Chapter Three-Curves-2010 E.C - Edited-1

Teaching Material for Chapter three CEng 2082
Table of Contents
3. Curves .................................................................................................2
3.1. General ..........................................................................................2
3.2. Types of curves and their uses ..........................................................2
3.3. Simple Circular curves ......................................................................4
3.4. PARTS OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE ..................................................4
3.4.1. DESIGNATION OF CURVE ............................................................6
3.4.2. RELATION BETWEEN DEGREE AND RADIUS OF CURVE ....................7
3.4.3. FORMULAE FOR ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE .............9
3.3. Compound curves .......................................................................... 10
3.4. Reverse cures ................................................................................ 12
3.5. Transition curves ........................................................................... 12
3.6. Vertical curves ............................................................................... 14
3.6.1. ELEMENTS OF PARABOLIC VERTICAL CURVE ................................ 16
3.6.2. Vertical Curve Calculation .......................................................... 17
3.6.3. Equations of symmetrical parabolic vertical curve ......................... 17
3.7. Methods of setting out .................................................................... 18
3.7.1. SETTING OUT A SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE BY LINEAR METHODS ... 20
3.7.2. SUCCESSIVE BISECTION OF ARCS. ............................................ 23
3.7.3. SETTING OUT A SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE BY ANGULAR METHODS 23
3.7.4. RANKINE'S METHOD OF DEFLECTION ANGLE ............................... 23
3.7.5. Two-theodolite method ............................................................. 26
©Tesfaye G/Yo 12/14/2017 3:19:40 Page 1 of 26

3. Curves
3.1. General
The center line of a road consists of series of straight lines interconnected by
curves that are used to change the alignment, direction, or slope of the road.
Those curves that change the alignment or direction are known as horizontal
curves, and those that change the slope are vertical curves.
The initial design is usually based on a series of straight sections whose positions
are defined largely by the topography of the area. The intersections of pairs of
straights are then connected by horizontal curves.
This is necessary for smooth and safe movement of the vehicles and for the
comfort of passengers. The curves required may be in the horizontal planes or in
the vertical planes. Accordingly the curves are classified as horizontal curves
and vertical curves.Horizontal curves are further classified as circular curves
and transition curves.
3.2. Types of curves and their uses

Curves can be listed under two main headings, as follows:
(1) Horizontal curve
(2) Vertical curves
Horizontal Curves are one of the two important transition elements in

geometric design for highways (along with Vertical Curves). A horizontal curve
provides a transition between two tangent strips of roadway, allowing a vehicle to
negotiate a turn at a gradual rate rather than a sharp cut.

Figure 3. 1

Necessary for gradual change in direction when a direct point of intersection is

not feasible
3.3. Simple Circular curves

The curve being with a constant radius R is called a simple circular curve.
Point V is referred to as the vertex or Point of Intersection (P.I.). One of the
values we must always know, or be able to determine, for any simple curve is
the deflection angle at the vertex.
A curve, connecting two intersecting straights having a constant radius all

through is known as a simple circular curve. It is tangential to the two straights
at the joining ends. In Fig. 2.1, T1TT2 is a simple circular curve of radius R,
joining the two straights T1I and T2I intersecting at a point I.
Figure 3. 2
3.4. PARTS OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE
PC-PI and PI-PT are the two intersecting straights joined by a simple circular
curve PC-M-PT of radius R, as shown in the figure above.
 The point I is called the point of intersection (P.I.).

 PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.
 PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.

 PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex

 T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is known as sub
tangent.
 R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
 L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown below is the midpoint
of L.
 Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the figure is the midpoint of
L c.
 E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
 m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of
chord.
 I = Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection and central angle). It
is the angle of intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by PC and
PT at O is also equal to I, where O is the center of the circular curve from
the above figure.
 x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.
 θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
 D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve
equal to one station. In English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and
in SI, one station is equal to 20 m.
 Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.

Figure 3. 3
3.4.1. DESIGNATION OF CURVE
A simple circular curve may either be designated by radius (in feet, meters or
chains) or by degree of the curve. The former system is adopted in UK and
Australia, whereas the latter is in use in U.S.A., Canada, France and India
Field measurements of the curve with any distance or any angle measuring
instrument (e.g. the tape, theodolite), of course, must be made along the chords
and not along the arc. Discuss the relation between the arc length and the
chord length of the following figure.
Figure 3. 4

The degree of a curve can be defined either on the basis of an arc or a chord.
According to the arc definition, the degree of a curve is defined as the central
angle subtended by an arc of 30 or 20 m length (Fig. 3.5(a)). According to the
chord definition, the degree of a curve is the central angle subtended by a chord
of 30 or 20m length (Fig. 3.5(b)). It will define the sharpness of the curve. In
English system, 1 station is equal to 100 ft. In SI, 1 station is equal to 20 m. It is
important to note that 100 ft is equal to 30.48 m not 20 m. In highways, it is
customary to use the arc definition, whereas the chord definition is utilized in
railways.
Figure 3. 5
3.4.2. RELATION BETWEEN DEGREE AND RADIUS OF CURVE

Arc definition .If R is the radius of a curve and D is its degree for a 30m arc,
then
Figure 3. 6
RD
 30
180 

30  180 
or R
D 
1718.9 1719
or R  (3.1)
D D
If D is the degree of curve for a 20 m arc, then
RD
 20
180 
20  180 
or R
D 
1145.9 1146
or R  (3.2)
D D
Chord definition. For a 30m chord, from triangle T1OM
D T1 M 15
sin  
2 OT1 R
15
or R
D
sin
2
D D
Since D is very small, therefore, sin  . Hence,
2 2
15
R
D   
   
 2   180 
15  2  180 
or R
D 
1718.9 1719
or R  (3.3)
D D
Similarly, for a 20 m chord, from triangle T1OM
D T1 M 10
sin  
2 OT1 R
10
or R
D
sin
2
D D
Since D is very small, therefore, sin  . Hence,
2 2
10
R
D   
   
 2   180 

10  2  180 
or R
D 
1145.9 1146
or R  (3.4)
D D
3.4.3. FORMULAE FOR ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CIRCULAR

CURVE
Refer to Fig.3.3
Length of the curve
Let the length of the curve T1 C T2, be l and R be its radius.
Hence: l  R   , Where  is in radian
R
l  ,
180 
Where  is in degrees
If a 30 m arc or chord definition is used, then
1719     30
l 
D  180  D
If a 20 m arc or chord definition is used, then
1146     20
l  (3.5)
D  180  D
Tangent length

Tangent length, T  IT1  IT2  R  tan  (3.6)
2
Long chord length
Long chord length L  T1 DT2  2T1 D

From triangle OT1D
 T D
sin    1
2 R

T1 D  R sin  
2

Hence, L  2R sin   (3.7)
2
Apex distance
Apex distance, IC  IO  CO


IC  R sec R
2
  
IC  R sec  1 (3.8)
 2 
Mid-ordinate
Mid-ordinate, O0  CD  CO  DO

O0  R  R cos
2
 
O0  R1  cos 
 2

or O0  Rvers (3.9)
2
Therefore, mid-ordinate is also known as versed sine of the curve.
3.3. Compound curves

Surveyors often have to use a compound curve because of the terrain. This curve
normally consists of two simple curves curving in the same direction and joined
together.
A curve made up of two or more circular arcs of successively shorter or longer
radii, joined tangentially without reversal of curvature, and used on some railroad
tracks and highways as an easement curve to provide a less abrupt transition
from tangent to full curve or vice versa.
A compound curve consists of two or more circular arcs of different radii with
their centres of curvature on the same side of the common tangent. Compound
curves are required when space restrictions preclude a single circular curve and
when there are property boundaries.

Figure 3. 7

3.4. Reverse cures

a reverse curve (or "S" curve) is a section of the horizontal alignment of a
highway or railroad route in which a curve to the left or right is followed
immediately by a curve in the opposite direction.
A reverse curve consists of two circular arcs of same or different radii having
their centres on the opposite sides of the common tangent at the point of reverse
curvature. The reverse curve is also tangent at the point of reverse curvature.
The reverse curve is also known as a serpentine curve or S-curve because of
their shape.
Reverse curves are generally used to connect two parallel roads or railways lines,
or when two lines intersect at a very small angle. These are used in hilly terrains
and in railways siding as crossovers. These are also used on highways and
railways designed for low speed. As far as possible, they should not be used on
main highways and railways designed for high speed.
Figure 3. 8
3.5. Transition curves

Transition Curves are curves in which the radius changes from infinity to a particular
value. The effect of this is to gradually increase the radial force P from zero to its highest
value & thereby reduce its effect.
For a Vehicle traveling from PC to PT, the force gradually increases from zero to its
maximum on the circular curve and then decreases to zero again. This greatly reduces

the tendency to skid & reduces the discomfort experienced by passengers in the vehicles.
This is one of the purposes of transition curves; by introducing the radial force gradually
and uniformly and uniformly they minimize passenger discomfort.
If the transition curve is to introduce the radial force in a gradual & uniform manner it
must have the property that the product of the radius of curvature at any point on the
curve and the length of the curve up to that point is a constant value.
K= RLT R- radius of the circular curve

LT- length of transition curve
Another purpose of transition curves is to gradually introduce super elevation
Figure 3. 9
SUPERELEVATION
Although transition curves can be used to introduce the radial force gradually in attempt
to minimize its effect, this effect can also be greatly reduced and even eliminated by
raising one side of the road way or one side of the track relative to the other. The
difference in height b/n the road channel is known as the super elevation.
TYPES OF TRANSITION CURVE TO BE USED

Two types of transitions are used:
I. Clothoid (Euler Spiral)-the radius of the curvature decrease in proportion to the
length. I.e. the radius varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to
the radius of the circular arc at the circular curve end.

II. Cubic Parabola
It does not have the property of clothoid spiral. The cubic parabola formula is derived by
making certain assumptions in the derivation of the clothoid formulae.
Y = X3/6RLT (from clothoid formula Y = l3/6RLT)
3.6. Vertical curves

In the same way as horizontal curves are used to connect intersecting straights
in the horizontal plane, vertical curves are used to connect intersecting straights
(gradients) in the vertical plane.
Gradients: these are usually expressed as percentages, for example,
1 in 50 = 2 percent
1 in 25 = 4 percent
Figure 3. 10
CREST CURVES: - Which can also be referred to as a summit or hogging curve,
is one for which the algebraic difference is negative when calculated from right to
left.

Figure 3. 11
SAG CURVES. A sag curve (valley or sagging) curve is one for which the
algebraic difference of the gradients is positive when calculated from right to left.
Figure 3. 12
Purposes of vertical curves
There are two general purposes of Vertical curves:
1) Adequate visibility (Sight distance) - For a vehicle to stop or to overtake
safely, it is essential that on coming or any obstructions in the road can
be seen clearly at good time.
2) Passenger comfort & safety- As the vehicle travels along the curve a
radial force acts on the vehicle in the vertical plan.

TYPES OF VERTICAL CURVES

Vertical curves are usually parabolic since parabola curves provide constant
rate of change of curvature.
a) Symmetrical parabola curve
Figure 3. 13
The curve lengths from PVC to PVI and from PVI to PVT are equal.
b) Unsymmetrical parabolic curve
Figure 3. 14
3.6.1. ELEMENTS OF PARABOLIC VERTICAL CURVE
 Vertex (V):- the point of intersection of the grade line (PVI)

 Point of Vertical Curvature (PVC):- The point of tangency where the
parabolic vertical curves leaves initial grade.
 Point of Vertical tangency (PVT):- The point of tangency where the
parabolic verticals curve meets the forward grade.
 Length of vertical curve (L):- the horizontal distance b/n PVC to PVT.

3.6.2. Vertical Curve Calculation
The vertical point of curvature (PVC) and the vertical point of tangency (PVT) are
located a horizontal distance of L/2 from the PVI. The PVC is generally designated
as the origin for the curve and is located on the approaching roadway segment.
The PVT serves as the end of the vertical curve and is located at the point where
the vertical curve connects with the departing roadway segment. In other words,
the PVC and PVT are the points along the roadway where the vertical curve
begins and ends.
After located the PVI, PVC, and PVT, you are ready to develop the shape of your
curve. The equation that calculates the elevation at every point along an
equaltangent parabolic vertical curve is shown below.
3.6.3. Equations of symmetrical parabolic vertical curve
Figure 3. 15
Let X and Y are the coordinates of point p on the curve with respect to point A.
X= the vertical offset (m) from the vertex (PVI) to the middle of the curve.
Y= the vertical offset (m) from the tangent to any point on the curve.
METHOD I: BASED ON THE RATE OF CHANGE OF GRADE ( r )
EPC = EPVC + g1X +(r/2) X2
Where x = the distance of a point on curve from PVC

g1 =the initial grade per station

EPC= elevation of points on curve

EPT= elevation on tangent.
EPVC= elevation of PVC
Method II- Based on the rule of offsets

The entire curve may be established by offsets from the initial tangent or the lst
half may be referred to the 1st & the 2nd half to the second tangent
2
x
y  4e  
L
Elevation On tangent (EPT) = EPVC +g1x

Elevation on Curve (EPC) + EPT + y
EPC = EPVC + g1x + y
2
x
EPC = EPVC + g1x + 4e  
L
Where y= offset from the tangent to the curve

x = the distance of a point on curve from PVC
L= the length of curve
g1 =the initial grade per station
EPC= elevation of points on curve
EPT= elevation on tangent.
EPVC= elevation of PVC
e = the offset from PVI to curve
3.7. Methods of setting out

Setting out a curve means locating various points at equal and convenient
distances along the length of a curve.
The methods of setting out curves can be mainly divided into three heads
depending upon instruments and data used:
(1) Linear methods. In the linear methods, only a chain or tape is used. Linear
methods are used when:
(a) A high degree of accuracy is not required,

(b) The curve is short.

(2) Angular methods. In angular method, an instrument such as a theodolite is
used with or without a chain (or tape).
(3) Coordinate method. In this method a Total station is used to set out using
coordinates
Before setting out the curve, the surveyor is always supplied with a working plan
upon which the general alignment of tangent is known in relation to the traverse
controlling the survey of that area. Knowing offsets to certain points on both the
tangents, the tangents can be staked on the ground by the tape measurements.
The tangents may then be set out by theodolite by trial and error so that they
pass through the marks as nearly as possible. The total deflection angle (  ) can
then be measured by setting then theodolite on the P.I.
After having located the P.I. and measured  , the tangent length (T) can be
calculated from equation 2.8.
The point T1 (Fig. 2.6) can be located by measuring back a distance VT1 = T on
the rear tangent.
Similarly, the point T2 can be located by measuring a distance VT2 = T on the
forward tangents.
Knowing the chainage of P.I., the chainage of point T1 can be known by
subtracting the tangent length from it. The length of the curve is then added to
the chainage of T1 to get the chainage of T2. The tangent points must be located
with greater precision.
For the ease in calculations and setting out, it is essential that the pegs on the
curve are at regular interval from the beginning to the end. Such interval is
known as peg interval and the chord joining two such adjacent pegs is known as
the full chord or normal chord. The length of the normal chord is generally taken
equal to 100 ft in English units or 20 meters in metric units, so that angle
subtended by the normal chord at the center is equal
The distance between any two successive points is called peg interval. Since it is
impractical to measure the peg interval along the arc, it is measured along the
chord. Also, usual peg intervals are of 20 or 30 m, but for sharp curves it may be
reduced.

3.7.1. SETTING OUT A SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE BY LINEAR

METHODS
The various linear methods of setting out a simple circular curve are
 offsets from the long chord
 perpendicular offsets from the tangent
 radial offsets from the tangent
 successive bisection of arcs
OFFSETS FROM LONG CHORD
Refer to Fig.3.1
By assigning different values to x, the corresponding values of offsets Ox can be
calculated. The calculated offsets can be laid from the long chord and points can
be established in the field which when joined produce the required curve. What
changes can you observe if you move from point M to tangent points (T1,T2) or
what will happen to the offsets Ox? Discuss and explain.
Figure 3. 16
Let it be required to set out a curve T1CT2 between the two intersecting straights
T1I and T2I (Fig.2.8). R is the radius of the curve, O0 the mid-ordinate, and Ox the
offset at a point P at a distance x from the mid-point (M) of the long chord.
From triangle OMT1:
OM  OT 1
2
 MT1
2

 2  L 2 
or OM   R    
  2  

Now, CM  OC  OM
or O0  R  OM

2
 L
or O0  R  R   
2
2
In triangle OP’G
OG  R 2  x 2 , and OM  R  O0
The required offset PP '  OG  OM
Hence, PP '  R 2  x 2  R  O0  ,
or Ox  R 2  x 2  R  O0  , (exact expression) (3.1)
x2
Ox  . (approximate expression)
2R
It should be clearly noted that the distance x in the approximate method is
measured from the tangent point T1, while it is measured from the mid-point of
the chord in the previous case (Eqn.3.1)
By assigning different values to x, the corresponding values of offsets Ox be
calculated. The calculated offsets can be set out from the long chord and points
can be established in the field which when joined produce the required curve.
PERPENDICULAR OFFSETS FROM THE TANGENT.
This method is suitable for small values of the radius, length of curve and
deflection angle. In Fig. 3.2, Ox is offset perpendicular to the tangent at a
distance x from the point of curve T1,
Figure 3. 17
In the triangle OEP

PO 2  OE 2 PE 2 ,
or R 2  R  O x   x 2 ,
2
or R  O x   R2  x2 ,
or Ox  R  R 2  x 2 , (exact expression) (3.2)
x2
or Ox  . (approximate expression)
2R
Assigning different values to x, the corresponding values of offsets Ox can be

calculated. These calculated offsets can be set out from the tangent at known
distances x and the points can be established in the field which when joined
produce the required curve.
RADIAL OFFSETS FROM THE TANGENT.

Ox is the radial offset PP' at any distance x along the tangent from T1 (Fig. 3.3).
Figure 3. 18
From the triangle OT1P

OP 2  OT1  T1 P 2 ,
2
R  Ox 2  R 2  x 2 ,
R  Ox  R 2  x 2 ,
Ox  R 2
 x2   R , (exact expression) (3.3)
x2
or Ox  . (Approximate expression)
2R

3.7.2. SUCCESSIVE BISECTION OF ARCS.
Figure 3. 19
Let T1 and T2 be the tangent points. The long chord T1 T2 is bisected at D. Mid-
ordinate is equal to R (1 - cos Δ/2). Thus, point C is established (Fig. 12.12). T1,C
and T2C are joined. T1C and T2C are bisected at D1 and D2, respectively.
Perpendicular offsets D1C1 and D2C2 all will be equal to R (1 - cos Δ/4). These
offsets are set out giving points C1 and C2 on the curve. By the successive bisection
of the chords T1C1, C1C, CC2 and C2T2, more points may be obtained which when
joined produce the required curve.
3.7.3. SETTING OUT A SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE BY ANGULAR

METHODS
The following angular methods are commonly used for setting out curves.
Rankine's method of deflection angle (one-theodolite method).
Two-theodolite method.
3.7.4. RANKINE'S METHOD OF DEFLECTION ANGLE

This method is useful for setting out a circular curve of long length and of large
radius. It yields good results except when the chords are long as compared to the
radius, so that the variation between the length of an arc and its chord becomes
considerable. It is quite accurate and is frequently used on highways and
railways.

Figure 3. 20
A deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle at P.C. between the
tangent and the chord from P.C. to that point. According to Rankine's method,
this deflection angle is equal to half the angle subtended by the arc at the centre.
In Fig. 3.5, T1 is the P.C., a, b, c, etc. are the points on the curve;  1 ,  2 ,  3 ,etc.
are the respective deflection angles between the chords and the respective
tangents at T1, a, b, etc.;  1 ,  2 ,  3 etc. are the total deflection angles to the
points a, b, c, etc.
From the property of a circle that the angle subtended by a chord at the centre is
twice the angle between the tangent and the chord. Then,
 T1Oa  2  IT1a  21
Now R  21  T1a  C1
C1
or 1  radians,
2R
C1 180 
or 1   degrees,
2R 
C1 90 
or 1   degrees
R 
C1 180 
or 1    60 minutes,
2R 

C1
i.e.  1  1718.9 minutes, (3.4)
R
C2 C
Similarly,  2  1718.9 minutes,  3  1718.9 3 minutes
R R
For the first chord T1a, the deflection angle  1 is its tangential angle  1 . For the
second point b on the curve, the deflection angle  2 =  IT1b.
Let the tangential angle for chord ab =  2 , i.e. the angle between the tangent at
a and chord ab.

The angle subtended by the chord ab at T1 is <aT1b = <  2 , so that
 2  IT1b  IT1a  aT1b
 2  1   2
 2  1   2
Similarly,  bT1c   2 , so that

 3  IT1c  IT1b  bT1c
 3  1   2   3
3  2   3
and  n   1   2  ....   n
 n   n1   n (3.5)
Last point of the curve is T2, so that


 n  IT1T2  (3.6)
2
Field procedure
Locate P.C. (T1) , P.T. (T2) and P.I. (I).
Set up the theodolite exactly at T1 and make its temporary adjustments,
Set the horizontal reading to zero and bisect the P.I. Clamp the lower plate.
Release the upper plate and set the vernier A to read  1 . The line of sight is thus
directed along T1a.

Hold the zero of the tape at T1, take a distance C1 (T1a) and swing the tape with
an arrow till it is bisected by the theodolite. This establishes the first point a on
the curve.

Set the second deflection angle  2 on the scale so that the line of sight is set
along T1b.
With the zero of the tape held at a and an arrow at the other end (chord
distance = ab), swing the tape about a, till the arrow is bisected by the theodolite
at b. This establishes the second point b on the curve.
The same steps are repeated till the last point T2 is reached.
3.7.5. Two-theodolite method
This method is most convenient when the ground is undulating, rough and not
suitable for linear measurements. In this method, two theodolites are used and
linear measurements are completely eliminated. Hence, this is the most accurate
method. It is based on the principle that the angle between the tangent and the
chord is equal to the angle subtended by the chord in the opposite segment.

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Teaching Material for Chapter three CEng 2082

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3.2. Types of curves and their uses

Horizontal Curves are one of the two important transition elements in

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Necessary for gradual change in direction when a direct point of intersection is

3.3. Simple Circular curves

A curve, connecting two intersecting straights having a constant radius all

3.4. PARTS OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

 The point I is called the point of intersection (P.I.).

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 PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex

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3.4.1. DESIGNATION OF CURVE

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3.4.2. RELATION BETWEEN DEGREE AND RADIUS OF CURVE

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3.4.3. FORMULAE FOR ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CIRCULAR

Hence: l  R   , Where  is in radian

Long chord length L  T1 DT2  2T1 D

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3.3. Compound curves

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3.4. Reverse cures

3.5. Transition curves

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K= RLT R- radius of the circular curve

TYPES OF TRANSITION CURVE TO BE USED

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Y = X3/6RLT (from clothoid formula Y = l3/6RLT)

3.6. Vertical curves

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TYPES OF VERTICAL CURVES

b) Unsymmetrical parabolic curve

3.6.1. ELEMENTS OF PARABOLIC VERTICAL CURVE

 Vertex (V):- the point of intersection of the grade line (PVI)

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3.6.2. Vertical Curve Calculation

3.6.3. Equations of symmetrical parabolic vertical curve

METHOD I: BASED ON THE RATE OF CHANGE OF GRADE ( r )

EPC = EPVC + g1X +(r/2) X2

Where x = the distance of a point on curve from PVC

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EPC= elevation of points on curve

Method II- Based on the rule of offsets

Elevation On tangent (EPT) = EPVC +g1x

Where y= offset from the tangent to the curve

e = the offset from PVI to curve

3.7. Methods of setting out

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(b) The curve is short.

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3.7.1. SETTING OUT A SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE BY LINEAR

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The required offset PP '  OG  OM

or Ox  R 2  x 2  R  O0  , (exact expression) (3.1)

In the triangle OEP

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or Ox  R  R 2  x 2 , (exact expression) (3.2)