Airport Terminals

1. Airports: Global Reach, Local Impacts

The rapid expansion of air passengers and air freight flows fostered by
globalization has increased the importance and pressure on the global system
of airports. On the eve of the pandemic, airports were more prominent than
ever before in the volumes of traffic they handled, their spatial extent, the
distances that separated them from the cities they serve, their costs and
economic impacts, their social importance, their environmental externalities,
and the political controversies they engendered.
Demand pattern. The population also influences freight traffic as it
consumes goods carried by air cargo. Combining these factors is associated
with the demand of a substantial amount of air traffic.
Network connectivity. The decision made by airlines to select hubs within
their network substantially impacts the traffic handled by airports.
Competing airports. If a metropolitan area is serviced by more than one
airport, traffic gets diluted since users have more choices, and connectivity is
more challenging to establish.
Physical capacity. Airports have a physical capacity related to the number
and length of their runways and terminals.
Global. Airports are key articulation points in the circulatory system of the
global economy. The importance of an airport in this regard is a function of
its centrality and its intermediacy. The former refers to a node’s role as an
origin and destination gateway to a surrounding region, and the latter refers to
the degree to which a node serves as an interchange between different
regions. Global outsourcing and offshoring have increased the importance of
intermediacy on a global scale.
Regional / National. While globe-straddling flights have garnered a lot of
attention , most flights do not cross international boundaries, and an even
higher proportion stay within the same region. At this scale, the network of
airports helps tie together nations and regions.
Local. Airports, especially large ones, are defining features of the
communities in which they are set. For Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport, it was
estimated that 65,000 people were employed at the airport in 2013. Airports
are not just features of a community’s economic geography, however. An
airport the size of Schiphol is a critically important source of noise pollution
and other local environmental effects, a large consumer of land, and a
signature piece of the built environment.
The global, regional, and local character of airports cannot be separated. For
instance, large corporate headquarters have a pronounced tendency to cluster
in cities with good international air accessibility. For instance, there is a
strong correlation between the number of headquarters and the number of
airline passengers in US metropolitan areas. There is evidence that air
accessibility is also a catalyst for jobs in logistics, knowledge-intensive
information economy industries, and high-order producer services . The
relationship between jobs and air accessibility works in both directions, but it
appears that the second direction is stronger.
Similarly, the negative externalities associated with aviation, especially noise
and air pollution, are locally concentrated around airports but stem from
flights whose purpose is to transcend the local scale. Almost a third of those
deaths are concentrated within 20 kilometers of a commercial airport. The
brunt of noise falls even more heavily on the local vicinity of airports. At
London’s Heathrow Airport, for instance, tests found that the noise level
beneath the flight path of a departing Airbus A350-1000 dropped below 85
decibels approximately 6 kilometers from the beginning of the takeoff roll.
Centrality and Intermediacy
The concept of centrality is straightforward as the vicinity of the terminal is
either the origin or the destination of the movement, which in turn is linked
with the level of economic activity. The extent of this vicinity remains to be
fully assessed, but a range of about 100 km appears suitable as it corresponds
to a commuting or drayage range.
Range. A conventional aspect of intermediacy that tends to be less important
today. Due to technical limitations of the modes, such as the range of an
aircraft or the need to refuel a coal-powered ship, intermediate locations were
used as stages to overcome the range gap, as two locations could not be
reached in a single trip. Although range plays a more limited role for air
passenger transportation, it is still prevalent for air freight transportation as
the range of freight aircraft is more limited due to heavier loads.
Gateway. Thus, in order to reach its final destination, a movement must use
an intermediate location, often implying a transfer from one mode to the
other.
Hub (Interception). A location nearby, or at, the convergence of several
long-distance routes can develop an intermediacy by «intercepting» some of
the traffic.
Hub (Transcalar). Air transportation is a notable example of the emergence
of hub-and-spoke network structures where the hub is an intermediate
location between regional and international flights.
Modern Airport Terminal, Barajas, Madrid, Spain
Airports are among the most complex terminals. Moving large numbers of
people through an airport has become a very significant challenge, not least
because of security concerns. The result is that a wide range of services has to
be provided for passengers not directly related to the transfer function,
including restaurants, bars, stores, and hotels. In addition, there are activities
directly related to operations, such as check-in halls, waiting areas, passenger
loading ramps, and baggage handling facilities. Very high ceilings convey an
impression of spaciousness, which has a calming effect on passengers. Since
the linear design conveys long distances between gates, mechanized
walkways are a common feature.
Marrakech Menara Airport

Islamic motifs in the arabesques embellish the walls complementing the high
sweeping roof and a light-filled environment inside. The extension raised the
capacity of the airport to 4.5 million passengers per year, and the opening of
another terminal in 2016 boosted it further to 9 million.
Corporate Headquarters and Metropolitan Population, United States
Corporate headquarters tend to be located in metropolitan areas that are well-
integrated into air transport networks. Conversely, airlines tend to select their
hubs based on the level of corporate activity. The above graph relates the
number of Fortune 1000 headquarters to the metro population for 2006. In
general, more populous metropolitan areas have more headquarters. The blue
line is the regression line of best fit. Points above the line have more
headquarters than we would expect based on their population.
Airbus A350-941

Introduced into service in 2015, the Airbus A350 is a remarkably efficient

aircraft. With two engines, like most contemporary commercial jets, and 300
to 350 seats, the plane can fly up to 9,700 nautical miles nonstop. The A350
has a 40 percent smaller noise footprint than the aircraft it was designed to
replace.
Passenger and Freight Traffic at European Airports, 2018
Like its North American counterpart, the European air transport system shows
a level of divergence between passenger and freight services, but to a lower
extent. The main airports are usually the hubs of national carriers such as
British Airways , Air France , Lufthansa , KLM , or Iberia . The major freight
airports are usually similar to the main passenger airports, but specialized
freight airports, including Liege and Leipzig, have emerged.
Passenger and Freight Traffic at North American Airports, 2018

The North American passenger and freight air transport system is designed
around the hub-and-spoke network structure. There is a significant divergence
between the activity level of passenger and freight airports. For instance,
Delta operates hubs in Atlanta , Detroit , and Minneapolis , while United
operates hubs in Denver , Houston , Chicago , Los Angeles , and Newark .
The first concerns the major commercial gateways of North America , which
are at the same time major consumption markets. The second concerns the
hub-and-spoke strategies of air freight integrators.
Passenger and Freight Traffic at East and Southeast Asian Airports,
2018
There is a convergence between passenger and freight activity in East and
Southeast Asia . China is developing a substantial internal air transport
market dominated by the hubs of Beijing , Shanghai , Guangzhou , and
Chengdu . Since many of the coastal cities of the region are also major export
centers, large concentrations of air cargo activity have emergence around
Bangkok , Singapore , the Pearl River Delta , and the Yangtze River Delta.
 The articulation of airports across several scales exacerbates the
potential for significant conflict between those who benefit most from
aviation and those who bear the costs. One of the most frequent causes
of conflict is the siting of airports.
2. Airport Sites
Airports require very large sites; they need space for the two main
components – runways and terminal buildings – as well as for maintenance
hangars, parking, and other facilities. The runway remains one of the most
vital elements of air transportation as it dictates the system’s capacity. Thus,
airports are sited at the periphery of urban areas because such sites offer a
balance between available land costs and accessibility to the urban core. The
examples of Denver and Montreal illustrate how difficult and contentious
such developments have become.
Airport Components and Terminal Configurations
An airport has two major components; an airfield and terminals. Runways are
labeled according to the direction they are facing. Connecting lanes between
the runway and the taxiing lanes usually have an angle permitting the quick
exit from the runway for planes that have just landed. Modern airfield designs
provide two of three exiting options per landing direction, depending on the
plane’s size.
Standard. The linear orientation of terminals allows several planes to board
passengers simultaneously and represents one of the most common terminal
designs. This design can be expanded into piers or a series of concourses
linked by underground passages and internal transit systems. This is
particularly the case for large hubs where passengers can contemplate several
minutes of walking between gates.
The satellite is often linked to the rest of the airport by a hall or an
underground passage.
Some airports opt for shuttles, which enables them to reduce the size of the
terminal and maximize the number of planes that can be serviced. The usage
of shuttles is often applied at major airport facilities where regular jet bridges
service large planes while smaller domestic planes are parked on a pad and
serviced by buses.
Airport Location Factors
The suitability of an airport site considering an isotropic plain can be viewed
as a balance between two opposing forces
Benefits. The airport can conveniently service a metropolitan area and
maximize the market potential of its customer base. Beyond that threshold, an
airport does not serve its metropolitan area well, as an undue amount of time
must be spent to reach it.
Externalities. The opportunity cost for the land devoted to the airport, the
number of people adversely affected by noise, and incompatibilities with local
land use increase. Under such circumstances, an airport site should be as far
as possible from the city center.
Suitability. Benefits and externalities functions tend to be inversely
proportional. Consequently, a compromise is sought by choosing a site that is
close enough to provide significant benefits and far enough to minimize
externalities.
The real locational context of an airport is obviously much more complex
with additional geographical (availability of flat land) and land use
constraints, implying that fewer sites may be suitable.
Distribution of Airports by Altitude

Like the world’s population distribution, most commercial airports are located
at lower altitudes. Aircraft taking off at higher altitudes require a longer
runway due to lower air density.
Dun Huang Airfield, China

Phonsavan Airfield, Laos

Basic Airstrip, Corn Island, Nicaragua

Air transportation forecast demand. Larger aircraft generally require
longer runways.
Runway configuration. However, where runways intersect, capacity is
significantly reduced. Parallel runway configurations generally demand more
space than crossing runways.
Altitude. At higher altitudes, a longer runway is required to achieve the same
lift because the air density is lower.
Meteorological conditions. Local variations in prevailing winds and
visibility must be considered. For instance, at Heathrow Airport, winds are
most likely to come out of the east, so its runways have an east-west
configuration. Airport sites also vary in their vulnerability to fog and cloud
cover.
Topography. The land upon which runways are built must be flat, with no
more than a 1 percent slope. Hilly land can be flattened and swampy
landfilled, but at a cost.
Environmental considerations. Airports have significant effects on local
waterways, wildlife, and air quality.
Adjacent land uses. Concerns about noise and other airport impacts have
encouraged setting aside buffer areas much larger than runways, and the
supporting terminals, taxiways, and other infrastructure required. In other
cases, such as Dun Huang in China, specific geographical constraints had to
be respected, namely that the airport could not consume scarce agricultural
land.
Local accessibility. Of the world’s twenty busiest airports, only two do not
have direct rail access from an airport terminal, and by 2023, even those
airports will be linked.
Obstructions. Beyond the airport perimeter, the proximity of mountains,
hills, and heavily built-up areas complicates airport operations.
Other airports. Nearby airports, especially in the same metropolitan area,
may limit the available airspace and constrain new airport operations. Many
cities around the world are serviced by more than one airport, usually within a
range of 100 to 150 km.
The increasing physical size of airports and the difficulty of fitting in with
neighboring land uses have encouraged the development of airports at
increasingly remote locations. This often requires providing transit services
such as light rail to connect the airport to central areas.
Distance from CBD and Age of the World’s Largest Airports

Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal

Seattle Light Rail – SeaTac Airport Station
Asia is home to several examples of «airport terraforming». The state of
Odisha in eastern India, with a population of 46 million people, had just four
commercial airports in 2021.
Similar obstacles have confronted new airport development in more advanced
economies. Airports are political lightning rods, and examples from around
the world illustrate how difficult and contentious such projects can be,
especially in democracies.
3. Keeping Pace: Airports and Delay
Like international trade, the growth pattern in air transportation is cyclical and
subject to phases of growth and decline. About 8,000 passengers per minute
took off from a runway somewhere in the world in 2018, underlining the
intense use of the world’s airports. Nevertheless, the expansion of air traffic
ensures that the building of new runways, new terminals, and new airports
will continue. There are a variety of means other than new runways and
terminals to meet the needs of the future, including better use of information
technology, such as air traffic control systems.
This has become a particular vulnerability within air transportation, notably in
systems actively developed around the hub-and-spoke structure. Any
disruption in a hub can have far-reaching consequences on the whole network.
The US distinguishes five causes of airport delays. In order of importance in
2018, these were:
1. Late arriving aircraft delay (6.8% of all flights were delayed for this
reason).1
2. National aviation system delays (6.1%) include, for instance, heavy traffic
volumes and air traffic control.
3. Air carrier delay (5.2%) comprising problems under the airline’s control,
including maintenance and crew issues.
4. Extreme weather delay (0.7%).
5. Security delay (0.03%).
Hourly Level of Activity at Selected Airports, 2015
Vertical and Lateral Passenger Flows at an Airport Terminal

On-Time Flight Arrivals in the United States, 1995-2020

Airport Hubbing Level
Customs Pre-Clearance Airports for the United States

Main Hall of Humberto Delgado Airport, Lisbon

Mumbai Airport Takeoff Queue

Jet Bridge, Warsaw Airport

The significance of late-arriving aircraft delay is a testament to the degree to
which problems at highly congested hub airports quickly propagate through
the hub-and-spoke structures in which they are at the center. If a congested
hub is forced to shut down for a short period, especially during one of the
connection banks, when activity peaks, delays cascade through the system.
Conversely, Salt Lake City , one of the locations with the most sunny days in
the country, had the best performance among busy airports.
Congestion and delays are the most common when an airport runs out of
capacity since the advantage of an airport site can be a double-edged sword,
as it attracts additional passengers and air services. The problem of aviation
delay is not due solely to what happens in airports. The airspace in between is
also congested. In the United States, controllers still use slips of paper to
exchange information about aircraft being tracked; so digitization could speed
things up. In Europe, meanwhile, the fragmentation of the continent into
dozens of national airspace systems is a different kind of obstacle that, if
overcome, could smooth the movement of air traffic.
4. Airports and Regional Development
Airports are substantial engines of economic activity. A growing number of
airport regions are planned specifically to encourage these connections,
creating a form of metropolitan development called «aerotropolis».
Four major types of airport-related economic effects can be identified:
Direct effects. Include the activities undertaken at the airport itself: services
to passengers (check-in, security, boarding), cargo (loading and unloading),
and aircraft (refueling, cleaning).
Indirect effects. Comprise the economic activities powered by backward
linkages from the airport, such as jet fuel suppliers, electricity producers, and
other utilities, and fresh food sold in on-site airport restaurants.
Induced effects. Comprise the economic activities powered by forward
linkages, especially the spending by people who work at the airport and the
passengers passing through it.
Catalytic effects. Include the activities an airport attracts through lower
transportation costs and network accessibility.
Non-aeronautical revenue has grown rapidly over the past few decades as
major airports have become retail destinations instead of just places to speed
through en route to somewhere else. Uber, Lyft, and other car-sharing
services are cutting into parking revenue, and slow security screening has cut
into the time available for people to shop in airports.
The airport business has also been buffeted by its dramatic changes, some of
which stem from the airlines. Most major airports and airlines were state-
owned, run as public utilities, and somewhat insulated from competition.
Key Aerotropolis Developments

Alternative Airports
Hubs of Major Air Freight Integrators

Blaise Diagne International Airport

Impacts of COVID-19 on Airport Passenger and Freight Activity, 2019-

2020
Amazon Air Hub at Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport

More importantly, airports compete more fiercely for business than in the
past. In Belgium, Ryanair and other LCCs have made Charleroi South
Brussels Airport an alternative gateway to the region surrounding the EU
capital. The carrier was initially attracted to the airport by a variety of
subsidies and other financial incentives from the local and regional
governments.
The air cargo business is an important component of many airports. The
importance of Memphis and Louisville, for instance, in cargo flows, is
attributable to the hubs operated by FedEx and UPS, respectively. In Europe,
Liege, Belgium, and Leipzig, Germany, have also become freight hubs, partly
because they have looser nighttime operations restrictions than larger airports.
Ultimately, an airport, especially a large one, is more than a node in the flow
of people and goods. To take one final example, in late 2017, after years of
delay, Senegal’s new $600 million Blaise Diagne International Airport
opened 40 kilometers east of the capital Dakar. Still, the new airport – which
relieved a severely congested one hemmed in by urban development – was
well-situated to mediate connections between Africa’s growing economies
and the rest of the world.
The distance of airports from the city they serve and the time many users
spend accessing them underline a key question concerning the regional
development impact of any airport: which stakeholder benefits the most?
Even in an era of low-cost carriers, aviation remains expensive, but rising
incomes make it increasingly accessible in developing economies. The
recovery to date has been highly uneven. In 2020, seven of the world’s ten
busiest airports ranked by passenger volumes were in China, led by
Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport. The long-term durability of
switching to working from home and replacing face-to-face meetings with
virtual meetings remains uncertain. These circumstances are likely to mute
the development impact of airports in many parts of the world for some time.