Original article

Proc IMechE Part L:

J Materials: Design and Applications
Simultaneous effect of temperature, 2022, Vol. 236(5) 1020–1036
© IMechE 2022
shrinkage, and self-weight creep on RC Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
beams: A case study DOI: 10.1177/14644207211067440
journals.sagepub.com/home/pil

Seyed Bahram Beheshti Aval1, Mohsen Ghabdian1,

Mohammad Noori2 and Wael A Altabey3,4,5

Abstract
This study presents the results of long-term field measurement of two RC beams under the simultaneous effect of
medium to high temperature, shrinkage, and self-weight creep. In industrial complexes such as steel making plants,
these members may, in addition to creep and shrinkage, be exposed to high temperature. However, less attention has
been paid to the simultaneous effect of creep, shrinkage, and temperature in a case study framework. In this regard,
two RC beams with the same geometric properties in a pelletizing plant located in Kerman, Iran, were studied. In add-
ition, in order to establish a powerful numerical method for these effects, numerical results were compared with the field
measurement data. The results showed that an average increase by 50% in temperature would increase the maximum
deflection of RC beam by 37%. In the case of the environment temperature, grate machine temperature increased the
maximum deflection of RC beam by 61%. Moreover, field measurements showed that for self-weight creep level, shrink-
age, temperature, and cracking strains covered more than 80% of the total strain. Similarly, such as this case study, sim-
ultaneous effects of these triple factors can change the long-term serviceability of structural elements exposed to harsh
environmental conditions.

Keywords
ABAQUS, creep, RC beams, shrinkage, temperature
Date received: 8 May 2021; accepted: 1 December 2021

Introduction carried out on the effect of moderate to high temperature

Creep and shrinkage are the main sources of long-term
deflections in structures.1,2 In order to realistically
predict the time-dependent behavior of RC beams, a com-
plicated nonlinear formulation along with a sophisticated
computational model is needed.3,4 The complication is
due to dependencies of creep and shrinkage on a large
number of items, such as the amount and duration of
loading, microstructure and strength of RC, environmen-
tal factors, construction conditions, volume to surface area
ratio, etc. Based on the information provided by research-
ers, creep and shrinkage play a significant role in the
increase in displacements and spreading of cracks
throughout the structure.5 In light of these effects, many
researchers have carried out a large number of experimen-
tal programs on specimens in order to improve the accur-
acy in predicting the long-term behavior. In the literature
reviewed in this study, several studies focused on the
effect of moderate to high temperature on beam strength
and tended toward revealing damage properties.6–14 In
the case of RC beams, unlike the extensive research per-
formed to understand the performance of RC beams
exposed to creep and shrinkage, a few studies have been
on the short-term behavior of RC beams.15–24
Among the latter, Kodur and Dwaikat,25 using FEM,
analyzed flexural behavior of RC beams under high tem-
perature due to fire. Results showed that some parameters
such as load levels, geometric properties of RC beams,
1
Department of Civil Engineering, K. N. Toosi University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, California Polytechnic State
University, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA
3
Key Laboratory of Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Structures of
Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
4
International Institute for Urban Systems Engineering (IIUSE),
Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
5
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
Corresponding authors:
Mohammad Noori, Department of Mechanical Engineering, California
Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93405, USA.
Email: mnoori@outlook.com
Wael A Altabey, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21544, Egypt.
Email: wael.altabey@gmail.com
Aval et al.
and distribution of fire during analysis had an important
role in the flexural strength of RC beams. Biondini and
Nero26 proposed a new model for the structural analysis
of structures after a fire. Rafi and Nadjai27 presented a
new algorithm for analyzing RC and CFRP beams
under high temperature. Irino et al.28 investigated 16 RC
beams affected by temperature gradient across the cross
section of the beams in order to calculate short-term rela-
tionship between curvature and bending moment.
Shibasaki et al.29 tested four beam specimens in order to
consider the combined effect of thermal gradient and sus-
tained loading. The beams were tested on one-third scale,
and the actual size of the beams was not considered in this
study. In addition, in this work, RC beams were subjected
to moderate, not high, temperature. In recent years, apart
from some minor efforts, a comprehensive study describ-
ing the simultaneous effect of shrinkage, creep, and mod-
erate to high temperature has been lacking.
It can be claimed that researchers have mainly focused
on temperature effect on the short-term behavior of RC
beams and have rarely paid attention to the simultaneous
effect of creep, shrinkage, and temperature on their long-
term deflection. Therefore, it seems that the studies of the
effect of temperature on creep and shrinkage have not
been realistic up to now. However, in some industrial
plants, such as steel making plants, there are some con-
crete elements that are exposed to moderate to high tem-
perature by the melting equipment. Due to the
importance of efficient serviceability in concrete buildings
and to remedy these inadequacies, it is necessary to study
the simultaneous effect of creep, shrinkage, and moderate
to high temperature. However, it is very difficult to survey
the combined effect of creep, shrinkage, and high tem-
perature through a case study. In his study, shrinkage
and temperature effects are thoroughly applied to RC
beams, but in the case of creep, only self-weight creep
is considered. Moreover, this is the first time that triple
effects of self-weight creep, shrinkage, and temperature
on a long-term deflection of RC beams are analyzed in a
case study framework. The theoretical approaches
should be carefully calibrated to realistically simulate all
different time-dependent phenomena such as creep,
shrinkage, and temperature. The ACI, B3, fib Model
Code 2010, and Euro-code models can be confidently
used to simulate creep and shrinkage. However, generally
for all the considered effects and especially for tempera-
ture, theoretical models must be compared with case
study results in order to increase prediction accuracy. To
meet this need, the present study employs an analytical
method in which temperature is added to the formulation
using a Nano-scale model, called microprestress-
solidification theory, in the strain splitting framework.
The effects of self-weight creep, shrinkage, cracking,
and temperature should be integrated into a powerful
FEM-based program such as ABAQUS.
Using ABAQUS, the simultaneous effect of self-
weight creep, shrinkage, and temperature can be readily
extended to 3D space through a complete flowchart,
which is discussed in the analytical modeling section. It
1021
should be noted that linear/nonlinear creep occurs
under moderate to high level of loading for regular
beams. The RC beams considered in this study have a
long span length of 7.6 m where the long-term deflec-
tion may be crucial. Moreover, the temperature vari-
ation affects the concrete creep rate. The numerical
method employed in this study clarifies the way to
solve problems including all effects of temperature,
Shrinkage, and long-time weight creep on RC beams.
In order to integrate thermal gradient into the beam
model, for each element, a separate UEXPAN subrou-
tine was defined. In ABAQUS, subroutines can be
defined for each element by introducing some new
sets. Figure 1 shows the RC beam exposed to a source
of temperature, like grate machine, and represents
how a specific UEXPAN subroutine is assigned to
each element in order to integrate thermal gradient
into the beam.
Field measurement
An impressive field measurement in a pelletizing plant
located in Iran is presented. In a pelletizing plant, iron
concentrate is converted into balls named pellets. The
diameter range of these pellets is 8 mm to 20 mm.
The most important use of these pellets is in steel
making plants. In fact, pellets play an important role
in the production of steel in direct reduction plants
and arc furnace equipment.
The Butia pelletizing plant in Kerman, Iran, was built
between 2013 and 2018 with 2.5 million ton pellets per
year capacity. The grate machine building is located in
the central area of the plant, which carries the load of
the rotary kiln equipment. A view of grate machine build-
ing is presented in Figure 2.
The vertical displacement of two beams exposed to the
shrinkage, temperature, and self-weight creep has been
measured and monitored since 2016. The elevation and
typical cross section of two beams are shown in
Figure 3. Table 1 shows the material mechanical proper-
ties of RC beams. The pattern for restrained joints is
Figure 1. RC beam with thermal gradient.
1022 Proc IMechE Part L: J Materials: Design and Applications 236(5)

Figure 2. A view of grate machine building before and after construction.

Figure 3. Geometry, reinforcement detail, and 3D modeling of RC beam.

chosen considering the amount of tensile and compressive The beams after casting are exposed to shrinkage,
strains distributed in the section of RC beams. Reasonable environmental temperature, and self-weight creep. It
results have been achieved by using this pattern. is worth noting that both of the considered beams are
Aval et al. 1023

close to the rotary kiln equipment with a temperature Analytical method

higher than 650 °C (see Figure 4).
In this section, for modeling of aging of concrete (both
To demonstrate the temperature effects induced by
short-term chemical aging and long-term nonchemical
the rotary kiln, a temperature measurement will be run
aging), the drying creep effect (or Pickett effect), and
in this work. After starting the plant, temperatures
the transitional thermal creep, a micropresstress-
were measured on the RC beams at different times.
solidification model, which was developed by Bazant, is
Figure 5(a) and (b) shows the average temperature
used in order to compare them with displacement field
data at the present times. It should be noted that the
measurements carried out by directing the second
plant has been shut down in some cases, which are
author. This formulation proposes a powerful numerical
depicted in Figure 5.
algorithm for modeling of all creep-influencing phenom-
In this investigation, the temperatures of different
ena on the Nano-scale.
points of the beams were measured by an electronic
Bazant and Prasannan30 proposed the normal splitting
device, which are shown in Figure 6. It is worth noting
strain ε of concrete under uniaxial stress σ as:
that for the numerical analysis, the measured temperature
remained constant in each time interval.
ε = εi + εv + εf + εcr + εsh + εT (1)
In the serviceability limit state design, the
maximum deflection of RC beam is an important par- Based on microprestress-solidification theory, εi is the
ameter. Thus, during three years, the maximum deflec-
instantaneous strain, εν is the viscoelastic strain, εf is
tion of RC beams was measured and recorded. Table 2
the pure viscous strain, εcr is the inelastic cracking, and
shows the mid-span deflection of B1 and B2 RC
εsh , εT are the shrinkage and the thermal strain, respect-
beams.
ively. Figure 7 shows a rheological scheme of complete
As shown in Table 2, because of geometric similarities
microprestress-solidification theory.
in view of load bearing, cross-sectional dimensions and
In microprestress theory, unlike other common theories
reinforcement details and support conditions, a very
in structural creep analysis, concrete creep strain is taken
small difference between B1 and B2 in maximum deflec-
into account at both macro and nano levels. In solidifica-
tion before starting the plant can be observed.
tion theory, long-term aging is not explicable because the
behavior of aging effects does not agree with growth of
hydration. Another problem pertains to drying creep
(Picket effect). This type of creep affects the microstruc-
Table 1. RC beams components properties.
ture of cement gel and causes microcracking. It must be
Beam fc ft Ect σy noted that the strain softening is a minor part of drying
no. (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) Est (MPa) (MPa) creep and Picket effect must be explained by a
microstructural-based concept in which viscosity in
B1 30 3.25 28,500 200,000 400
B2 33 3.3 28,500 200,000 400
Kelvin chain changes proportionally with humidity. The
micropresstress-solidification is an improvement of the
fc : Compressive Strength; ft : Tensile Strength; Ect : Concrete elastic solidification theory in which the stress created in the
modulus; Est : Steel elastic modulus; σ y : Steel yield stress. nanopores of cement gel, which is called microprestress,

Figure 4. Temperature measurement inside the rotary kiln.

1024
Figure 5. The average temperatures of RC beams at different times. (a) B1. (b) B2.
plays a major role. Microprestress is first due to volume
changes caused in microstructures and then due to tem-
perature and humidity changes in concrete in which
thermodynamic imbalance occurs. In this theory, three
major phenomena are discussed:
1a) Short-term aging described by solidification theory
proposed by Bazant and Prasannan.30 This type of
aging happens in the normal temperature and only
lasts roughly a year.
Proc IMechE Part L: J Materials: Design and Applications 236(5)
1b) Long-term aging described by the definition of relax-
ation in nanoscale microprestress in cement gel. In this
type of aging, hydration of cement can be extended for
many years after short-term aging.
2) Drying creep (Picket effect) is a type of shrinkage,
which is caused by load. In fact, the observed shrink-
age strain is always greater than the load-free shrinkage
strain because of a phenomenon called drying creep.
Drying creep has two different physical mechanisms:
(a) one occurs in macroscopic level because of
Aval et al. 1025

Figure 6. Measurement of temperature of the RC beams. (a) B1. (b) B2.

Table 2. Mid-span deflection of RC beams (field measurement).

Time after casting (Day)

Beam 5 10 100 250 500 850 1100 1205

no. Mid-span deflection (mm)

B1 0.44 0.57 0.62 0.72 0.84 1.74 1.95 2.02

B2 0.41 0.52 0.59 0.65 0.79 1.11 1.26 1.29
Figure 7. Rheological model of the microprestress-
solidification theory.
uniform water content throughout concrete, and (b) the
other is a change in the rate of slip in the nanostructure source of transitional thermal creep can be explained by
of cement gel that depends on microprestress the two different mechanisms: (a) as in drying creep,
magnitude. microcracking due to temperature causes a macroscopic
3) The other major part of creep strain in concrete is called thermal creep strain, and (b) Changing of the chemical
transitional thermal creep, which describes a transient potential of nanopore water increases (or decreases)
of creep because of changes in temperature. The physical microprestress in nano level.
1026 Proc IMechE Part L: J Materials: Design and Applications 236(5)

Table 3. Compliance function for experimental data and the numerical simulation.

J(t − t )(10−5 /MPa)

York York Naser and Naser and

Time et al.39 T = Numerical et al.39 T = Numerical Neville40 T = Numerical Neville40 T = Numerical
(day) 24 °C simulation 66 °C simulation 21 °C simulation 71 °C simulation

30 2.3 2.41 3.5 3.75 5.5 5.48 6.9 8

100 3.1 3.28 4 4.4 6.25 6.3 8.5 9.75
250 3.25 3.36 5.2 5.35 7.5 7.8 11 11.65
300 3.4 3.55 5.65 5.67 – – – –

Viscoelastic strain differential equation can be solved as follows:

ν
Bazant and Prasannan proposed viscoelastic strain ε
31
S(t) = (S01−b + c0 (b − 1)(t − t0 ))1/1−b (7)
using the solidification concept is given by:
.
The initial condition can be expressed by S(t0 ) = S0 .
•
γ (t) Finally, flow strain rate may be written as:
•ν
ε (t) = (2)
ν (t) •f bc
ε (t) = σ(t) (8)
S01−b + c0 (b − 1)(t − t0 )

t .
• Equation (8) is simplified by assuming S01−b = (b − 1)c0 t0
γ(t) = Φ (t − τ) σ (τ) dτ (3)
and S(t) = S0 (t0 / t)(1/b)−1 . Hence, the previous flow strain
0
rate can be rewritten as:
where Φ (t − τ) = q2 ln [1 + ξn ] and ξ = (t − τ) / λ0 , and
•f
γ(t) is the reversible viscoelastic strain of the cement ε (t) = q4 σ(t) (9)
gel. In addition, q2 = −22.8 + 2.5 ln [(w / c)5 (a / c) f ′c 1.5 ],
where q4 = bc / (c0 (b − 1)).
where w / c is water-cement ratio of the mix and a / c is For b = 2, S0 c0 t0 = 1, S(t) = S0 t0 / t, q4 = 2c / c0 are
the aggregate-cement ratio. derived. Thus, equation (9) depends on c and c0
The volume fraction of the solidified concrete ν (t) can parameters.
be expressed as:
 m
λ0 Influence of temperature and humidity on flow strain rate.
υ(t)−1 = +α (4)
t Temperature affects creep of concrete through (1) increas-
The parameters n, λ0 , and m are definitive the with values ing the chemical reaction of cement hydration leads to a
of n = 0.1, λ0 = 1 day, and m = 0.5. reduction in creep rate, and (2) accelerating the bond
breakage, which causes the creep rate to increase. For
the former effect, an equivalent time te was defined to
Purely viscous (flow) strain characterize the degree of hydration and for the latter
effect, a reduced time tr was considered to simulate
Based on microprestress-solification theory, the creep due bond rapture on microstructural level of the concrete.
to shear slip at the creep site is modeled using viscous According to Bazant et al.,32 equivalent time te is
flow element. In addition, irreversible flow strain rate defined as follows:
•f
ε (t) in the flow element may be written as:
.
t
• f σ (t) te (t) = β (τ) dτ (10)
ε (t) = (5)
η (S) 0

where η (S) is a decreasing function of S and where β(t) = βT (t) βh (t).

1 / η (S) = cbS b−1 .
Also, c and b are positive constants. According to βh (t) = [1 + (ah − ah h(t))4 ]−1 (11)
Bazant and Baweja,31 S is the average normal stress on   
slip planes in microstructures of the cement paste and Qh 1 1
βT (t) = exp − (12)
can be evaluated via the following differential equation: R T0 T (t)
• •
S(t) S(t) s (t) In the case of high temperature, above 100◦ C, humidity of
+ = (6) concrete approaches to zero and calculating βT (t) from
CS η (S) CS
• equation (12) is irrelevant. From 200◦ C to 400◦ C, no
In which s (t) /CS is the strain rate due to humidity and loss of strength has been observed and no specific correc-
temperature changes in a Maxwell model. First-order tion is needed.
Aval et al. 1027

For reduced time tr , the following equation is defined: follows:

t RT (t)
s(t) = −C1 ln [h(t)] + s1 (22)
tr (t) = ψ (τ) dτ (13) M
0 where s1 is the value of s when h = 1.
In which ψ(t) = ψ T (t)ψ h (t) Then, it can be concluded that:
 •
•
ψ h (t) = αh + (1 − αh ) h (t)2 (14) • h
s(t) =−k1 T ln h + T (23)
h
and
   with k1 = C1 R / M .
Qυ 1 1
ψ T (t) = exp − (15) Finally, a first-order differential equation for micro-
R T0 T (t)
prestress due to humidity and temperature changes can
Based on Bazant et al.,32 T , T0 are the absolute and ref- be presented as follows:
erence temperatures, respectively. h is the humidity of  •
capillary pores of cement gel and Qhq , Qυ are activation • • h
S +−ψ S c0 S = −k1 T ln h + T
2
(24)
energy for the hydration and viscous behaviors, respect- h
ively. Also, in these equations, the parameter R is the
gas constant, which can be expressed as: For simplicity, Cusatis34 defined equation (24) as an abso-
lute form as follows:
Qh 
T0 = 293 K (20◦ C), ≈ 2700 K, •
R • • h
S +−ψ S c0 S = −k1 T ln h + T
2
(25)
Qυ h
≈ 5000 K, ah = 5, αh = 0.1
R
Equations (2) and (3) can be generalized as follows: Thermal and shrinkage strains
.
• The thermal strain caused by a change in temperature can
•eν γ (t)
ε (t) = (16) be evaluated by:
ν te (t)

T

t . ε =
T
αT dT (26)
•
γ(t) = Φ (tr (t) − tr (τ)) σ (τ) dτ (17) T0
0
And in a rate form, equation (26) can be calculated
The solidification theory considers the effect of hydration approximately by:
implicitly. Thus, the magnitude of the flow strain can be •T •
written as: ε (t) = αT T (t) (27)

dεf σ(t) Also, for shrinkage strain rate (or swelling), a simple
= (18) equation may be set as:
dtr η(S)
•sh •
1 dS S 1 ds ε (t) = ksh h (t) (28)
+ = (19)
CS dtr,S η(S) CS dtr,S In which αT is the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Bazant and Kaplan35 evaluated the thermal expansion
From equation (13), it can be concluded that: dtr = ψ(t)dt
coefficient at moderate temperature with the value of
and dtr,S = ψ S (t).
10−5 /◦ C.
Finally, from equations (18) and (19), the flow strain
rate is calculated by
Cracking strains
•f ψ(t)
ε (t) = σ(t) (20) According to the crack bond theory proposed by Bazant
η (S) and Oh,36 cracking strain εcr may be introduced by:
σ
• • εcr = cr (29)
S(t) +ψ S (t)c0 S(t)2 = s (t) (21) C
where ψ S is the rate of microprestress evolution and may where C cr is the secant cracking modulus.37
be defined in the same way as equation (20). Based on The first-order differential equation that defines the
experimental data: Qυ / R ≈ 3000 K, αS = 0.1. behavior of cracking strain in concrete can be written as:
Bazant33 proposed
• an equation for evaluating the right- • •cr •cr
hand term s (t) based on thermodynamic equilibrium as σ =C cr ε + C εcr (30)
1028 Proc IMechE Part L: J Materials: Design and Applications 236(5)

Implementation of finite element ABAQUS suggests three models to simulate nonlinear

method behavior of material. These models are concrete smeared
cracking which is only considered by implicit ABAQUS,
A step-by-step method based on an incremental stress– brittle cracking considered by explicit ABAQUS, and con-
strain relationship for the material models is formulated. crete damaged plasticity applicable in both explicit and
A nonaging micro-compliance function Φ (t − t ′ ) based implicit approaches in ABAQUS. Among the three
on Dirichlet series can be defined as31: models, smeared cracking is easier to apply and more prac-
   tical, but it is not capable of modeling the tensile behavior
′
N
t − t′
Φ (t − t ) = A0 + Aμ 1 − exp − (31) of concrete in detail. In addition, it can be an appropriate
1
τμ model regarding implicit solver and nonlinear semi-brittle
where τμ = 10μ−7 (μ = 1, . . . , N ) and Aμ = ln (10)L(τμ ) behavior of concrete depending on the type, dimensions,
are retardation times and continuous spectra that closely and loading of the intended structure.
approximate the ACI compliance function. Also, Brittle crack model cannot consider concrete crushing
A0 = 0.2794 q2 . that is assumed to be a major weakness regarding the
According to Carol and Bazant,38 σ(t) may be inter- actual behavior of concrete. Concrete damaged plasticity
preted as the combination of strains in the individual model is different from the other two models in that it is
Kelvin unit. This evaluation is modeled by: able to define compressive and tensile behaviors of con-
crete, separately, and introduce a reduction in elastic
τμ −1 •
σ (t) = A−1
μ γ μ (t) + A γ (t) (32) modulus. In addition to static loads, the model is capable
ψ(t) μ μ of modeling cyclic loads. However, in the case of concrete
In which γ μ (t) is the strain of each Kelvin unit. creep and shrinkage, none of these three methods can be
By integration of equation (32), the following useful. In rate type creep method, based on Kelvin chain
expression for Kelvin unit strain in each time step may model and continuous spectrum method, the calculation
be defined: of incremental stress–strain relationship can be carried
out in ABAQUS using user-defined material subroutine
γ μ,n+1 = kμ,n γ μ,n + Aμ (1 − kμ,n )σ n + Aμ (1 (UMAT). The following algorithm for the numerical imple-
− λμ,n )Δσ n (33) mentation is drawn as follows:

where kμ,n = exp ( − Δyμ,n ), Δyμ,n = ψ m Δtn / τm , • Input initial parameters such as t ′ , τμ , L(τμ ) , A0 , Aμ
ψ m = ψ(tn+1/2 ), tn=1/2 = tn + Δt / 2, and λμ,n = 1− • Define T0 , h0 , β , Ccr , C0 , α
(1 − kμ,n ) / Δyμ,n . • Loop over time steps
Briefly, the component of each type of strain based on • Input Δt , Δ h , ΔT
Bazant et al.32 can be formulated as: • Loop over element
Δεev
′′ • Include subroutines UMAT and UEXPAN
n = An Δσ n + Δεn
ev ev
(34)
• Input σ (n−1) , Δεn
N
n = 1 / νe,m (A0 +
Aev Aμ (1 − λμ,n )) f ′′
′′ cr′′
with and • Calculate Δεev
1 n , Δεn , Δεn , ksh Δhn , αΔTn
ev′′ N
Δεn = 1 / υe,m ( 1 (1 − kμ,n )(Aμ σ n − γ μ,n )). • Calculate stress increment Δσ n = En (Δεn − Δε0n )
′′ • Implement finite element using ABAQUS
Δεfn = Afn Δσ n + Δεnf (35)
• Calculate stress, strain, and displacement of RC beam
′′
where Afn = ψ m Δtn / 2ηm , Δεnf = ψ m σ n / ηm , ηm = η (Sm ), • Update strain in each Kelvin unit
Sm = S (tn+1/2 ) = Sn + ΔSn / 2, Sm = S(tn+1/2 ), and
ΔSn = −c0 + ψ S,m Δtn Sm2 + k1 | A part of subroutine UMAT is attached in Appendix 1.
. To validate the numerical method, the analysis of
ΔTn ln (hm ) + Tm (Δhn / hm )|
experimental data reported in the literature has been repre-
′′
Δεcr
n = An Δσ n + Δεn
cr cr
(36) sented. In this step, parameters q2 , α , q4 are calculated
′′ using experimental data for basic creep strain. Parameters
with 1 / Acrn = [1 − exp ( − Δzn )]Cm / Δzn , Δεn = Δzn /
cr cr
c and k1 , which are used in microprestress calculations,
Cm σ n , Δzn = Δtn / β, and Cm = C (εn+1/2 ).
cr cr cr cr
must be identified from available test data at different
Eventually, incremental stress–strain considering humidity or temperature. Other parameters are fixed or
linear/nonlinear creep, cracking, drying creep (picket depend on the mentioned parameters. First, it is assumed
effect), and shrinkage may be defined as: that the specimen is waterproofed and it is reasonable to
Δσ n = En (Δεn − Δε0n ) (37) consider relative humidity approach to one. For data of
York et al.,39 the following values of parameters have
where En = 1 / An , An = q1 + + + Aev
n Δε0n =
Afn n ,
Acr been considered; q2 = 5.5 × 10−5 MPa, α = 0.28,
′′ ′′ ′′
n + Δεn +Δεn + ksh Δhn + αΔT .
Δεev f cr
q4 = 6.0 × 10−6 MPa, c = 1.5 × 10−8 (MPa day) and
This procedure needs to be implemented using a suitable k1 = 3 (MPa / K) and for Nasser and Neville data40
general-purpose finite-element program like ABAQUS. q2 = 7.0 × 10−5 /MPa, α = 0.35,q4 = 5.0 × 10−6 MPa,
Aval et al. 1029

Figure 8. A 3D view of RC beam implemented in ABAQUS.

Figure 9. The flowchart of NSGA-II. (a) B1, B2. (b) Setup of measurement of the RC beams deflection.

c = 1.0 × 10−8 (MPa day) and k1 = 3 (MPa / K). Table 3 that formulation agrees with the test data. This validation
shows the compliance function J (t, t ′ ) for two category can provide a suitable range for selecting parameters
of experimental test data. From Table 3, it can be concluded values in our numerical algorithm.
1030 Proc IMechE Part L: J Materials: Design and Applications 236(5)

Figure 11. Comparison of deflection based on field mea-

surements and the numerical prediction for RC B1 and B2.

Figure 10. Comparison of traditional and present identifica-

tion method. (a) B1. (2) B2.

Comparison of the analytical method

with field data
The numerical procedure is verified using field data gathered
during three years by a surveying instrument. Coupled creep
and cracking are modeled in ABAQUS using UMAT.
Shrinkage and thermal strain is implemented in the user-
defined thermal expansion subroutine (UEXPAN). For con-
crete, C3D8R element, which is a general-purpose brick
element, and for rebar, a 3D beam element, namely B31,
are used (ABAQUS user manual 2016). A view of the 3D
model for RC beam is given in Figure 8.
The vertical displacement of RC beam was measured
Figure 12. Strain sensitivity analysis of RC beams. (a) B1. (2)
and recorded daily over three years after concrete B2.
casting using the calibrated land surveying instrument of
Nikon’s Nivo™ Total Station with angle accuracy of
3′′ /1.0 mg based on DIN18723. The mid-span level of
RC beam was controlled and recorded every day.
Figure 9 shows the method of measuring the deflection
of RC B1 and B2. The mid-span deflection of two
beams based on field measurement data against the
numerical approach is shown in Figure 10.
The numerical results obtained by FEM are close to the
displacement field measurement before applying the tem-
perature. After starting of kiln, the average temperature is
applied to the model using UEXPAN subroutine.
Moreover, the difference between the model and test is
mainly due to the nonaccuracy of the support conditions,
the thermal gradient in beam section, and the accumulation
of errors over time. In the case of RC B2, in which tempera-
ture is lower than that in B1, the difference between analyt- Figure 13. Comparison of the field data for RC B1 and B2
ical and field measurements decreases. It can be concluded with numerical modeling without temperature.
Aval et al.
that the analysis of RC beams with regard to temperature
should be performed more carefully, and the results must
be calibrated based on the field data. In this paper, numer-
ical algorithm is implemented using an average tempera-
ture, and outputs are compared with the field data. This
stage is terminated when ABAQUS outputs approach as
much as possible to field measurements. In beam B2, the
average temperature is under 100◦ C and formulation is
unchanged. For beam B1 βh (t) approaches zero and equa-
tion for βT (T ) is govern.
The mid-span displacements of two RC beams are pre-
sented in Figure 11. The differences between two
Figure 14. Comparison of the field data with the FEM results. (a) B1. (b) B2.
1031
displacements are noteworthy. Approximately after 1200
days, an increase by 50% in temperature increases the
maximum deflection of RC beam by 37%.
To demonstrate the contribution of each type of strain,
the doughnut chart in Figure 12(a) and (b) is employed.
Figure 12(a) and (b) indicates that the weight of shrink-
age, thermal, and cracking strains is high and that of
other strains is nearly negligible. In fact, in the case of
self-weight creep, due to low load level, creep and visco-
elastic strain can be removed and numerical analysis can
be implemented using only thermal, shrinkage, and crack-
ing strains. It is noteworthy that a case study including
1032
linear/nonlinear creep effect should be studied to highlight
creep strain, which is coupled with temperature, cracking,
and shrinkage strains. In addition, in UMAT subroutine it
is possible to extract outputs collectively or individually.
The weight of shrinkage, thermal, and cracking strain in
Figure 12(a) and (b) shows the results of numerical simu-
lations and then they are compared with the measurements
in the field.
To take into account the effect of high temperature on
long-term deflection of RC beams, the RC beam B1 is
analyzed without consideration of grate machine
Figure 15. Comparison of the FEM results with and without the sustained loading. (a) B1. (b) B2.
Proc IMechE Part L: J Materials: Design and Applications 236(5)
temperature and this effect is deactivated in the numerical
analysis. The effect of temperature has been excluded
from the UEXPAN subroutine. The maximum long-term
deflection curve of RC B1 without temperature effect is
displayed in Figure 13. As can be seen, in comparison
with RC beams exposed to high temperature, a decrease
by 61% can be observed after 1200 days from concrete
casting. The results of this analysis show little difference
with the maximum deflection before the start of the plant.
For a more accurate temperature analysis and to investi-
gate the effect of transitional thermal creep on total
Aval et al.
deflection of RC beams, a heating and cooling process
was considered for both RC beams and results are com-
pared with the previous modeling. When temperature
increases, the microprestress is also changed. It is
assumed that the relative humidity was equal to 55% on
average. Various parameters were tested for analysis,
and these parameters seem to give more reasonable
results. q2 = 8.5 × 10−5 /MPa, α = 0.18,
q4 = 5.0 × 10 /MPa, c = 3.5 × 10−8 /(MPa day), and
−6
k1 = 3(MPa / K).
Figure 14 presents the comparison between the field
measurements, average temperature analysis and accurate
temperature analysis. The results show that in these
special cases, there are no significant changes in the
results and transitional analyses do not help to make the
results more accurate. The main reason for this lies in
the nature of the specimen under study. In fact, if the
RC beams were subjected to a high-level sustained gravi-
tational load along with long-time temperature loading, it
can be expected that the effect of transitional thermal
creep was remarkable. In order to overcome to this short-
coming a sustained gravity load equal to 100 kN/m is
applied to RC beams. The analysis was implemented
assuming some uniform mean temperatures and relative
humidity in which effective parameters were considered
as follows.
q2 = 4 × 10−5 /MPa, α = 0.28, q4 = 5.0 × 10−6 /MPa,
c = 2.5 × 10−8 /(MPa day), and k1 = 3(MPa / K).
Figure 15 represents the maximum mid-span deflection
of each beam. For both beams, due to sustained loading, the
final deflection has increased, in which the effect of the
basic creep and cracking strain is more notable.
Conclusion
The influence of self-weight creep, shrinkage, cracking,
and temperature on mid-span deflection of RC beams
was investigated. The responses of the particular case
study of two RC beams in Butia pelletizing plant in
Kerman, Iran, exposed to unusual environmental effects
were measured and inspected. The recorded data during
four years were examined against the analytical approach
based on Kelvin chain model and the step-by-step incre-
mental analyses. The previously developed microprestress-
solidification theory was implemented and programed
through user subroutines of UMAT and UEXPAN using
the ABAQUS general-purpose finite-element code. It was
found that temperature would significantly affect the
maximum deflection of RC beams in serviceability condi-
tion. In the case of average temperature of T = 150 °C,
which was a typical condition in steel making plants, the
maximum four-year deflection of RC beam increased by
over 35% in comparison with the condition of T = 100 °
C for RC B2. In addition, compared with the environment
temperature average (T = 20 °C), the maximum deflection
of RC B1 increased by 61%. Moreover, in the case of self-
weight creep, it was concluded that the thermal, shrinkage,
and cracking strains had a noticeable contribution to the
final deflection of RC beams. In the absence of sustained
1033
loading, it was shown that the effects of temperature and
shrinkage account for more than 50% of the total deflection
of the RC beams. In addition, more accurate temperature
analyses were implemented according to the environmental
condition of each beam. In the case of RC B1, the final dis-
placement of the beam improved to 50%. In the final stage,
the effect of sustained loading on a deflection of beams was
considered. A distributed gravitational load of 100 kN/m
was applied on beams. The results showed that in beam
B1, the final deflection could not meet the Iranian code
requirements. In the case of beam B2, the results were
very close to the allowable deflection of beams. In the
RC B1, the final long-time deflection after 200 days has
exceeded the allowable deflection by about one centimeter.
It can be concluded that due to the same geometry and
reinforcement of both RC beams, a 50° of temperature
change can increase the final deflection of beam B1. This
value was about one-third of the allowable deflection
based on Iranian code. It can be noted that in ordinary
beams, the sustained load along with a normal long-time
temperature loading can bring the final deflection closer
to the allowable deflection. The findings of this research
are important for RC industrial buildings exposed to high
environmental temperatures. However, the number of
field measurements in this paper is not sufficient and for
more accurate conclusion further research is needed. The
adopted computational modeling may cast new light on
RC beam behavior under combined creep, shrinkage, and
temperature effects.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Butia steel making technical group for
sharing the data recorded during 4 years of measuring for the
grate machine concrete beam.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Wael A Altabey https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3618-1187
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Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University of DY(MU) = psi_m*DTIME/TAU_MU(MU)

Texas, Austin, Texas, 1970. XK_MU(MU) = EXP(-DY(MU))
40. Nasser KW and Neville AM. Creep of concrete at elevated XLAMBDA_MU(MU) =
temperatures. ACI J 1965; 38: 333–355. ONE-(ONE-XK_MU(MU))/DY(MU)
END DO
C
Appendix 1 sum_A = A0
SUBROUTINE UMAT(STRESS,STATEV,DDSDDE, E = E28*(TN/(4.0D0 + 0.85D0*TN))**0.5D0
SSE,SPD,SCD, DO MU = 1,10
1 RPL,DDSDDT,DRPLDE,DRPLDT, CALL BPSI(3.0D0*TAU_MU(MU),GAMA_C,PSI)
2 STRAN,DSTRAN,TIME,DTIME,TEMP,DTEMP, XL_MU(MU) =
PREDEF,DPRED,CMNAME, 2.35D0*GAMA_C*(3.0D0*TAU_MU(MU))
3 NDI,NSHR,NTENS,NSTATV,PROPS,NPROPS, **3.0D0*PSI*0.5D0
COORDS,DROT,PNEWDT, A_mu(MU) = XL_MU(MU)*DLOG(10.0D0)/E
4 CELENT,DFGRD0,DFGRD1,NOEL,NPT,LAYER, sum_A = sum_A + A_mu(mu)
KSPT,KSTEP,KINC) *(1.0D0-XLAMBDA_MU(MU))
C END DO
INCLUDE ‘ABA_PARAM.INC’ te = (te + Beta)/TWO*DTIME/TWO
C ve_m = 1.0D0/((XLambda0/te)**Xm + alpha)
CHARACTER*80 CMNAME DO I = 1,6
DIMENSION STRESS(NTENS),STATEV(NSTATV), sum_B = ZERO
1 DDSDDE(NTENS,NTENS),DDSDDT(NTENS), DO MU = 1,10
DRPLDE(NTENS), sum_B = sum_B + (ONE-XK_MU(MU))
2 STRAN(NTENS),DSTRAN(NTENS),TIME(2), *(A_mu(MU)*STRESS(I)-GAMA(MU,I))
PREDEF(1),DPRED(1), END DO
3 PROPS(NPROPS),COORDS(3),DROT(3,3), Depsev_2n(I) = sum_B/ve_m
DFGRD0(3,3),DFGRD1(3,3) END DO
C C
DIMENSION TAU_MU(10),XK_MU(10), An_ev = sum_A/ve_m
A_mu(10),Depsev_2n(6),Depscr_2n(6), C
* XLAMBDA_MU(10),Deps0_n(6),GAMA(10,6), Sm = Sn
DSTRESS(6),Depsf_2n(6), DO I = 1,20
* Deps_2crn(6),eps_crn(6),Deps_crn(6),DY(10), DSn = -c0*psi_Sm*DTIME*Sm**TWO +
XL_MU(10) Xk1*abs(DTEMP*LOG(hm) + Tm*Dh/hm)
PARAMETER (ZERO = 0.0D0,ONE = 1.0D0,TWO Sm = Sn + DSn/TWO
= 2.0D0,THREE = 3.0D0) END DO
C===================Load state vari- eta_m = ONE/(c*b*Sm**(b-1.0D0))
ables======= CALL XBETA(QH_R,T0,Tm,AH,hm,Beta)
========================= Dzn = DTIME/Beta
DO I = 1,6 C
DO MU = 1,10 DO I = 1,6
K = (I-1)*10 + MU Deps_2crn(I) = Dzn/Ccr_m/STRESS(I)
GAMA(MU,I) = STATEV(K) Deps_crn(I) = An_cr*DSTRESS(I) + Deps_2crn(I)
END DO eps_cr_m = eps_crn(I) + Deps_crn(I)/TWO
END DO CALL XCcr(s,kesi_p,fprim_t,eps_cr_m,Ccr_m)
Sn = STATEV(61) END DO
DO I = 1,6 C
eps_crn(I) = STATEV(61 + I) An_cr = ONE/((ONE-exp(-Dzn))*Ccr_m/Dzn)
END DO An_f = psi_m*DTIME/TWO/eta_m
te = STATEV(68) C
C========================= An = q1 + An_ev + An_f + An_cr
================= En = ONE/An
=============================== C
CALL XPSI(QV_R,T0,Tm,ALPHA_H,hm,psi_m) DO I = 1,6
CALL XPSI(QS_R,T0,Tm,ALPHA_S,hm,psi_Sm) Depsf_2n(I) = psi_m*STRESS(I)/eta_m
DO MU = 1,10 Depscr_2n(I) = Dzn/Ccr_m/STRESS(I)
TAU_MU(MU) = 10.0D0**(−5.0D0 + Deps0_n(I) = Depsev_2n(I) + Depsf_2n(I) +
DFLOAT(MU)) Depscr_2n(I) + k_sh*Dh +
1036 Proc IMechE Part L: J Materials: Design and Applications 236(5)

ALPHA_T*DTEMP STATEV(61 + I) = eps_crn(I) + Deps_crn(I)

END DO END DO
C==================== STATEV(68) = te
DDSDDE=================== C==================== End Of
========================== Subroutine=====================
DO I = 1,6 =============
DO J = 1,6 RETURN
DDSDDE(I,J) = ZERO END
END DO C===============================
DSTRESS(I) = ZERO =================
END DO =========================
T1 = XNU/(ONE + XNU)/(ONE-TWO*XNU) SUBROUTINE BPSI(ZETA,GAMA_C,PSI)
T2 = (ONE-XNU)/(ONE + XNU)/(ONE-TWO*XNU) INCLUDE ‘ABA_PARAM.INC’
DO I = 1,3 ZETA10 = 10.0D0 + ZETA**0.6D0
DO J = 1,3 PSI = 2.35D0*GAMA_C*(0.336D0*
DDSDDE(I,J) = T1 ZETA**-2.4D0*ZETA10**-1.0D0 + 0.528D0*
END DO * ZETA**-1.8D0*ZETA10**-2.0D0 +
DDSDDE(I,I) = T2 0.432D0*ZETA**-1.2D0*ZETA10**-3.0D0-
END DO * 1.296D0*ZETA**-0.6D0*ZETA10**-4.0D0)
DO I = 4,6 RETURN
DDSDDE(I,I) = T2*XNUSTAR END
END DO C============================
DO I = 1,6 ==================
DO J = 1,6 ===========================
DDSDDE(I,J) = En*DDSDDE(I,J) SUBROUTINE XPSI(QV_R,T0,T,ALPHA_H,H,
END DO PSI)
END DO INCLUDE ‘ABA_PARAM.INC’
C==================== Update PSI = EXP(QV_R*(1/T0-1/T))*(ALPHA_H +
Stresses======================== (1.0D0-ALPHA_H)*H**2.0D0)
============ RETURN
DO I = 1,6 END
DO J = 1,6 C=====================
DSTRESS(I) = DSTRESS(I) + DDSDDE(I,J) =============================
*(DSTRAN(J)-Deps0_n(J)) ================
END DO =======
STRESS(I) = STRESS(I) + DSTRESS(I) SUBROUTINE XBETA(QH_R,T0,T,AH,H,BETA)
END DO INCLUDE ‘ABA_PARAM.INC’
C==================== Update State BETA = EXP(QH_R*(1/T0-1/T))/(1.0D0 +
Variables======================== (AH-AH*H)**4.0D0)
===== RETURN
DO I = 1,6 END
DO MU = 1,10 C=====================
K = (I-1)*10 + MU =======================
STATEV(K) = XK_MU(MU)*GAMA(MU,I) + =============================
A_mu(MU)*(1.0D0-XK_MU(MU))* SUBROUTINE XCcr(s,kesi_p,fprim_t,eps_cr,Ccr)
STRESS(I) + A_mu(MU) INCLUDE ‘ABA_PARAM.INC’
*(1.0D0-XLAMBDA_MU(MU))*DSTRESS(I) cs = 1.0D0/s/kesi_p**s
END DO Es = fprim_t/kesi_p*exp(cs*kesi_p**s)
END DO Ccr = Es*exp(-cs*eps_cr**s)
STATEV(61) = Sn + DSn RETURN
DO I = 1,6 END