History Of Tribology: 1)September 1964: Conference On
This Often Exists During The Starting And
Lubrication In Iron And Steel Works In Cardiff (UK). Realization Of
Considerable Losses Due To Lack Of Knowledge Related Friction
And Wear Of Machine Components. 2) After This Realization UK
Minister Of State For Science Formed A Committee To Investigate
The Education, Research And The Need Of Industry Related To
Lubrication.3)Committee After Discussions Concluded That Only
Lubrication Could Not Provide Complete Solution To Deal With
Friction And Wear Of Machine Components.4)An Interdisciplinary
Approach Embracing Solid And Fluid Mechanics, Chemistry, And
Material Science Is Essential. Since There Was No Word For
Such New Concept, A New Name “Tribology” Was Coined In
1966.5)Major Breakthrough In Tribological Science Came In 1981
With Development Of “Scanning Tunneling Microscope” (STM)
And Systematic Theory Based On “Contact Mechanics”. Such
Developments Provided Tools To Predict And Estimate The
Behavior Of A Single Asperity Contact. PURPOSE OF
LUBRICATION: Though Lubrication Was Basically Conceived
With The Purpose Of Reducing Friction, Lubrication Also Performs
Several Functions Such As: 1. Reduce Sliding And Rolling
Frictions For Prolonging The Life Of Parts And Components In A
Machine To Prevent Wear. 2. Protect Bearings And Other
Components From Rust And Corrosion. 3. To Work As A Coolant
Thereby Absorbing Heat From The Components. 4. Act As A
Cleansing Agent By Carrying Away The Chips And Other Foreign
Matters. 5. Act As A Sealant By Preventing The Escaping Of Gas
Or The Working Fluid 6. Reduce Vibration, Noise And Shock
Between The Gear Teeth And Other Components. REGIME OF
LUBRICATION: 1)Boundary Film Lubrication This Is The Thin
Film Lubrication Where The Organic Film Is Physically Adsorbed
Or Chemisorbed. The Film Of Lubrication Occasionally Breaks By
The Asperities Of The Two Surfaces And Often Metal To Metal
Contact Takes Place.
Stopping Or When Heavy Load Rotates At Very Low Speeds Or
At High Temperature When The Lubricant Tends To Squeeze
Out. The Co-Efficient Of Friction In Boundary Lubrication Varies
From 0.08-0.2. 2)Mixed Film Lubrication When Under
Conditions Of Fluid Film Lubrication, The Viscosity Of The
Lubricant Or The Relative Velocity Between The Surfaces
Decreases Or If The Load Increases, The Lubricant Thins Out
And The Interacting Surfaces In Relative Motion Come Closer And
If Slight Asperities Comes In Contact With The Surface The
Regime Of Lubrication Is Mixed Film Lubrication. 3)Fluid Film
Lubrication Or Full Film Lubrication In This Regime The
Lubricant Film Is Sufficiently Thick To Prevent The Opposing
Surfaces From Coming Into Contact And Provides Low Friction,
High Resistance To Wear, Good Damping Characteristics, Better
Cooling And Minimum Chance Of Fatigue Failure Of Surfaces.
The Viscosity Of The Lubricant Plays A Very Important Role In
This Type Of Lubrication Mechanism. Fluid Film Lubrication Can
Further Be Divided As: I. Hydrostatic Lubrication Ii. Hydrodynamic
Lubrication Hydrostatic Lubrication: In Hydrostatic Lubrication,
High Pressure Oil Is Supplied Over The Whole Range Of Load
And Speed From External Pump Source To Separate The Two
Surfaces (Journal And Bearing) By Thick Oil Film. The Friction Is
Nearly Zero And Co-Efficient Of Friction Is Nearly 0.0001 As The
Load Fully Floats And The Friction Depends Mainly On The
Viscosity Of The Oil. Hydrodynamic Lubrication: In
Hydrodynamic Lubrication Relative Velocity Between The Two
Surfaces Is Used To Generate Liquid Pressure Between Two
Surfaces. The Load Is Transmitted On The Self-Renewing Film Of
The Lubricant. SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS :Other Criterion
For Selection Of The Lubricants Is Mainly Done On The Basis
Of:1)Component Design And Life.2)Type Of Operation
(Continuous/Periodic/ Intermittent) And Machineb3) Longest Drain
Interval.4) Operating Parameters Such As Power Consumption,
Number Of Cycles, Type Of Tools Etc. 5)Easy Availability And
Low Cost.6) Effect On Environmental Conditions Selection
Stages Of Lubricants: Considerations At The Following Three
Levels Of A Machine Development Is Vital For Choosing A
Lubricant. 1)Design Level Based On Design Parameters
Particularly The Pressure And Speed A Designer Can Suggest
The Appropriate Lubricant. If The Machine Is A Conventional
Type, Then For A Given Viscosity Different Grades Of Lubricant
Oils Might Be Used Based On The Input From The Manufacturers
Guide Book.2)Manufacturers Level Based On The Designer’s
Recommendations The Manufacturer Can Review The Additive
Package Or Develop A New Package Conducting Physio-
Chemical And Field Tests. The Lubricant Type Is Then Chosen As
Per The Standards Set By The Organizations Like
ISO/SAE/AGMA/ASTM. 3)Selection At User Level The End User
Can Choose The Lubricant Based On The Catalogues Of The
Machine And The Lubricants Specified For Different Operations.
The User Adopts Some Stringent Analysis Such As Spectroscopic
Analysis Of The Lubricant Oil To Predict The Possible State Of
Replenishment Of The Lubricant. TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
Lubricants Can Be Broadly Classified Under Four Categories
Namely: A. Lubricating Oils B. Greases (Semi-Solid
Lubricants) C. Solid Lubricants D. Gaseous Lubricants A.
LUBRICATING OILS: The Lubricating Oils Used Are Mostly The
Mineral Oils Produced By Petroleum Refining. They Are
Composed Of Hydrocarbons And Other Aromatic Compounds.
However, Some Amount Of Fattyoils And Fatty Acids Like
Vegetable Oils, Fish Oil Etc. Are Used To Increase The Oiliness
Of The Mineral Oils. Synthetic Lubricant Oils Are Produced By
Synthesizing Different Constituents Of Hydrocarbons So That The
Products Derived Can Be Operated At Temperature Ranging
From -70℃ To +300℃.Based On The Applications Lubricating Oils
Are Further Classified Into: I. Automotive Lubricating Oils Ii.
Industrial Lubricating Oils Iii. Metal Working Oils Iv. Industrial
Specialty Oils V. Marine Lubricating Oils. B. GREASES: Derived
From The Greek Word ‘Crassus’ Meaning Fat As Initially Animal
Fats Were Used As Grease. Grease Form The Semi-Solid Class
Of The Lubricants And Were Developed For Applications Where
Oil Would Run-Out Of The Lubricating Zones. It’s A Semi Fluid
Product Of Dispersion Of Thickening Agents In Liquid Lubricants.
Some Amount Of Fatty Acids And Other Ingredients Are Added
For Imparting Special Properties. C. SOLID LUBRICANTS The
Limitations Of Lubricating Oils And Greases Such As Physical
And Chemical Degradation Dueto High Operating Temperature,
Low Volatility Of The Lubricating Oils And Undesirability For
Prolonged Storage Like In Missile Components, Requirement For
Regular Re-Lubrication Led To The Development Of Solid
Lubricants. Graphite And Molybdenum Di-Sulphide (Mos2) Are
The Best Known Lamellar Solids Which Work As Excellent
Lubricants. Their High Thermal And Oxidation Stabilities At
Temperatures Of 500 To 6000℃ Enable Use Of This Solid
Lubricant At High Temperatures And High Sliding Speeds. D.
GASEOUS LUBRICANTS Gas (I.E., Air, Nitrogen, And Helium)
Lubrication Is Used For Ultra-Thin Film Thickness(Separation)
Between Tribo-Pairs. Gas Lubricated Bearings Have Numerous
Advantages Over Liquid And Solid Lubricated Bearings For A
Wide Range Of Applications. A Gas Bearing Is Virtually
Frictionless, Silent, Clean And Vibration Free. Gas Bearings Can
Be Used For Extremely Large Surface Velocities. A Gas Bearing
Can Eliminate The Risk Of Contaminating A Process With
Lubricant.Effect Of Viscosity With Temperature : Temp Strongly
Influences A Fluid Viscosity A Substance Viscosity Decreases
With Increasing Temp And Vice Versa This Inversely Proportional
Relation Applies To All Substance Any Change In Temp
Influences Viscosity But For Different Fluid The Size Of This
Influences Certain Fluid React With A 10% Increases In Viscosity
If Temp Decreases By 1 C A Fluid Viscosity Strongly Depend On
Its Temp Even 1K Temp Increase Can Decrease The Viscosity By
10%. Effect Of Viscosity With Pressure: Normally An Increase
In Pressure Causes A Fluid Viscosity To Increase Too However
Fluid Are Not Dramatically Affected If The Pressure Is Low R
Medium Liquid Is Almost Non Compressible In This Pressure
Range Most Liquid React To A Significantly Altered Pressure
(From 0.1 MPA To 30MAP) With A Viscosity Change Of About
10% In Case The Pressure Goes Up From 0.1MPA To 200 Mpa
The Viscosity Can Rise T 3to 7 Time The Original Value . This
Applied To Most Low Molecular Liquid Higher Viscous Mineral Oil
React With Viscosity Increase To Time 20000, For Example
Lubrication In Cogwheels Or Gear Can Be Submitted To Pressure
Of 1 Gpa And Higher In Most Liquid, Pressure Reduces The Free
Volume In The Internal Structure. LIBRICANT GRADES OR
GRADES VISCOSITY :1)ISO (International Standards
Organization) Viscosity Grades: Features Of ISO Grades Of
Viscosity Are: I. Consists Of 18 Viscosity Grades In The Range Of
2cst1500cst At 40℃Summarized In The Table Below. Ii. Viscosity
Grade Indicates The Mid-Point Kinematic Viscosity In Cst At 40℃.
Iii. The Classification Is Silent About Any Aspect On Viscosity
Temperature Or Other Behavioral Characteristics, Quality, Type
Of Hydrocarbon And Application Of Lubricant. Iv. The Graduation
Is Based On The Principle That The Mid-Point Kinematic Viscosity
Of Each Grade Is Nearly 50% Greater Than The Preceding
One.2)SAE (Society Of Automotive Engineers) Viscosity
Grades. SAE GRADES SAE Viscosity Grades Are Categorized
Into SAE Engine Oil And SAE Transmission Lubricants. The
Classification Is Based On Viscosity Values At 210 ⁰F. The Suffix
‘W’ Indicates Winter Grades, I.E. These Grades Have Good Cold
Start-Up Characteristics. These Characteristics Mean Lubricant
Retaining Fluidity At Low Temperatures And Are Easily
Pumped.3) AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association)
Viscosity Grades AGMA Grades Standardize Gear Oils Based On
Additives Used. These Are Rust And Oxidation Inhibited Gear Oil,
Extreme Pressure Gear Lubricant AndCompoundOil.VISCOSITY
MEASUREMENT:1)ROTATIONAL VISCOMETER: Rotational
Viscometers Use The Idea That The Torque Required To Turn An
Object In A Fluid Is A Function Of The Viscosity Of That Fluid.
They Measure The Torque Required To Rotate A Disk Or Bob In
A Fluid At A Known Speed. This Is Perhaps The Only Viscometer
That Measure The Absolute Viscosity Of The Oil. It Is In The Form
Of Two Concentric Cylinders Of Which One Rotates In The Oil
Whose Viscosity Is To Be Measured. The Absolute Viscosity Is
Measured By Measuring The Frictional Drag Due To Viscous
Shear On The Inner Cylinder At A Particular Velocity. This
Viscometer Is Suitable For Measuring The Viscosities Of Oils
Having Higher Viscosity. 2)U-TUBE VISCOMETER: These
Viscometers Are Also Known As Glass Capillary Viscometers Or
Ostwald Viscometer. IT Consists Of A U-Shaped Glass Tube Held
Vertically In A Controlled Temperature Bath. In One Arm Of The U
Is A Vertical Section Of Precise Narrow Bore (The Capillary).
Above There Is A Bulb, With It Is Another Bulb Lower Down On
The Other Arm. In Use, Liquid Is Drawn Into The Upper Bulb By
Suction, Then Allowed To Flow Down Through The Capillary Into
The Lower Bulb. Two Marks (One Above And One Below The
Upper Bulb) Indicate A Known Volume. 3)CAPILLARY
VISCOMETER: The earliest method for measuring viscosity were
based n using capillary tubes and measuring the time it took for a
volume of liquid to pass through the length of the tube 4)Zahn cup
similar to this method is Zahn cup which is a small container with
handle and a small hole in the bottom the time take to empty the
cup through the hole is correlated to viscosity it is used in the paint
industry.5) falling sphere viscometer : anther technique is (fsp)
in which a sphere of known density is dropped into the fluid
sample and the time it take for the sphere to fall ta a specified
point is recorded. 6) saybolt and redwood : saybolt – has a
vertical cylindrical chamber filled with liquid whose viscosity is to b
measured. It is surrounded by a constant temp bath and a
capillary tube (length 12mm and dia 1.75mm ) is attached
vertically at the bottom of the chamber for measuring of viscosity
the stopper at bottom of the tube is removed and time for 6ml of
liquid to flow is noted which is named as saybolt second.
Redwood – it is another type viscometer that work on the same
principle of saybolt here the sopper is replace with an orifice and
redwood second is define for collection of 50ml of liquid to flow
out of orifice . in general both the viscometer are used to compare
the viscosities of different liquid so the value of viscosity of the
liquid may be obtained by comparison with valve of the for the
liquid of known viscosity .