Sensors and Signal Conditioning

Introduction
As applied to instrumentation and control, a sensor or transducer is a device that changes a physical quantity
into an electrical quantity.

Voltage
Physical quantity Current
Temperature Sensor Resistance
Light intensity Inductance
Displacement Capacitance
Frequency

Figure 2.1

Typical non-electrical quantities that are transduced into electrical signals are temperature, light intensity,
displacement, weight and speed.

Electrical quantities that are produced by sensors are variations in voltage, current, resistance, inductance,
capacitance or frequency.

A sensor is made from a material that exhibits a particular variation on some electrical property owing to a
change in the physical measurand. Principles that are generally used are:
 Change in resistance due to a change in the measurend, e.g., in RTD.
 Generation of a voltage or current that depends on the level of the measurand, e.g., in a
thermocouple and a tachogenerator.
 Change in capacitance owing to a change of the measurand.
 Change in inductance owing to a change of the measurand.
 Change of frequency owing to a change in the measurand.

Signal Conditioning
Signals from sensors are often in a form that cannot be directly input into a controller. Signal conditioning is
used transform sensor outputs into signals that can be used by other components in the system. Signal
conditioning involves one or the following as necessary:
 Signal type conversion, e.g., resistance to voltage
 Amplification
 Filtering
 Linearizing
 Rectification
 Attenuation

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Mainly, operational amplifier circuits are employed as the signal conditioning circuits. A large number of
industrial sensors are built into a unit that contains both the sensing element and the signal conditioning
circuitry.

Standard Control Signal levels

These are levels of instrumentation and control signals that have been agreed on as ranges that equipment
work with. Standardising signal levels enables equipment from different manufactures to be connected
together.

In general, the signal conditioning applied in sensor units produces output signals that conform to the
standard signal levels.

For discrete components, standard signal levels are 0/24VDC, 0/220VAC, 0/110VDC. For continuous
components, standard signal levels are 4-20mA, 3-15psi, 0-10V, 0-5V.

Characteristics of a sensor
1) Accuracy – the maximum difference between the output of the sensor and the actual value of the
measurand.
2) Resolution – the smallest change in the measurand that the sensor can detect.
3) Repeatability – standard deviation when more than one measurement is made on the same
magnitude of the measurand.
4) Precision – accuracy, resolution and repeatability of a sensor relative to others.
5) Linearity – a linear sensor is one which exhibits a linear relationship between the output and the
input.
6) Range – the limits of the measurand value in which the sensor works.
7) Dynamic response – frequency range of the sensor.
8) Environmental limits – limits of the environmental conditions in which the sensor operates, e.g.,
humidity, temperature.
9) Calibration – an act to determine or set the relationship between the input and the output of a
sensor. Calibration needs to be done at intervals to ensure the sensor is giving correct results.
10) Cost – rises with increasing precision.

Types of sensors
The two types of sensors are discrete sensors and continuous sensors. Discrete sensors give an output that
can assume only two possible levels, e.g., 0/24VDC as output. They are mainly used to detect state of a
process for example:
 A production item has reached a desired point
 Conveyor belt is moving
 A machine arm has reached the extreme end

Examples are simple mechanical switches, limit switches, optical sensors and proximity switches. The
physical phenomena that is generally used includes:
 Mechanical – detects objects by physical contact
 Inductive proximity – detects magnetic objects
 Capacitive proximity – detects dielectric objects

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  Optical presence – detects if a light beam has been broken or has been reflected.

Continuous sensors produce a signal whose magnitude varies with the magnitude of the measurand.
Examples are thermocouple, RTD, tachogenerator and a load cell. Examples of situations where they are
used are in measurement of:
 Angular or linear position
 Acceleration
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Flow rate
 Stress, strain, force
 Light intensity
 Sound

Connection of Discrete Sensors

Discrete sensors work by switching their outputs on or off. Typical nature of outputs are:
 Plain switch – switches a voltage eon or off.
 Sinking or sourcing – switches a current on or off
 TTL
 Solid state relay

Plain switch
The sensor unit closes or opens a mechanical contact. In a NO switch, the contacts close when an object is
sensed. In a NC switch, the contacts open when an object is sensed. Connection of a plain switch is shown in
figure 2.2

Figure 2.2

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For a simple mechanical switch, the switch is connected directly to the power supply so that when it closes it
applies a voltage input to or allows a current to flow into the controller.

Where a mechanical switch forms the output stage, the output contacts are connected in a supply circuit so
as to apply a voltage or current to the controller. The sensing part of the sensor requires a supply connection
as well.

Sourcing/sinking
The sensor unit output stage switches on or off a current signal based on having sensed presence or absence
of the object being sensed. Sinking and sourcing are terms describing the output stage.

A sinking output allows a current to flow into the sensor from a positive terminal. Normally, an NPN
transistor switch is used as the output stage. A sourcing output allows a current flow out of the sensor to a
negative terminal. Normally a PNP transistor switch is used as the output stage. Figure 2.3 illustrates
sourcing and sinking.

In sourcing and sinking, emphasis is on current flow. Use of current flow reduces effects of electrical noise.

Figure 2.3 (a)

Figure 2.3 (b)

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Both the sensing element and the output stage need a power supply.

3-wire connection to a controller

Figure 2.4 illustrates a 3-wire connection.

The current loop is shown by the dashed line. Opto-couplers inside the controller change the sensor output
into TTL levels for use by the internal circuitry.

Figure 2.4 (a)

Figure 2.4 (b)

2-wire connection to a controller

The method reduces the number of wires used for connecting to the sensor. Figure 2.5 illustrates 2-wire
connection.

The common line acts as both the sensor output and the common line. The sensor requires a small current
to operate. When the sensor is active, more current will flow. The input of the controller allows a small

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current to flow when the sensor is inactive but is able to detect when the current exceeds a certain
threshold (that indicates the sensor is active).

Figure 2.5

TTL
 Sensor gives a 0/5DC output.
 Sensors that give TTL outputs need the controller to have a TTL input interface module.

Solid state relay

 Is used to switch AC signals

Personal Investigations
Look at the various discrete sensors found in industry. Find out how they operate and are connected to the
controllers or to control circuits. Some sensors to look at are:
 Contact switches
 Reed switches
 Optical (photoelectric) sensors
 Capacitive sensors
 Inductive sensors
 Ultrasonic sensors
 Hall effect sensors
 Fluid flow sensors

Connection of continuous sensors to controllers

The two types of connections used to connect to sensors are:
 Single ended – one common line
 Double ended – separate common lines

Analog signals are prone to electrical noise. Techniques used to reduce electrical noise are:
 Twisted pairs to reduce noise induced by magnetic fields
 Shielding to reduce effects of electromagnetic interference

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Figure 2.6 illustrates connections

Figure 2.6

Personal Investigations
Look at the various continuous sensors found in industry. Find out how they operate and are connected to the
controllers or to control circuits. Some sensors to look at are:
 Potentiometers
 Encoders
 Tachogenerator
 Linear variable displacement transformer (LVDT)
 Differential transformer
 Accelerometer
 Strain gauge
 Piezoelectric
 Liquid and fluid pressure sensors
 Venture valves
 RTDs
 Thermocouples
 Thermisters
 LDRs

Assignment following a visit to a plant

1. Describe a discrete sensor you recognised. How does it work? What are the signal levels at the sensor
output? For what purpose is it used?
2. Describe a continuous sensor you recognised. How does it work? What are the signal levels at the
sensor output? For what purpose is it used?

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