Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background to the study

There are numerous laudable reasons why the city of Bulawayo in Zimbabwe should adopt
stakeholder participation in its water management and development conundrum.

Firstly, it might be prudent for the city to embrace worldwide stakeholder driven water reforms
than to maintain the traditional state run methods of water management. For the past three
decades, a series of international water conferences such as International Conference on Water
and Environment (I.C.W.E) (1992), Second Water Forum (2000) ,International Conference On
Freshwater (2001), World Summit On Sustainable Development (2002), Third World Water
Forum (2003) and Kyoto Protocol (2003) collectively led to a global water sector reform that is
credited for instigating a paradigm shift of water resources management from state centered
towards a decentralized and user centered approach in resolving the current global water crisis
(Glicken ,2000).

According to (Lekunze,2001), Faced with this need for water reform, the I.C.W.E held in Dublin
in June 1992 and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (U.N.C.E.D)
held in Rio de Janeiro, June 1992,came up with a new paradigm of water resources management
referred to as Integrated Water Resources Management (I.W.R.M).

I.W.R.M is a “process, which promotes the coordinated development and management of water,
land related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an
equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital
ecosystem.,”G.W.P(2000:15).I.W.R.M(Dublin-Rio statement) tries to move away from the
traditional sub–sectoral to cross sectoral water management and expresses a holistic,
comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach to water resource problems worldwide based on four
guiding principles which cover environmental, social, political and economic concerns first
formulated as the Dublin principles, Lekunze (2001:15).
Through I.W.R.M, it is expected that water resources can be managed in a way that promotes
poverty alleviation, meet the MDGs as well enhance equitable access to water resources for all
whilst minimizing negative environmental impact. Lekunze(2001:01).

The second and third Dublin principles that state respectively that “water development and
management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy
makers at all levels;” and “women play a central part in the provision, management and
safeguarding of water,” are considered to be of overriding importance (Savenije and Van der
zaag, Manzunga,2000) .In essence stakeholder participation in water management around the
world is nowadays generally regarded as a panacea to global water crisis.

Bulawayo City is part of the global village and may overcome its perennial water crisis by taking
a cue from the Zimbabwe Water Policy framework that is guided by the new Water Act (Chapter
20:24) and is a product of the influence of the international water sector reform agenda.
Zimbabwe, South Africa, Zambia, Swaziland, Ghana, Malawi, Uganda, Kenya ,Senegal and
Tanzania are some of the countries that have adopted IWRM approach in their water governance
discourse (Kujinga and Mazunga, 2004).

Apart from recognizing the need of involving stakeholders in the management of water
resources, the new approach also recognizes the “river basin” as the most appropriate unit for
water resources management (Granit, 2000; Savenije and Van der Zaag, 2000; Jaspers, 2003,
Wester et al, 2003; Anderson, 2005; Chikozho, 2005).

The effect of the New Water Act (chapter 20:24) was to decentralize management of stakeholder
– managed catchment Councils (CCs) and sub – Catchment Council (SCCs) .These key water
institutions purpose is to manage water affairs on a day to day basis. Zimbabwe now has seven
demarcated water catchment areas namely: Gwayi, Mzingwane , Mazowe, Runde , Sanyathi,
Manyame and Save. The City of Bulawayo relies on the Upper Mzingwane and Upper Gwayi
sub catchment councils respectively for its water supply sources.

Numerous countries have made major strides towards the successful implementation of IWRM
agenda. The benefits of a well targeted approach can be seen in Uganda and Senegal. Senegal
has raised urban water access from 58% to 98% within a decade. (Rahaman and Varis,2000).
The Ugandan water supply and sanitation sector has made spectacular progress in urban areas
since the mid 1990s, with substantial increases in coverage as well as in operational and
commercial performance. (Mugisha, Silver; Berg, Sanford, 2006).

The National Water Policy (NWP), adopted in 1999, promotes IWRM, a comprehensive
approach to water supply. In addition, the NWP recognizes the economic value of water,
promotes the participation of all stakeholders, including women and the poor, in all stages of
water supply and sanitation, and confirms the right of all Ugandans to safe water.

The water sanitation sector has been recognized as a key area under the 2004 Poverty
Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), Uganda’s main strategy paper to fight poverty. (Poverty
Eradication Action Plan, 2004).

The benefits of implementing IWRM are now visible. Access to an improved water source
increased from 43% in 1990 to 72% in 2010, according to estimates by the Joint Monitoring
Programmed for Water Supply and Sanitation of the United Nations. In the same period, access
to improved sanitation increased slightly from 27% to 34% (WHO; UNICEF “Joint Monitoring

Bulawayo can take a leaf from successful cases of countries that have overcome their water crisis
Programme,” 2012) problems through implementing appropriate IWRM strategies such as
Senegal and Uganda.

Secondly, there is a need for the city of Bulawayo to attain sustainable water supply if its
development challenges are to be overcome.

Water is central to Bulawayo’s development challenges. It is key to achieving MDGs .(Global

water partnership ,2000). In his centenary celebration speech. The mayor of Bulawayo,
Councillor Joshua Malinga (1994) said the non availability of adequate water supplies was the
concern from the 1890s, it has continued to the present time to be a major constraint in the
development of the city.

By the turn of the 21st Century Zimbabwe was poised to meet a major component of the MDG 7
(that is ,halving the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation by 2015).
Thus, in 2000 Zimbabwe’s water supply and sanitation coverage was around 90% in urban areas
(BCC, 2002,UNICEF AUSAID, 2009). Currently it is estimated that coverage with adequate
water supply is now only 60% and for sanitation 40% (MOHCW, 2009) the quality of water and
standard of water and sanitation services that Zimbabwe’s Urban areas provided in the past
decade has deteriorated significantly implying that access, quality and quantity has declined and
is retrogressive to the MDGs to which Zimbabwe signed up (WHO – UNICEF, 2010).

This state of affairs reveals the necessity for city councils of Zimbabwe including Bulawayo to
vigorously pursue the implementation of IWRM agenda if their water supply and sanitation
coverage are to meet the MDG goal 7 by the year 2015 and for the future generations.

IWRM is highly rated for its focus on the concept of local participation, an approach stressed in
the agenda of the UNICED and recently, Koffi Annan, UN former Secretary General emphasised
that “without the fullest participation of people at all levels of society the goal of full coverage of
water supply and sanitation is unlikely to be obtained (UNEP 2001:2) .

Thirdly, stakeholder participation in water management in Bulawayo will lead to poverty

eradication which internationally is used as part of a yardstick to measure the level of
development of a nation. According to Dudley Seers (1993) Conceptual framework of
development states that three factors must be adequately addressed in order to consider a given
country or region developed. These are poverty, unemployment and inequality. He added “if one
or two of these have been growing worse, especially if all of these have; it would be strange to
call the results development even per capita income doubles” This study contends that water is a
valuable but vulnerable natural asset. This view is in line with Dublin principles 1 which states
“Fresh water is finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and
environment. “ .

According to the Kyoto protocol (2003) concurs with the notion that well managed water
resources lead to poverty eradication as it states that “water is a driving force for sustainable
development including environmental integrity, and eradication of poverty and hunger,
indispensable for health and welfare. Prioritizing water issues is an urgent global requirement.
Empowerment of local authorities and communities should be promoted by governments with
due regard to the poor and gender.”
The Dublin principle four which states “water should be considered as an economic good “has
widened the rift between the rich and the poor in Zimbabwe. In Bulawayo the water tariffs since
the implementation of water reforms in 2000.(GWP,2000) have been astronomical making water
accessibility beyond the reach of the poor. Internationally the fourth principle became highly
debated and was opposed by water professionals from the developing world. They argued that no
water development initiatives could be sustainable if water was considered an economic good
without considering the issues of equity and poverty. (GWP, 2000).

In Zimbabwe the commercialization of water institutions like Zimbabwe National Water

Authority (ZINWA) in 2005 led to exceptionally high water bills to domestic and industrial
consumers. This development is perceived by many to be largely responsible for de-
industrialization and consequently high unemployment that led to a rise in poverty levels in
Bulawayo as water prices are high in a water scarce city.

In many developing countries, the very poor actually pay a great deal for water relative to their
income, but these costs are often hidden. Water is priced by all urban societies, and the poor
often have no choice but to pay high prices, spending between 5-10% of their income, however,
in contrast in most industrialized countries, the lower middle class spends 1-3% of their income
on portable water and sanitation (Selborne, 2000). For example, OECD countries, households
spend about 1% of their income on water, on the other hand, in Onitsha, Nigeria, the poor spend
as much as 18% of their income on water (Rogers et al, 2002).

Water should not be considered entirely as an economic good. It is a public good with a social
value as well. In fact, water is a basic human need and access to minimum quantities of safe
water (20 litres per person per day) should be everyone’s right. Lack of access to safe drinking
water, sanitation, and irrigation is directly related to poverty and poor health. For examples, in
South Asia, 300 million people have no safe drinking water and 920 million people have no
adequate sanitation (WWC, 2000).

In Bulawayo the current 72 hour water shedding widens citizens’ inequality as those with
boreholes have unlimited supply of water. Those who are disconnected from water supplies
owing to failure to pay water bills rely on the few public municipal boreholes, thus most women
and the poor spend most of their valuable time searching or queuing for water in public
boreholes.(Lewis,1994),concurs with this assertion by stating “all over the world many women
walk long distances to fetch water, spending four to five hours per day burdened under heavy
containers and suffering acute physical problems. In urban areas, women and girls wait hours
queuing for intermittent water supplies. Many of them have no time for other pursuits, such as
education, income generation or political activities.

Water experts in developing countries argue that the application of economic principles to the
allocation of water is acceptable, and provides a simple tool for the development of water
services in a more efficient direction. However, water should not be treated as a market oriented
commodity when it comes to domestic use for very basic needs, particularly for people in
extreme poverty. (Gunatilake and Gopalakrishrian, 2000)

In order to eradicate poverty, the city of Bulawayo should include marginalized members of the
society such as the poor and women’s groups in water management decisions. This is possible
through adoption of IWRM agenda. (Beetman, 1992, Midsgley et al 1986) concur with this
assertion as they state that if local people are to really benefit from any programmed aimed at
changing their quality of lives they must be involved in decision making. This study therefore
contends that, local participation in water resource management comes out of a growing
recognition that where local environmental knowledge is harnessed and where communities are
empowered and have rights to water resources; there is a greater likelihood of a sustainable
environment.

Given this background, the researcher seeks to pursue a study that investigates stakeholders
participation in water supply Management by the City of Bulawayo in conformity to the New
water Act Chapter (20:24) The sustainability and efficiencies of water supplies of the City of
Bulawayo basing on the dynamics of stakeholder participation in three water projects that supply
it with water namely Gwayi – Shangani, Mtshabezi and Nyamandlovu aquifer will be evaluated.

In Zimbabwe, there are a few studies on the country’s urban water governance driven by
stakeholder participation. This knowledge gap presenting the case of Bulawayo will be the focus
of this study. The Pungwe water project of Mutare is one rare successful example of a
stakeholder driven water management project in Zimbabwe.

1.2 Research Objectives

1.2.1 Main General Objective

The general purpose of this study is to evaluate stakeholders participation effectiveness in

water supplies management in conformity with the global water sector reforms
enunciated in Zimbabwe’s New Water Act (Chapter 20:24), by focusing on the case of
Bulawayo City.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

1. To verify how the city of Bulawayo undertake stakeholder participation in water

management supplies. in conformity with the provisions of the water act chapter (20:24).

2. To analyze how stakeholder identification was undertaken in water projects for

Bulawayo province by the City of Bulawayo in the following water projects:

a. The Mtshabezi water project (upper Mzingwane sub – catchment area)

b. The Nyamandlovu aquifer (upper Gwayi sub – catchment area)

c. The Gwayi - Shangani water project (upper Gwayi sub – catchment area)

3. To classify the justification of the stakeholder representation in the following water

Projects.

a. Mtshabezi - Mzingwane b. Nyamandlovu aquifer c. Gwayi –

Shangani

4. To determine the degree of participation of the marginalized groups in the major

Bulawayo water projects cycle.

5. To analyze the status of power relations amongst various stakeholder groups in

Bulawayo water projects.
6. To enumerate the types of stakeholders involved in the water management of the city
of Bulawayo.

7. To explain the depth of stakeholder participation in the major aspects of the project
cycle i.e. project design, implementation and evaluation on the following water
projects

a. Mtshabezi - Mzingwane b. Nyamandlovu aquifer c. Gwayi – Shangani

8. To list factors that contribute to water challenges pertaining to water supply of

Bulawayo.

9. To enumerate factors that may contribute to sustainability of Bulawayo water supply

projects.

10. To test independence of association between water challenges of Bulawayo City and
stakeholder participation.

11. To recommend sustainable solutions of water management to central government, the

City of Bulawayo and relevant stakeholders in a bid to solve the current water

problems of the City of Bulawayo.

1.2.3 Research Questions

1. How does the City of Bulawayo undertake stakeholder participation in water
management supplies in conformity with the provisions of the water act chapter (20:24)?
2. How was stakeholder identification undertaken by City of Bulawayo in the following
water projects?

a. The Mtshabezi water project (upper Mzingwane sub – catchment area)

b. The Nyamandlovu aquifer (upper Gwayi sub – catchment area)

c. The Gwayi - Shangani water project (upper Gwayi sub – catchment area)

3. How was the stakeholder representation in the following water?

 Projects classified?

a. Mtshabezi - Mzingwane b. Nyamandlovu aquifer c. Gwayi –

Shangani

4. What is the degree of participation of the marginalized groups( eg women ,the poor) in
the major Bulawayo water projects cycle?

5. What is the status of power relations amongst various stakeholder groups in

Bulawayo water projects?

6. What types of stakeholders are involved in the water management of the city of
Bulawayo?

7. What is the depth of stakeholder participation in the major aspects of the project cycle
i.e. project design, implementation and evaluation on the following water projects?

a. Mtshabezi - Mzingwane b. Nyamandlovu aquifer c. Gwayi – Shangani

8. What are the factors that contribute to water challenges pertaining to water supply of
Bulawayo?

9. What are the factors that contribute to the sustainability of Bulawayo water supply
projects?

10. What is the relationship between water challenges of Bulawayo City and stakeholder?

Participation ?

11. What are recommendations of sustainable solutions of water management to central

government, the City of Bulawayo and relevant stakeholders in a bid to solve the

Current water problems of the City of Bulawayo?

1.3 Research justification

Stakeholder participation is a vital component of Integrated Water Resources

Management internationally and particularly in Zimbabwe. This phenomenon is fairly
new in most countries and has few documented case studies. The findings obtained
from this study will hopefully contribute to central Government
efforts of improving the water sector reform Act Chapter (20:24) of 1998. Best practice
in stakeholders’ engagement in IWRM calls for public participation and community led
water management initiatives. Public participation, though not without its
challenges, is key to achieving improved quality of water management and in making
plans more effective. It is essential in securing increased acceptance and ownership
of those plans by the community so as to ensure successful implementation (Burrow
and Gibb, 1992)

Furthermore, Bulawayo water sector stakeholders will be enlightened about their

assertiveness to participate in water development projects of the city in pursuit of
sustainable water project management. According to GWP (1998) public participation
and participatory management frequently requires education and training amongst
stakeholders, particularly for monitoring and evaluation, as well as commitment and
acceptance.

The researcher expects to recommend sustainable solutions of water management to

Bulawayo municipality and ZINWA.

1.4 Statement of the problem

The city of Bulawayo with a population estimated at up to one million in 2010 is

Zimbabwe’s second largest city. The city is located in a semi arid and drought prone part
of Zimbabwe with low rainfall amounts. For decades the city has experienced serious
water supply shortages to its residents and industry.

In its efforts to mitigate the water crisis the city council frequently implements water
rationing and restrictions necessitated by scarce water resources owing to low rainfall,
high evaporation rates, siltation and water degradation (BCWCP, 2001, BCC, 2002).
Bulawayo is on the brink of running dry due to critical shedding of 72 hours weekly for
all suburbs is operational for all stakeholders coupled with disputed water bills,
unhygienic water sources, poor water sources and supply.

The Town Clerk(20 November2012),stated “The city’s water supply situation continues
to deteriorate. As at 19 November 2012, the dams were holding a total capacity of 139
million cubic meters. Of this amount Insiza dam holds 125 million cubic meters. It is
projected that Lower Ncema dam will be decommissioned at the end of December 2012,
and Inyankuni dam will be decommissioned at the end of March 2013, based on the
current restricted usage. Should these dams be decommissioned and Mtshabezi
commissioned the city’s available water will be 67Ml per day against a suppressed
demand of 150Ml per day.” The permanent solution to the City’s water shortage
problem is the National Matabeleland water project, which has been on the drawing
board for 100 years.

The researcher finds the city of Bulawayo’s century long perennial water problems
intriguing, particularly when the Government of Zimbabwe has embraced water reforms
by adopting IWRM strategies by enacting new water Acts that became legal from 1
January 2000. These water Acts promote stakeholders participation. The Acts are The
Water Act (chapter 20:24) and the Zimbabwe National Water Authority Act (ZINWA)
(chapter 20:25).

The adoption of IWRM strategies by Zimbabwe was expected that its water resources can
be managed in a way that promotes MDGs as well as enhance equitable access to water
resources, eradication of poverty and to minimize negative environmental impacts.
( Manzungu,1999). Simply put, it is meant to promote more efficient and sustainable
utilization of water through stakeholder involvement in water management at the
catchment council scale. 13 years later the city of Bulawayo is experiencing serious water
shortages, high levels of inequality in terms of water access, environmental degradation
of water supplies, poor water quality and escalation of poverty as many industries have
relocated from the city, partly because of expensive water supplies.
 This study seeks to unravel why the Municipality of Bulawayo is dogged by serious
water challenges for decades yet it’s a unique local authority in Zimbabwe that owns five
of its supply dams. What is more intriguing is to establish whether it undertakes
stakeholders participation of commercials, industrial, residence associations, EMA,
women etc groups in matters pertaining to water governance of the city as prescribed by
Zimbabwe’s 1998 water act chapter (20:24). In essence, stakeholder participation in
water supplies management and its implications in sustainability of water resources in
Bulawayo City will be the focus of this study.

This is motivated by the realization that the Bulawayo City Council has the mandate to
supply water to households and industries in the city under Section 168 of the Urban
Council Act (Chapter 29:15) and section 64 of the Public Health Act (chapter 15:09), the
city is also recognized as the water and sewage authority for the area under its
jurisdiction (Zimbabwe, 1996a and Zimbabwe, 1996,b). The urban local authorities are
empowered by this Act to outsource the provision of these services.

Furthermore, the city could take a leaf from countries that have successfully implemented
IWRM and solved their water crises through stakeholder’s participation in their water
governance such as Uganda and Senegal, as stated earlier.

1.4.1 Hypothesis

1. Ho. There is no association between stakeholder participation ineffectiveness and poor

water supplies management in Bulawayo City.

2. H1: There is an association (i.e. they are dependent).

1.5 Research methodology

A sample of two representative stakeholders from the following target population groups
industry, commerce, EMA, city councilors, residents associations, ZINWA, women’s
associations will be chosen.
 The type of investigation that will be undertaken by the researcher will be a descriptive
survey and will essentially be cross sectional. The research instrument used will be a
semi structured questionnaire with both open and closed ended questions. The
questionnaire will be administered personally to all relevant representatives of target
water stakeholders.

1.6 Data collection and analysis

Collection of data for this study will involve a combination of two data gathering
methods namely individual interviews and participant meeting observation. The study
will employ mixed methods which include both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Data collected will be analyzed using a computer software (SPSS) designed to analyze
social studies data. The chi-square test will used to test the independence of association.

1.7 Organization of Dissertation

The dissertation has five main chapters and will proceed as follows:

Chapter one presents the introduction of the study research objectives and questions,
research justification, research problem and hypothesis, research methodology, data
analysis and chapter summary

Chapter two begins with definition of terms followed by a profound literature review
about the subject matter of the research.

Chapter three present the research methodology of how the study was undertaken. This
includes data collection techniques as well as data analysis will be outlined.

Chapter four the chapter analyses the research findings. All data collected during the face
to face interviews will be analyzed. With the use of SPSS the research data will be
organized and interpreted using tables, pie-charts and graphs.

Chapter five – presentation of research conclusion and recommendation emanating from

Chapter four findings will be outlined. The possible solutions about the research
 problems will be given. Suggestions about future research on the subject matter will be
given.

1.8 Chapter Summary

The chapter gave a background of the study by giving an account of three important
reasons why Bulawayo City Should Embrace stakeholder participation in its water
governance programmes. These included the need to conform to global stakeholder
driven water reforms, the necessity of sustainable water supplies in the face of global,
regional and national water crisis and poverty eradication. These three reasons are not
exhaustive but nevertheless serve as prime factors that provoke the desire to consider
implementation of water stakeholder driven programmes in the city of Bulawayo.

Water challenges of the city of Bulawayo characterized by shortage of water, water

rationing, disputed bills, poor sanitation and hygiene and increasing poverty levels are
attributed to de – industrialization and unemployment partly caused by poor water
supplies have been chronicled as part of the issues that could be addressed by stakeholder
participation in water management programmes of the city. This is largely because
Community Participation in water management programmes have proved to be a panacea
of similar challenges, a case in point is the Pungwe water project in Mutare. It went on to
highlight water reforms that are stakeholder driven in numerous African countries. While
water reform is a global phenomenon, there is deficient knowledge gap about the same in
Zimbabwe, particularly in water development projects that supply Bulawayo city.

The purpose of this study is to contribute to filling of the knowledge gap by evaluating
stakeholder participation in water supplies Management and implications of sustainability
of water resource in Bulawayo city.

The Justification and credibility of the study is enhanced by the review of literature in the
next chapter which gives an insight of closely related development of sustainable water
sector reforms of both developed and developing nations.