakland and Sausalito boats, munching molasses candy; Cecil was
rapidly falling a victim to the national vice. One day the father and
son took her to the country on a fishing expedition. It was a very long
day, and it was very hot. She sat on the bank and watched the
others fish. Their concentration amounted to genius, and except at
luncheon, which she prepared, they never addressed a word to her.
She had never seen Mr. Maundrell look so happy, and as for Cecil,
his hazel eyes sparkled like champagne. In spite of the blue sky, the
warm sunshine, the beautiful depths of the redwood forest, the
singing stream, she felt lonely and depressed, and went home with a
sun-burned nose, and a heart full of those obscure forebodings
which assail woman when man forgets the lesson of civilisation and
pays a brief and joyous visit to the plane of his sovereign ancestors.
 CHAPTER XII
IT was about a month after Mrs. Tarleton’s death that Cecil kicked
Lee under the breakfast-table and jerked his eyebrows at his father,
who sat opposite. Mr. Maundrell was reading his English mail. His
pale face was flushed. His impassive features threatened a change
of expression.
That afternoon, as Lee was returning from school, Cecil met her half-
way up the hill.
“My uncle Basil and the little chap are dead, and father’s the heir,” he
announced.
“Is he a lord?” cried Lee, with bated breath.
“Yes.”
Lee’s eyes danced. Romance revived. Care fled.
“A duke?”
“No, an earl.”
“Earl’s much prettier than duke. I mean a prettier word.”
“He’s got a title of course. He’s Lord Barnstaple.”
“That’s not so pretty.”
“I——” Cecil thrust his hands into his pockets and turned very red. “I
don’t mind telling you—I’ve got a title too—what they call a courtesy
title. You see my father’s the Earl of Barnstaple and Viscount
Maundrell. So I’m Lord Maundrell. I shouldn’t think of mentioning it to
any one else,” he added hastily.
“Cecil!” Lee waved her arms wildly and danced up and down. “I
never heard of anything so lovely. I feel exactly as if we were inside
Scott or Shakespeare or something. Shall you wear a crown and an
ermine robe?”
“I’m not a king,” said Cecil loftily. “Talk about my not knowing
anything about United States history! You Americans are so funny.
Fancy you caring so much about such things.” His tone was almost
his father’s upon occasion.
“Why not? The idea! I think it’s perfectly romantic and lovely to be
lords and ladies. Whole shelves full of books have been written
about them—the standard works of fiction, that everybody reads.
And plays, and ballads, and poems, and pictures too! I’ve often
heard my mother talk about it, and I used to read the descriptions out
loud to her in the winter—she said it would form my taste for elegant
literature. I could just see the whole thing—the kings and dukes, and
the beautiful processions, and the castles and tournaments, and
princesses and falcons. Oh my! Of course I care. I’d be a silly little
ninny if I didn’t care. I just wish I’d been born like all that. I’m sure
there’s nothing very romantic about San Francisco—particularly
Market Street.”
“Well,” said Cecil, bringing down his eyebrows and consenting to
establish himself at Lee’s view-point. “You’re going to be ‘like that.’
You’re going to marry me.”
Lee stopped short, her mouth open. “So I am,” she gasped. “So I
am. Could we be married right off, do you think?”
Cecil dropped his head and shook it gloomily. “I had a talk with father
to-day;” he shivered as he recalled that conversation; “and he says
he won’t take you back with us; that he likes you well enough, but
one American in the family is as much as he can stand—and, oh, a
lot of rot. We’ll have to wait till I grow up, and then I’ll come back for
you, or perhaps some one will bring you over.”
They entered the side door of the boarding-house. Cecil pulled Lee
down beside him on the stair.
“Oh, Lee,” he said in a high falsetto, “we’re going to-morrow. And I
hate to go away and leave you. I do! I do!”
“Going to-morrow!” gasped Lee, “and without me!” She burst into a
storm of tears, and Cecil forgot his manly pride and wept too.
“I wish I were grown,” sobbed Cecil. “And I won’t be for years. I’ve
got to finish at Eton, and then I’ve got to go to Oxford. I’m only fifteen
and one month. I won’t be my own master for six years, and I won’t