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Classical and Analytical Mechanics
Classical and Analytical
Mechanics
Theory, Applied Examples, and Practice
Alexander S. Poznyak
Automatic Control Department
CINVESTAV-IPN
Cd. de Mexico, Mexico
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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Designer: Alan Studholme
Typeset by VTeX
Dedicated to my alma mater Moscow Physical Technical
Institute (MPhTI)
Contents
List of figures xiii

List of tables xix
About the author xxi
Preface xxiii
Notation xxv
Introduction xxix
1 Kinematics of a point 1
1.1 Products of vectors 1
1.1.1 Internal (scalar) product 2
1.1.2 Vector product 3
1.1.3 Main properties of triple products 6
1.2 Generalized coordinates 8
1.2.1 Different possible coordinates 8
1.2.2 Definition of generalized coordinates 8
1.2.3 Relationship of generalized coordinates with Cartesian 9
1.2.4 Coefficients of Lamé 10
1.3 Kinematics in generalized coordinates 10
1.3.1 Velocity in generalized coordinates 11
1.3.2 Acceleration in generalized coordinates 11
1.4 Movement in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems 14
1.4.1 Movement in cylindrical coordinates 14
1.4.2 Movement in spherical coordinates 16
1.5 Normal and tangential accelerations 18
1.6 Some examples 20
1.7 Exercises 28
2 Rigid body kinematics 31

2.1 Angular velocity 31
2.1.1 Definition of a rigid body 31
2.1.2 The Euler theorem 32
2.1.3 Joint rotation with a common pivot 35
2.1.4 Parallel and non-coplanar rotations 36
2.2 Complex movements of the rigid body 39
2.2.1 General relations 39
2.2.2 Plane non-parallel motion and center of velocities 42
2.3 Complex movement of a point 45
viii Contents
2.3.1 Absolute velocity 46

2.3.2 Absolute acceleration 46
2.4 Examples 47
2.5 Kinematics of a rigid body rotation 59
2.5.1 Finite rotations 59
2.5.2 Rotation matrix 61
2.5.3 Composition of rotations 68
2.6 Rotations and quaternions 71
2.6.1 Quaternions 71
2.6.2 Composition or summation of rotations as a quaternion 80
2.7 Differential kinematic equations (DKEs) 84
2.7.1 DKEs in Euler coordinates 84
2.7.2 DKEs in quaternions: Poisson equation 85
2.8 Exercises 86
3 Dynamics 89
3.1 Main dynamics characteristics 90
3.1.1 System of material points 90
3.1.2 Three main dynamics characteristics 91
3.2 Axioms or Newton’s laws 91
3.2.1 Newton’s axioms 91
3.2.2 Expression for Q̇ 92
3.2.3 Expression for K̇A 94
3.3 Force work and potential forces 95
3.3.1 Elementary and total force work 96
3.3.2 Potential forces 96
3.3.3 Force power and expression for Ṫ 98
3.3.4 Conservative systems 99
3.4 Virial of a system 100
3.4.1 Main definition of virial 100
3.4.2 Virial for homogeneous potential energies 101
3.5 Properties of the center of mass 103
3.5.1 Dynamics of the center of inertia (mass) 103
3.6 “King/König/Rey” theorem 103
3.6.1 Principle theorem 103
3.6.2 Moment of inertia and the impulse moment with respect
to a pivot 105
3.6.3 A rigid flat body rotating in the same plane 106
3.6.4 Calculation of moments of inertia for different rigid
bodies 108
3.6.5 König theorem application 112
3.6.6 Steiner’s theorem on the inertia moment 114
3.7 Movements with friction 123
3.8 Exercises 127
Contents ix
4 Non-inertial and variable-mass systems 131

4.1 Non-inertial systems 131
4.1.1 Newton’s second law regarding a relative system 132
4.1.2 Rizal’s theorem in a relative system 134
4.1.3 Kinetic energy and work in a relative system 137
4.1.4 Some examples dealing with non-inertial systems 139
4.2 Dynamics of systems with variable mass 142
4.2.1 Reactive forces and the Meshchersky equation 142
4.2.2 Tsiolkovsky’s rocket formula and other examples 143
4.3 Exercises 151
5 Euler’s dynamic equations 153

5.1 Tensor of inertia 153
5.2 Relative kinetic energy and impulse momentum 156
5.2.1 Relative kinetic energy 156
5.2.2 Relative impulse momentum 157
5.3 Some properties of inertial tensors 158
5.3.1 Tensor of inertia as a non-negative symmetric matrix 158
5.3.2 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of inertial tensors 159
5.3.3 Examples using tensors of inertia 163
5.4 Euler’s dynamic equations 174
5.4.1 Special cases of Euler’s equations 175
5.5 Dynamic reactions caused by the gyroscopic moment 182
5.6 Exercises 185
6 Dynamic Lagrange equations 189

6.1 Mechanical connections 189
6.2 Generalized forces 192
6.3 Dynamic Lagrange equations 195
6.4 Normal form of Lagrange equations 204
6.5 Electrical and electromechanical models 207
6.5.1 Some physical relations 208
6.5.2 Table of electromechanical analogies 210
6.6 Exercises 217
7 Equilibrium and stability 221

7.1 Definition of equilibrium 221
7.2 Equilibrium in conservative systems 223
7.3 Stability of equilibrium 229
7.3.1 Definition of local stability 229
7.3.2 Stability of equilibrium in conservative systems 232
7.4 Unstable equilibria in conservative systems 236
7.5 Exercises 242
x Contents
8 Oscillations analysis 245

8.1 Movements in the vicinity of equilibrium points 245
8.1.1 Small oscillations 245
8.1.2 Characteristic polynomial 247
8.1.3 General solution of the characteristic equation 248
8.2 Oscillations in conservative systems 249
8.2.1 Some properties of the characteristic equation 249
8.2.2 Normal coordinates 251
8.3 Several examples of oscillation analysis 255
8.3.1 Three masses joined by springs in circular dynamics 255
8.3.2 Three masses joined by springs with dynamics on a
straight line 258
8.3.3 Four spring-bound masses with restricted linear
dynamics 260
8.3.4 Three identical pendula held by springs 262
8.3.5 Four-loop LC circuits 264
8.3.6 Finding one polynomial root using other known roots 266
8.3.7 Hint: how to resolve analytically cubic equations 268
8.4 Exercises 270
9 Linear systems of second order 273

9.1 Models governed by second order differential equations 273
9.2 Frequency response 274
9.3 Examples 277
9.3.1 Three-variable systems 277
9.3.2 Electrical circuit 279
9.3.3 Linear system with input delay 281
9.3.4 Mechanical system with friction 282
9.3.5 Electric circuit with variable elements 284
9.4 Asymptotic stability 286
9.4.1 Algebraic criteria 286
9.4.2 Geometric criteria of asymptotic stability 294
9.5 Polynomial robust stability 304
9.5.1 Parametric uncertainty and robust stability 304
9.5.2 The Kharitonov theorem 305
9.6 Exercises 308
10 Hamiltonian formalism 311

10.1 Hamiltonian function 311
10.2 Hamiltonian canonical form 316
10.3 First integrals 321
10.4 Some properties of first integrals 323
10.4.1 Cyclic coordinates 323
10.4.2 Some properties of the Poisson brackets 324
Contents xi
10.4.3 First integrals by inspection 330

10.5 Exercises 335
11 The Hamilton–Jacobi equation 337

11.1 Canonical transformations 337
11.2 The Hamilton–Jacobi method 339
11.3 Hamiltonian action and its variation 339
11.4 Integral invariants 343
11.4.1 Integral invariants of Poincaré and Poincaré–Cartan 343
11.4.2 The Lee Hwa Chung theorem 344
11.5 Canonicity criteria 347
11.5.1 Poincaré theorem: (c, F )-criterion 347
11.5.2 Analytical expression for the Hamiltonian after a
coordinate canonical transformation 350
11.5.3 Brackets of Lagrange 353
11.5.4 Free canonical transformation and the S-canonicity
criterion 356
11.6 The Hamilton–Jacobi equation 361
11.7 Complete integral of the Hamilton–Jacobi equation 362
11.7.1 Complete integral 362
11.7.2 Generalized-conservative (stationary) systems with first
integrals 362
11.8 On relations with optimal control 369
11.8.1 Problem formulation and value function 370
11.8.2 Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman equation 370
11.8.3 Verification rule as a sufficient condition of optimality 371
11.8.4 Affine dynamics with a quadratic cost 372
11.8.5 The case when the Hamiltonian admits the existence of
first integrals 375
11.8.6 The deterministic Feynman–Kac formula: the general
smooth case 376
11.9 Exercises 380
12 Collection of electromechanical models 383

12.1 Cylindrical manipulator (2-PJ and 1-R) 384
12.2 Rectangular (Cartesian) robot manipulator 387
12.3 Scaffolding type robot manipulator 389
12.4 Spherical (polar) robot manipulator 392
12.5 Articulated robot manipulator 1 396
12.6 Universal programmable manipulator 399
12.7 Cincinnati Milacron T3 manipulator 404
12.8 CD motor, gear, and load train 412
12.9 Stanford/JPL robot manipulator 414
12.10 Unimate 2000 manipulator 418
xii Contents
12.11 Robot manipulator with swivel base 424

12.12 Cylindrical robot with spring 427
12.13 Non-ordinary manipulator with shock absorber 429
12.14 Planar manipulator with two joints 434
12.15 Double “crank-turn” swivel manipulator 437
12.16 Robot manipulator of multicylinder type 442
12.17 Arm manipulator with springs 445
12.18 Articulated robot manipulator 2 460
12.19 Maker 110 465
12.20 Manipulator on a horizontal platform 468
12.21 Two-arm planar manipulator 471
12.22 Manipulator with three degrees of freedom 476
12.23 CD motor with load 478
12.24 Models of power converters with switching-mode power supply 479
12.24.1 Buck type DC-DC converter 480
12.24.2 Boost type DC-DC converter 482
12.25 Induction motor 483
Bibliography 487
Index 489
List of figures
Fig. 1.1 The projection of the vector b to the direction of another vector a. 2
Fig. 1.2 Vector product of two vectors a and b. 3
Fig. 1.3 Right orthogonal system. 5
Fig. 1.4 Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical vector representations and their
relations. 8
Fig. 1.5 Representation of a point’s position in cylindrical coordinates. 14
Fig. 1.6 Representation of a point’s position in spherical coordinates. 16
Fig. 1.7 Normal and tangential vectors to the trajectory. 18
Fig. 1.8 Speeds, radii, and centers of curvature in two different instants. 19
Fig. 1.9 The detail of the previous figure. 19
Fig. 1.10 Ring moving with a constant magnitude speed. 21
Fig. 1.11 Trajectory of a particle in a Cartesian system. 22
Fig. 1.12 Particle on an elliptical path. 24
Fig. 1.13 Acceleration vector composition. 27
Fig. 2.1 Rigid body with a pivot. 32
Fig. 2.2 Rigid body with pivot O and a coordinate system fixed to the solid body. 33
Fig. 2.3 Rotations with common pivot. 35
Fig. 2.4 Cylinder subject to two parallel rotations. 36
Fig. 2.5 Cylinder rotations. 36
Fig. 2.6 Rotations in oblique planes. 38
Fig. 2.7 A rigid body and its absolute and relative references. 39
Fig. 2.8 Solid cone rotating. 41
Fig. 2.9 Diagram of angular speeds. 41
Fig. 2.10 Plane non-parallel motion and center of velocities. 42
Fig. 2.11 The disk and the shear which are pivotally connected. 44
Fig. 2.12 A point p in the absolute and relative systems. 45
Fig. 2.13 Particle sliding on an oscillating bar. 49
Fig. 2.14 Disk rolling with constant speed v. 51
Fig. 2.15 Accelerations in the points of the disk. 53
Fig. 2.16 Disk rolling with constant magnitude speed on a circular surface. 54
Fig. 2.17 Rotating gear train. 56
Fig. 2.18 The two-gear train with acceleration. 58
Fig. 2.19 Cylinder subject to two rotations with common pivot. 59
Fig. 2.20 A rotation movement with respect to the center of coordinates. 60
Fig. 2.21 Quaternion as a rotation operator. 78
Fig. 2.22 The disk, mounted at right angles to the rod. 87
Fig. 2.23 The “Segner wheel.” 87
Fig. 2.24 The rod moving along two mutually perpendicular straight lines. 88
Fig. 3.1 A set of material points referring to a coordinate system. 90
Fig. 3.2 Relationship between the pole A and the origin O. 90
xiv List of figures
Fig. 3.3 Relationship between a force and elementary displacement. 96

Fig. 3.4 Relationship between the coordinates of an absolute and an auxiliary
system for calculating kinetic energy. 104
Fig. 3.5 Flat body rotating in its plane with respect to a pivot O . 106
Fig. 3.6 Some bodies of simple geometry for the calculation of their moment of
inertia. 108
Fig. 3.7 Rigid chain rolling with constant speed. 112
Fig. 3.8 Rolling disc. 113
Fig. 3.9 Solid body rotating around an axis that does not pass through its inertial
center. 114
Fig. 3.10 Diagram of distances of a point i ∈ S to the axes OO and AA . 115
Fig. 3.11 Solid cylinder rotating on a transverse axis. 116
Fig. 3.12 Articulated bar about to fall. 117
Fig. 3.13 Bar falling. 117
Fig. 3.14 Vectors vD and [ω, DB]. 118
Fig. 3.15 Bar detaching from the floor. 119
Fig. 3.16 Set of articulated bars. 121
Fig. 3.17 Left half of the structure of articulated bars. 121
Fig. 3.18 Body subject to friction.
123
Fig. 3.19 How a friction force Ff r depends on the amplitude of the applied
external force Q. 124
Fig. 3.20 Body on an inclined plane. 124
Fig. 3.21 Sphere on an inclined plane. 125
Fig. 3.22 The physical pendulum, consisting of a homogeneous ball, is suspended on
a weightless rod to the fulcrum point O. Another same ball is in a circular
groove and rolls along it. 128
Fig. 3.23 A homogeneous cylinder freely rolling from a stationary cylinder. 128
Fig. 4.1 Body on an accelerated inclined plane. 133
Fig. 4.2 Sphere against a step. 136
Fig. 4.3 Ring in rotation with a small ring. 140
Fig. 4.4 Accelerated series of articulated bars. 141
Fig. 4.5 Diagram of forces on a bar. 141
Fig. 4.6 Tank with drain. 143
Fig. 4.7 Rocket shedding mass. 144
Fig. 4.8 Rocket with n fuel tanks. 145
Fig. 4.9 Cylinder driven by the tangential leakage of its contents. 147
Fig. 4.10 Chain with one end falling. 149
Fig. 4.11 A thin flexible inextensible thread in a vertical smooth pipe. 152
Fig. 4.12 A jet vessel driven by a pump. 152
Fig. 5.1 Solid body and a generic axis. 154
Fig. 5.2 A cube with side a and the reference system. 163
Fig. 5.3 A differential element of mass and its position with respect to the x-axis. 164
Fig. 5.4 Cylinder and reference system. 165
Fig. 5.5 Solid cone and hollow cylinder referring to two coordinate systems. 165
Fig. 5.6 Relationship between the radius ρ of the elementary disk and its height w. 166
Fig. 5.7 Elementary disk of radius ρ and height dz. 166
Fig. 5.8 Solid cylinder rotating obliquely. 169
Fig. 5.9 Pendulum. 169
List of figures xv
Fig. 5.10 Solid cylinder in eccentric rotation. 171

Fig. 5.11 Disk in eccentric and oblique rotation. 172
Fig. 5.12 Disk subjected to two rotations. 173
Fig. 5.13 Gyroscope. 179
Fig. 5.14 Disk rotating eccentrically. 183
Fig. 5.15 Solid rotating around a given direction. 184
Fig. 5.16 Solid cylinder rotating around a given direction. 185
Fig. 5.17 A homogeneous circular cylinder of mass m, height H , and base radius R. 186
Fig. 5.18 A biaxial gyro platform carries two identical gyroscopes rotating with a
constant angular velocity. 186
Fig. 5.19 The servo-gyroscope drive circuit. 187
Fig. 5.20 The frame of the balancing gyroscope mounted on a fixed base using
bearings D and E. 188
Fig. 6.1 Simple pendulum with rigid arm. 190
Fig. 6.2 Simple pendulum with extendable arm. 190
Fig. 6.3 Disc rolling without sliding. 190
Fig. 6.4 Point moving with constant magnitude speed. 191
Fig. 6.5 Disk with movement on the xy-plane. 191
Fig. 6.6 A simple pendulum. 195
Fig. 6.7 Disk in movement. 195
Fig. 6.8 Elastic arm pendulum. 198
Fig. 6.9 Pendulum in a block that slides without friction on a horizontal surface. 200
Fig. 6.10 Mechanical system of two masses. 202
Fig. 6.11 Electric circuit in series. 209
Fig. 6.12 Electrical circuit in parallel. 209
Fig. 6.13 Circuit of two loops. 211
Fig. 6.14 Electric transformer. 211
Fig. 6.15 Transformer and variable-capacitance circuit. 213
Fig. 6.16 Electromechanical variable-capacitor system. 215
Fig. 6.17 Electromechanical system of variable inductance. 216
Fig. 6.18 Homogeneous cylinders interconnected by inextensible and weightless
threads. 218
Fig. 6.19 Electrical circuits. 218
Fig. 6.20 Electrical circuit modeling the Lagrange system. 219
Fig. 7.1 Capacitor whose plates are held by springs. 224
Fig. 7.2 Series of masses connected by springs. 225
Fig. 7.3 Concept of equilibrium local stability. 230
Fig. 7.4 Linear oscillator. 230
Fig. 7.5 The (ε, δ)-illustration of the local stability of an equilibrium point. 233
Fig. 7.6 A potential electromechanical system. 239
Fig. 7.7 Sliding rings on rotating bars. 241
Fig. 8.1 Three masses joined by springs in circular dynamics. 255
Fig. 8.2 Three masses joined by springs with dynamics on a line. 258
Fig. 8.3 Four spring-bound masses with restricted linear dynamics. 260
Fig. 8.4 Three identical pendula held by springs. 263
Fig. 8.5 Four-loop LC circuit. 265
Fig. 8.6 An inhomogeneous disk rolling without slipping along the horizontal guide. 270
Fig. 8.7 A double mathematical pendulum suspended from a bar. 271
xvi List of figures
Fig. 8.8 A homogeneous elliptical cylinder rolling without slipping on a horizontal

plane. 272
Fig. 8.9 Electric circuit. 272
Fig. 9.1 Input-output system. 276
Fig. 9.2 Hodograph of H23 . 278
Fig. 9.3 Amplitude characteristic diagram of H23 . 279
Fig. 9.4 Phase characteristic diagram of H23 . 279
Fig. 9.5 Electrical circuit. 280
Fig. 9.6 Linear system with input delay. 281
Fig. 9.7 Hodograph of e−j ωτ . 283
Fig. 9.8 Mechanical system with friction. 283
Fig. 9.9 Electric circuit with variable elements. 284
Fig. 9.10 Illustration of the asymptotic stability concept. 287
Fig. 9.11 Graphics illustrating the zone (9.23). 293
Fig. 9.12 Function graphics of the zone (9.25). 294
Fig. 9.13 f (j ω) changes when the argument ω varies from −∞ up to ∞. 295
Fig. 9.14 Hodograph of p (j ω). 297
Fig. 9.15 Zoom of the hodograph of p (j ω). 297
Fig. 9.20 Hodograph for the case k < −3. 301
Fig. 9.21 Hodograph of p (j ω) for k = −3. 301
Fig. 9.22 Hodograph of p (j ω) for −3 < k < 1. 302
Fig. 9.23 Hodograph of p (j ω) for k = 1. 303
Fig. 9.24 Hodograph of p (j ω) for k > 1. 303
Fig. 9.25 The illustration of the Kharitonov’s criterion. 306
Fig. 9.26 Dissipative system of three masses. 308
Fig. 9.27 Electric circuit with 4 capacities, 3 inductions and 1 ohmic resistance. 309
Fig. 10.1 Pendulum with non-negligible-mass arm. 315
Fig. 11.1 A family of trajectories of a Hamiltonian system in the extended state space
with two initial and final contours. 340
Fig. 11.2 A family of trajectories of a Hamiltonian system in the extended state space
with two initial and final contours: both correspond to constant times. 345
Fig. 12.1 Manipulator with two prismatic joints (PJ) and a rotating joint (R). 384
Fig. 12.2 Rectangular (Cartesian) robot manipulator. 387
Fig. 12.3 Scaffolding robot manipulator. 390
Fig. 12.4 Spherical (polar) manipulator with three rotating joints. 393
Fig. 12.5 Articulated robot manipulator. 396
Fig. 12.6 Universal programmable manipulator (PUMA). 399
Fig. 12.7 Manipulator “Cincinnati Milacron T3 ”. 404
Fig. 12.8 CD motor, gear train, and load. 412
Fig. 12.9 The Stanford/JPL manipulator. 415
Fig. 12.10 Robot manipulator Unimate 2000. 419
Fig. 12.11 Robot manipulator with swivel base. 424
Fig. 12.12 Cylindrical robot with spring. 427
Fig. 12.13 Non-ordinary manipulator with shock absorber. 429
List of figures xvii
Fig. 12.14 Two-joint planar manipulator. 434

Fig. 12.15 “Crank-turn” robot manipulator. 438
Fig. 12.16 Robot manipulator of multicylinder type. 442
Fig. 12.17 Arm manipulator with springs. 445
Fig. 12.18 Articulated robot. 460
Fig. 12.19 “Robot-Maker 110.” 465
Fig. 12.20 Manipulator on a horizontal platform. 468
Fig. 12.21 Two-arms planar manipulator. 471
Fig. 12.22 Manipulator with three degrees of freedom. 476
Fig. 12.23 CD motor with load. 478
Fig. 12.24 Buck type DC-DC converter. 480
Fig. 12.25 Boost type DC-DC converter. 482
Fig. 12.26 Model of an induction motor. 484
List of tables
Table 6.1 Table of electromechanical analogies. 210

Table 9.1 Hodograph crosses for k < −3. 300
Table 9.2 Hodograph crosses for k = −3. 301
Table 9.3 Hodograph crosses for −3 < k < 1. 302
Table 9.4 Hodograph crosses for k = 1. 302
Table 9.5 Hodograph crosses for k > 1. 303
Table 9.6 Roots distribution for different values of k. 304
About the author
Alexander S. Poznyak graduated from the Moscow Physical Technical Institute

(MPhTI) in 1970. He received his PhD and Doctor degrees from the Institute of Con-
trol Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1978 and 1989, respectively.
From 1973 until 1993 he served at this institute as researcher and leading researcher,
and in 1993 he accepted a post as full professor (3-F) at CINVESTAV-IPN in Mexico.
For 8 years he was the head of the Automatic Control Department. He is the director
of 43 PhD theses (40 in Mexico). He has published more than 260 papers in different
international journals and written 14 books, which were published by leading publish-
ing houses such as Nauka, Springer, Elsevier, Birkhäuser, and Marcel Decker. He is
Regular Member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences and the System of National
Investigators (SNI-Emerito from 2014). He is Fellow of the Institute of Mathemat-
ics and its Applications (IMA), Essex, UK, and Associate Editor of the IMA Journal
of Mathematical Control and Information (Oxford), Kybernetika (Chech Republic),
Nonlinear Analysis: Hybrid Systems (IFAC), and the Iberoamerican international jour-
nal on “Computations and Systems.” He was also Associate Editor of CDC and ACC
and Member of the Editorial Board of IEEE CSS. He is a member of the Evaluation
Committee of SNI (Ministry of Science and Technology, area 7 and Emeritus Com-
mittee), responsible for Engineering Science and Technology Foundation in Mexico,
and a member of the Award Committee of the Mexico Prize for Science and Technol-
ogy. In 2014 he was invited by the USA Government to serve as a member of the NSF
committee on “Neuro Sciences and Artificial Intelligence.”
Preface
One theory is the most impressive,

the simpler are its premises,
the more distinct are the things it connects,
and the broader is its range of applicability.
Albert Einstein
There are two ways to teach some topic of modern science, namely:
1. the systematic theoretical form and
2. the application-oriented way.
The first means a systematic presentation of the material, governed by the desire for
perfection (from a mathematical point of view) and completeness of the presented
results. In contrast to the first, the second approach begins with the question “What is
the most important application of the considered topic?” and then tries to answer this
question as quickly as possible without wandering all the good and possibly interesting
side roads.
The present book is based on both methods, giving the mathematically precise
foundations of mechanics as a natural science, complemented by several practical ex-
amples that illustrate the basic enunciations under consideration. The reader feels that
the theory is being developed, not only by itself, but by the effective solution of con-
crete problems. This course deals with different kinds of mechanical, electrical, and
electromechanical models providing deep analysis of each one, including the corre-
sponding numerical calculations.
This book is aimed at graduate students (Masters and Doctorate) of the Electrical
Engineering faculties, studying mechanics, mechatronics, and control, who wish to
learn more about how the elegant theory of classical and analytical mechanics solves
different problems that arise in the real world.
The modern word “mechatronics,” also called mechatronic engineering, is a mul-
tidisciplinary branch of engineering that focuses on the engineering of both electrical
and mechanical systems, and also includes a combination of robotics, electronics,
computer science, telecommunications, systems control, and product engineering. As
technology advances over time, various subfields of engineering have succeeded in
both adapting and multiplying. The intention of mechatronics is to produce a design
solution that unifies each of these various subfields. Originally, the field of mechatron-
ics was intended to be nothing more than a combination of mechanics and electronics,
hence the name being a portmanteau of mechanics and electronics; however, as the
complexity of technical systems continued to evolve, the definition was broadened to
xxiv Preface
include more technical areas. Many people treat mechatronics as a modern buzzword
synonymous with robotics and electromechanical engineering.1
The presented material is based on more than 25 years of teaching experi-

ence of the author, initially in Russia (Technical Institute of Physics of Moscow
[MFTI] during 1979–1993) and then in Mexico (Center for Research and Ad-
vanced Studies of the IPN [CINVESTAV], Automatic Control Department, Mexico
City, during 1993–2018). The fundamental concepts of this course were created by
world-renowned scientists such as F.R. Gantmacher, M.A. Aizerman, and E.S. Pyat-
nickii and later developed by I.P. Devyaterikov, G.N. Yakovenko, N.M. Truhan, and
Yu.I. Khanukaev.
The author would like to express his wide thanks to his colleagues from MFTI
(Russia) and his Mexican ex-PhD students (now doctors) J. Medel, J. Correa-Martinez,
Daishi Murano, F. Bejarano, M. Jiménez, and I. Chairez for their kind collaboration
and help in the creation of this manuscript.
Alex S. Poznyak
Mexico City and Avándaro, Mexico
2020
1 The word mechatronics originated in Japanese-English and was created by Tetsuro Mori, an engineer of
Yaskawa Electric Corporation. The word mechatronics was registered as trademark by the company in
Japan with the registration number “46-32714” in 1971. However, afterward the company released the
right of using the word to public, the word begun being used across the world. Nowadays, the word is
translated into many languages and the word is considered as an essential term for industry.
Notation
Scalars
Scalars are the elements of the real (R) or complex (C) fields and are denoted by
lowercase letters in italics, for example, a, b.
Given the scalar a, |a| represents its absolute value if a ∈ R and its module if a ∈ C.
Vectors
The vectors are denoted with bold letters, for example, a, K.

The unit vectors in the Cartesian coordinate directions x, y, z are represented re-
spectively by i, j, k.
Given the vector a, its magnitude is denoted by a, or |a|.
(a, b) denotes the internal or scalar product of vectors a and b.
[a, b] denotes the vector product of vectors a and b.
b denotes the smallest angle between the vectors a and b.
a,
a b indicates that the vectors a and b are parallel.
a ⊥ b indicates that the vectors a and b are orthogonal.
AB denotes the segment with extreme points A and B.
g denotes the gravity acceleration vector.
∠AOB is the angle in the triangle AOB with the vertex in O.
Matrices
The matrices are tables, represented by uppercase letters in italics, for example,

A = aij i=1,...,n;j =1,...,m .
Given the square matrix A, its determinant is denoted by

det A and its trace by trA.
Given matrix A, its transpose is represented by AT = aj i .
Ker(A) denotes the kernel of matrix A, i.e.,
Ker (A) = {x : Ax = 0} .
xxvi Notation
Functions
To represent the functions, the letters are used according to the type to which the value
of the function belongs, for example,
f1 : R → R, f2 : R n → R,
g1 : R → R n , g2 : R n → R m ,
A1 : R → R n×m , A2 : R 3 → R n×m ,
where n, m are positive integers.
Derivatives
ȧ, ä indicate the first and second time derivatives of vector a.

For the real function f (r) : R n → R the following notations are used:
first derivative or gradient,

∂ ∂f ∂f ∂f
f = ∇f = , , ··· , ;
∂r ∂r1 ∂r2 ∂rn
second derivative matrix or Hessian,

⎡ ⎤
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
⎢ ··· ⎥
⎢ ∂r1 ∂r1 ∂r1 ∂r2 ∂r1 ∂rn ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ⎥
∂ 2 ⎢ ··· ⎥
f = ∇ 2
f = ⎢ ∂r2 ∂r1 ∂r2 ∂r2 ∂r2 ∂rn ⎥.
∂r2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. .. .. .. ⎥
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ⎦
···
∂rn ∂r1 ∂rn ∂r2 ∂rn ∂rn
The derivative of the vector function g (r) : Rn → Rm is the functional matrix given
by
⎡ ⎤
∂g1 ∂g1 ∂g1
⎢ ··· ⎥
⎢ ∂r1 ∂r2 ∂rn ⎥
∂g ⎢ ∂g2 ∂g2 ∂g2 ⎥
=⎢ ··· ⎥.
∂r ⎢
⎢ ∂r1 ∂r2 ∂rn ⎥
⎥
⎣ ∂gm ∂gm ∂gm ⎦
···
∂r1 ∂r2 ∂rn
Notation xxvii
Quaternion
A quaternion is a complex number of the form
3
:= λ0 + λj ij = λ0 + λ,
j =1
where λi (i = 0, ..., 3) are real numbers and ij are imaginary units that satisfy certain
conditions.1
The product ◦ of two quaternions = λ0 + λ and = δ0 + δ is defined as
◦ := λ0 δ0 − (λ, δ) + λ0 δ + δ0 λ + [λ, δ] ,
where (λ, δ) is the scalar and [λ, δ] is the vector product.
Quadratic forms
We have
n n

x2Q := x Qx = qij xi xj ,
i=1 j =1

Q = qij i=1,...,n; j =1,...,n .
1 Recall that when Hamilton passed from complex numbers to quaternions, multiplication lost one of its
normal properties: commutativity.
Introduction
Several good books dedicated to physical, mechanical, electrical, and electromechan-

ical models are well known within the area of technological sciences. Among them
we can quote (Rutherford, 1951), (Becker, 1954), (Seely et al., 1958), (Corben and
Stehle, 1960), (Kittel et al., 1968), (Symon, 1968), (Landau and Lifshitz, 1969), (Gant-
makher, 1970), (Barger and Olsson, 1973), (Kibble, 1973), (Titherington and Rimmer,
1973), (Lawden, 1974), (Bartlett, 1975), (Burghes and Downs, 1975), (Abraham and
Marsden, 1978), (Devaney and Nitecki, 1981), (Takwale and Puranik, 1979), (Gold-
stein, 1980), (Kotkin and Serbo, 1980), (Aizerman, 1980), (Desloge, 1982), (Hestenes,
1986), (Fowles, 1986), (Arnold, 1989), (Matzner and Shepley, 1991), (Marsden,
1992), (Chow, 1995), (Barger et al., 1995), (Bhatia, 1997), (Arya, 1998), (Kwatny and
Blankenship, 2000), (Kibble and Berkshire, 2004), (Fowles et al., 2005), (Deriglazov,
2016), (Torres del Castillo, 2018).
This book differs from the aforementioned books in different aspects. Maintaining
the precise and rigorous form of mathematical explanation, this book is basically
oriented towards readers in the engineering area, while the above cited classical
books are aimed at specialists in the fields of theoretical and mathematical physics.
In this book the most discussed models of practical systems (gyroscopes, robots, and
some electrical schemes, in particular, power converters) are considered in details.
The discussion of the contents of the book is presented below.
The Lagrangian formalism is presented in Chapters 1–9.

The study of the kinematics of a point as in Chapter 1 has the purpose of obtaining
the expressions that describe the temporal behavior of its position, speed, and accel-
eration. This chapter introduces the necessary basic concepts and shows how these
expressions are deduced. A fundamental aspect of the subject is that concerning the
coordinate system used, since the obtained mathematical expressions depend on it. In
view of the fact that the most natural system and therefore the employed one is the
Cartesian system, the generalized coordinates are defined based on this system. The
corresponding relationships that allow the transformation of the kinematic quantities
between different types of coordinates are obtained.
In Chapter 2 the concept of rigid body is introduced and quite general expressions
are obtained for the description of the kinematics of this mechanical entity. A funda-
mental tool for the study of the kinematics of the rigid body is Euler’s theorem, with
which important concepts such as angular speed and acceleration appear, and which
allows the calculation of the speed and acceleration of any point of the rigid body. In
xxx Introduction
particular, this method can be extended to the case of the movement of a point in the
presence of a mobile relative coordinate system. This topic is addressed in the final
section. The description of rotations, using quaternions as generalized coordinates, is
also considered.
The motivation of Chapter 3 is the study of the relationship between the kinematic
quantities of a point system and their causes, that is, the forces. This study leads to the
introduction of important concepts, such as kinetic energy, momentum, impulse mo-
ment, and force moment, which will allow obtaining very important relations between
them.
The relationships obtained in the previous chapters are based on the consideration
that the “absolute reference system” is not accelerated. Systems in which this con-
dition is met are called inertial. In Chapter 4 the dynamics of non-inertial systems
are analyzed, that is, systems whose “absolute reference” undergoes an acceleration.
Another aspect of this chapter deals with the case when the mass is admitted to be
variable, which is another aspect of this chapter.
In Chapter 5 we continue with the study of the dynamics of solid bodies. The dy-
namic equations corresponding to the rotation of bodies and referred to as the dynamic
Euler equations are obtained. To do that, a fundamental concept of the geometry of the
solids is introduced, namely, the inertia tensor, which is key in the description of the
equations sought. The inertial tensor will allow calculating fundamental quantities
such as kinetic energy and impulse moment with reduced expressions. In the central
part of the chapter, the proposed objective is achieved, once some main properties of
the inertia tensor have been stated. The chapter concludes with the application (not
trivial, but very productive) of Euler’s equations to the study of special movements
such as the gyroscope and dynamic reactions. Some examples and exercises illustrate
the presented theory.
Newton’s second law and Euler’s dynamic equations are the formalism that allows
to obtain the equations of movement in mechanical systems; however, their applica-
tion is usually complicated if the geometry of the movement is not simple and/or by
the presence of restrictions to it. The Lagrange equations, whose study is addressed in
Chapter 6, are an essential tool for these cases, since they naturally include the con-
straints, in addition to being based on the concept of generalized coordinates, which
allow describing the dynamics in terms of the variables, associated with the degrees
of freedom of the system. This particularity also makes it possible to apply the same
formalism to electrical and even electromechanical systems. A fundamental part of
the Lagrange equations are the generalized forces, which characterize (constitute) the
essential part of these equations.
In dynamic systems in general and in mechanical systems in particular, the deter-

mination of equilibrium positions and their quality of stability are traditional problems
of fundamental importance, which to date have been partially resolved. In Chapter 7,
Introduction xxxi
based on the concepts and results obtained up to this point (such as coordinates and
generalized forces), the study of these topics is addressed and the most important re-
sults are reported. As will be seen, the most developed theory is that dealing with
conservative systems, which occupy most of the chapter.
The Lagrange equations are an invaluable tool in determining the important prop-
erties of mechanical systems. The application of these equations and the study of the
consequences derived have been the object of the two preceding chapters. In Chap-
ter 8 one more application is presented to the study of the important properties of
small oscillations of a system around the points of its equilibrium. By the usual tech-
nique of linearization around a point of equilibrium, the Lagrange equations can be
approximated by a linear expression that describes in sufficient detail the dynamics
of the system in a neighborhood sufficiently close to the point of interest. In this ap-
proximate expression all known techniques for linear dynamic systems can be applied,
leading to very useful conclusions. In addition, if the considered system is restricted
to being of the conservative type, then the expression is reduced, which allows to
characterize and calculate its solutions in a very simple way.
In Chapter 9, the study of the linear systems obtained from the process of lineariza-
tion of the Lagrange equations is continued. This continuation covers two aspects:
first, the consideration of non-potential forces dependent only on time allows the use
of the important tool of Fourier transformation, which leads to the consideration of the
frequency response of the system; second, dissipative systems are considered, which
generalize to those of conservative type and allow the introduction of the concept of
asymptotically stable equilibrium, extending the previously discussed idea of equilib-
rium.
The Hamiltonian formalism is presented in Chapters 10 and 11.

In Chapter 10, conservative systems are considered and generalized impulses are
introduced. Hamilton’s variables are also considered and it is demonstrated that they
can completely describe the dynamics of a system in the canonical Hamiltonian for-
mat. Some properties of these canonical equations are studied as well as their first
integrals.
The canonical transformations of the dynamic variables, describing Hamiltonians

in new variables, are considered in Chapter 11. Several criteria of canonicity (such as
the S-criterion) is studying. The Hamilton–Jacobi (HJ) equation (partial differential
equation) that corresponds to Hamilton’s canonical equations (the system of ordinary
differential equations [ODEs]) is also considered.1 Its complete integrals are found.
The considered technique allows to find the solution of the canonical Hamiltonian
equation without direct resolution of the corresponding system of ODEs, but resolv-
ing only the system of special nonlinear algebraic equations. This chapter also shows
the relation between the HJ equation in mechanics of conservative systems and the
dynamic programming method in optimal control theory.
1 It is named after William Rowan Hamilton and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi.
xxxii Introduction
Some models of electromechanical systems (such as a robot of the PUMA type,

the pendubot, DC and induction motors, and also a power converter) are developed in
Chapter 12.
The formulations of the majority of the presented exercises have been taken from
(Pyatnickii et al., 1996).
The basic idea of this book is to build a bridge between theory and practice
related to mechanical, electrical, and electromechanical systems.
Kinematics of a point
Contents
1
1.1 Products of vectors 1
1.1.1 Internal (scalar) product 2
1.1.2 Vector product 3
1.1.3 Main properties of triple products 6
1.2 Generalized coordinates 8
1.2.1 Different possible coordinates 8
1.2.2 Definition of generalized coordinates 8
1.2.3 Relationship of generalized coordinates with Cartesian 9
1.2.4 Coefficients of Lamé 10
1.3 Kinematics in generalized coordinates 10
1.3.1 Velocity in generalized coordinates 11
1.3.2 Acceleration in generalized coordinates 11
1.4 Movement in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems 14
1.4.1 Movement in cylindrical coordinates 14
1.4.2 Movement in spherical coordinates 16
1.5 Normal and tangential accelerations 18
1.6 Some examples 20
1.7 Exercises 28
The study of point kinematics has the purpose to obtain the expressions that describe
the temporal behavior of its position, speed, and acceleration. This chapter introduces
the necessary basic concepts and shows how these expressions are deduced. A funda-
mental aspect of the subject concerns the coordinate system used, since the obtained
mathematical expressions depend on it. In view of the fact that the most natural system
and therefore the employed one is the Cartesian system, the generalized coordinates
are defined based on this concrete system. The relationships that allow the transforma-
tion of the kinematic quantities between different types of coordinates are obtained.
1.1 Products of vectors

In the following presentation two operations on vectors are defined. The product, being
one of the most interesting both in its scalar and in its vectorial mode, and its most
important properties are obtained.
Classical and Analytical Mechanics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-32-389816-4.00012-0
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Classical and Analytical Mechanics
1.1.1 Internal (scalar) product

Fig. 1.1 illustrates the details of the following two definitions related to the so-called
internal or scalar product.
Figure 1.1 The projection of the vector b to the direction of another vector a.
Definition 1.1. For the two vectors a and b, the component compba of b over a is
defined as

b .
compba := b cos a, (1.1)
Definition 1.2. The internal or scalar product (a, b) of vectors a and b is the scalar,
defined as

b = a compba .
(a, b) := ab cos a, (1.2)
The main properties of the scalar product (1.2) are described in the following
lemma.
Lemma 1.1 (The main properties of the internal or scalar product). Let a, b, c be
vectors in R3 .
1. Commutativity: We have
(a, b) = (b, a) .
2. Distributivity: We have
(a, (b + c)) = (a, b) + (a, c) .
3. Criterion of parallelism: If a, b = 0, then

(a, b) 1, if and only if the vectors a and b are parallel,
=
ab −1, if and only if the vectors a and b are antiparallel.
4. Orthogonality criterion: If a, b = 0, then
(a, b) = 0
if and only if the vectors a and b are orthogonal, that is, a ⊥ b.

Kinematics of a point 3
5. Magnitude (length) of a vector: This is defined as

a = (a, a).
Proof. Both vectors a and b have the following representation:

a = aq1 k1 + aq2 k2 + aq3 k3 ,
(1.3)
b = bq1 k1 + bq2 k2 + bq3 k3 ,
where the unitary vectors k1 , k2 , k3 satisfy the relation

ki , kj = δi,j (1.4)
with

1, i = j,
δi,j := i, j = 1, 2, 3,
0, i = j,
referred to as the Kronecker symbol. So,
(a, b) = aq1 bq1 + aq2 bq2 + aq3 bq3 . (1.5)
Properties 1, 3, 4, and 5 immediately follow from the definition. As for property 2, it

results from the projection property:

(a, (b + c)) = acompb+c
a = a compba + compca = (a, b) + (a, c) .
Remark 1.1. By the definition (1.2) and properties 1 and 2 it follows that the scalar
product is a bilinear operation.
1.1.2 Vector product

Now we present the basic concepts related to the vector product, whose details are
illustrated in Fig. 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Vector product of two vectors a and b.

Definition 1.3. For a, b ∈ R3 their vector product, denoted by
c := [a, b] ,
is defined as the vector which is orthogonal to the plane, formed by a and b, with the
direction of the advance of a right screw that follows the rotation of a to b and with
the magnitude
c = ab sin α, (1.6)
b.
where α := a,
As can be seen from Fig. 1.2, the area of the parallelogram, formed by a and b, is
given by
A = ah,
with
h = b sin α,
that is,
c = A = |[a, b]| .
From the definition of the vector product it is possible to obtain several conse-
quences, which are given in the following lemma.
Lemma 1.2 (Properties of the vector product). For any three vectors a, b, c ∈ R3 the
following properties hold:
1. Anticommutativity, i.e.,
[a, b] = − [b, a] .
2. Distributivity on the sum, i.e.,
[a, (b + c)] = [a, b] + [a, c] .
3. Criterion of parallelism: If a, b = 0, then
[a, b] = 0
if and only if a and b are parallel.

4. Orthogonality criterion: If a, b = 0, then
|[a, b]|
=1
ab
if and only if a and b are orthogonal.
5. Vector products between the unit vectors: If the unit vector system (k1 , k2 , k3 ),
associated with the generalized coordinates q, is orthogonal and has the configu-
ration as in Fig. 1.3, then
[k1 , k2 ] = k3 , [k2 , k3 ] = k1 , [k3 , k1 ] = k2 .
Figure 1.3 Right orthogonal system.

6. Explicit formula: If

a = aq1 k1 + aq2 k2 + aq3 k3 ,
b = bq1 k1 + bq2 k2 + bq3 k3 ,
then

[a, b] = aq2 bq3 − aq3 bq2 k1 +
(1.7)
aq3 bq1 − aq1 bq3 k2 + aq1 bq2 − aq2 bq1 k3
making use of the determinant concept matches as
k1 k2 k3
[a, b] = aq1 aq2 aq3 .
bq1 bq2 bq3
Proof. Properties 1, 3, 4, and 5 are obtained directly from the definition of the vector
product. The demonstration of property 2 is left as an exercise to the reader, while
property 6 follows immediately from properties 1, 2, and 5.
Remark 1.2. Again, it is easy to follow the definition (1.6) and properties 1 and 2 and
verify that the vector product is bilinear.
In the following definitions three vectors are involved, so the considered operations
are referred to as triple products.
Definition 1.4. Given vectors a, b, c ∈ R3 , the scalar
(a, [b, c])
is called the triple scalar product, while the vector
[a, [b, c]]
is called the triple vector product.

1.1.3 Main properties of triple products

The following lemma presents some useful properties of triple products.
Lemma 1.3 (Properties of triple products). For any vectors
a, b, c ∈ R3
the following properties hold:

1. Alternate formula of the triple scalar product: Under the condition of orthogonal-
ity of the unit vectors (k1 , k2 , k3 ) by the representation
⎫
a = aq1 k1 + aq2 k2 + aq3 k3 , ⎪
⎬
b = bq1 k1 + bq2 k2 + bq3 k3 , (1.8)
⎪
⎭
c = cq1 k1 + cq2 k2 + cq3 k3 ,
it follows that
aq1 aq2 aq3

(a, [b, c]) = det bq1 bq2 bq3 . (1.9)
cq1 cq2 cq3
2. Cyclic rotation of the triple scalar product: We have
(a, [b, c]) = (b, [c, a]) = (c, [a, b]) . (1.10)
3. Alternate formula of the triple vector product: We have
[a, [b, c]] = b (a, c) − c (a, b) . (1.11)
4. Jacobi’s identity: We have
[a, [b, c]] + [b, [c, a]] + [c, [a, b]] = 0. (1.12)
Proof. By (1.5) and (1.7) we have

(a, [b, c]) = aq1 bq2 cq3 − bq3 cq2 +

aq2 bq3 cq1 − bq1 cq3 + aq3 bq1 cq2 − bq2 cq1 ,
which coincides with (1.9). Property 2 follows immediately from the property of the
determinants. To show property 3, note that
⎫
k1 k2 k3 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
[a, [b, c]] = aq1 aq2 aq3 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
bq2 cq3 − bq3 cq2 bq3 cq1 − bq1 cq3 bq1 cq2 − bq2 cq1 ⎬

= bq1 aq2 cq2 + aq3 cq3 − cq1 aq2 bq2 + aq3 bq3 k1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
+ bq2 aq1 cq1 + aq3 cq3 − cq2 aq1 bq1 + aq3 bq3 k2 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎭
+ bq3 aq1 cq1 + aq2 cq2 − cq3 aq1 bq1 + aq2 bq2 k3
(1.13)
and
⎫
b (a, c) − c (a, b) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
bq1 k1 + bq2 k2 + bq3 k3 aq1 cq1 + aq2 cq2 + aq3 cq3 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬
− cq1 k1 + cq2 k2 + cq3 k3 aq1 bq1 + aq2 bq2 + aq3 bq3 =

bq1 aq1 cq1 + aq2 cq2 + aq3 cq3 − cq1 aq1 bq1 + aq2 bq2 + aq3 bq3 k1 ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
+ bq2 aq1 cq1 + aq2 bq2 + aq3 cq3 − cq2 aq1 bq1 + aq2 bq2 + aq3 bq3 k2 ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎭
+ bq3 aq1 cq1 + aq2 cq2 + aq3 cq3 − cq3 aq1 bq1 + aq2 bq2 + aq3 bq3 k3 .
(1.14)
Direct comparison of (1.13) with (1.14) leads to (1.11). The application of property 3
to the left-hand side of (1.12) implies
[a, [b, c]] + [b, [c, a]] + [c, [a, b]] =

b (a, c) − c (a, b) + c (a, b) − (b, c) a + (b, c) a − b (a, c) = 0.
Remark 1.3. If in formula (1.11) we put c = a with a = 0, then we get

(a, b) [a, [b, a]]
b= 2
a+ , (1.15)
a a2
that is, any vector b can be represented as a linear combination of a vector a and the
vector which is perpendicular to a being contained in the plane formed by a and b.
The following exercise demonstrates the effectiveness of the direct application of
formula (1.15).
Example 1.1. Consider the following system of four algebraic equations with respect
to the components of the vector r ∈ R3 :

(r, a) = m,
[r, a] = b,
where vectors a, b ∈ R3 and the scalar m ∈ R are supposed to be given. We need to

find r. Taking in (1.15) b = r we get
(a, r) [a, [r, a]] m [a, b]

r= a+ = 2a+ 2 .
a2 a2 a a
1.2 Generalized coordinates
1.2.1 Different possible coordinates

Let p be a moving point in space and let r(t) be the vector that describes its position at
time t with respect to some given reference system. The description of r can be carried
out in as many ways as possible with the reference system. Within these descriptions,
the most used reference system is the Cartesian system, but in certain problems it may
be more natural to use others, for example, representations in cylindrical or spherical
coordinates. In Fig. 1.4 these three types of description and their relationships are
shown.
Figure 1.4 Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical vector representations and their relations.
1.2.2 Definition of generalized coordinates

The relationship between different vectorial descriptions of the position of the point p
has special importance in the derivation of the expressions that describe its movement,
such as the expressions of position, speed, and acceleration.
Definition 1.5. A triad of numbers q = (q1 , q2 , q3 ) that allow to uniquely specify the
position of a point p in space is said to form a set of generalized coordinates of p.
The set of generalized coordinates q of all points of a system in space is called the
coordinate system corresponding to the generalized coordinates q.
It is clear that the Cartesian coordinates form a system of generalized coordinates
too.
1.2.3 Relationship of generalized coordinates with Cartesian

Criterion 1.1. The set of all possible triads q = (q1 , q2 , q3 ), where qi ∈ Si ⊆ R
(i = 1, 2, 3), forms a generalized coordinate system if and only if there is a one-to-
one relationship between the Cartesian description r = (x, y, z) of each point p ∈ R3
and a triad q = (q1 , q2 , q3 ).
In other words, the previous definition states that set
S := {q = (q1 , q2 , q3 ) , qi ∈ Si ⊆ R, i = 1, 2, 3} ⊆ R3
forms a generalized coordinate system if and only if the mapping
r : S → R3
given by
r = r (q) (1.16)
with
r = (x, y, z) (1.17)
constitutes a one-to-one transformation.

The following criterion characterizes this transformation.
Lemma 1.4. A vector function r (q) : R3 → R3 is a one-to-one smooth transformation
if and only if the derivative of r, called the Jacobian matrix of r, given by
⎡ ∂r ∂r ∂r ⎤
1 1 1
⎢ ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
∂r ⎢ ∂r2 ∂r2 ∂r2 ⎥
:= ⎢
⎢ ∂q1
⎥,
∂q ⎢ ∂q2 ∂q3 ⎥
⎥
⎣ ∂r3 ∂r3 ∂r3 ⎦
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3
is not singular, which in turn is satisfied if and only if for all x, y, and z

∂r
det = 0. (1.18)
∂q
The existence of the transformation (1.16) ensures that the Cartesian coordinates
of a point p can be determined from the triad q by some functions
x = x(q1 , q2 , q3 ), y = y(q1 , q2 , q3 ), z = z(q1 , q2 , q3 ).
If a set of coordinates has the property (1.18), you can easily derive the expressions
that describe the kinematics of the moving point they represent from those correspond-
ing to the description in Cartesian coordinates and vice versa. This derivation requires
some concepts, which are introduced next.
Definition 1.6. Suppose that in the transformation (1.16) two constant generalized
coordinates are maintained and the other one is allowed to vary; the generated curve
is known as the coordinate curve corresponding to the variable coordinate, and the
direction that such a curve follows when the coordinate increases is said to be its
positive direction. A system of generalized coordinates is called rectilinear if its
coordinate curves are straight; if they result as curves, then it is called curvilinear.
The coordinate curves make it possible to determine the unit vectors of the gener-
alized coordinate system in question. The unitary vector, corresponding to the coordi-
nate qi , i = 1, 2, 3, is given by the positive direction of the tangent to the coordinate
curve corresponding to qi . This concept is formalized in the following two definitions.
1.2.4 Coefficients of Lamé

Definition 1.7. The values

∂r ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Hi := = + + , i = 1, 2, 3, (1.19)
∂qi ∂qi ∂qi ∂qi
are called the Lamé coefficients corresponding to the generalized coordinates q.
Definition 1.8. The vectors

1 ∂r
ki := , i = 1, 2, 3, (1.20)
Hi ∂qi
are referred to as the unit vectors of the generalized coordinate q.
The defined unit vectors constitute the base in the space of the generalized coordi-
nate q. Note that in general these bases are not orthogonal; besides, they vary from one
point to another. For this last reason they are known as local bases. By the previous
concepts, given a system of generalized coordinates q, the representation of a generic
vector p with respect to this system is given by
p = pq1 k1 + pq2 k2 + pq3 k3 , (1.21)
where pqi , i = 1, 2, 3, is the component of the point p on the coordinate qi .
1.3 Kinematics in generalized coordinates
The concepts introduced up to now allow to obtain in a simple way the expressions
for the speed and acceleration of a mobile particle p, when the description is made in
the generalized coordinates q.
1.3.1 Velocity in generalized coordinates

Let r (t) be the vector that describes the position at time t of the moving point p in the
Cartesian coordinate space. The velocity v of the point p is defined as the temporal
derivative of the position vector r (t):
dr
v := .
dt
Now let a system be given in generalized coordinates q. Then there is a transformation
r (t) = r (q (t))
such that, by the rule of chain differentiation,
d ∂r ∂r ∂r
v= r (q (t)) = q̇1 + q̇2 + q̇3 , (1.22)
dt ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3
where
dqi
q̇i := , i = 1, 2, 3.
dt
Now, using the definitions of the coefficients of Lamé (1.19) and of the unit vec-
tors (1.20) for the coordinate system q, expression (1.22) can be rewritten in the form

3
v= Hi q̇i ki , (1.23)
i=1
where
vqi := Hi q̇i , i = 1, 2, 3, (1.24)
is the component of vector v in direction ki .
Remark 1.4. The magnitude of v is given by

v = v, v, (1.25)
and by (1.24), if the system q is orthogonal, formula (1.25) is reduced to

3

v= Hi2 q̇i2 . (1.26)
i=1
1.3.2 Acceleration in generalized coordinates

The acceleration of point p is defined as the temporal derivative of its velocity vector,
that is,
dv
w := . (1.27)
dt
Since in the generalized coordinates, v is given by (1.22), the expression of w in these

coordinates is presented as

d ∂r ∂r ∂r
w= q̇1 + q̇2 + q̇3 ,
dt ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3
whose development leads to an expression of complex structure. A simpler expres-
sion can be obtained by an alternate method: note that in the generalized coordinate
system q, the acceleration vector w has an expression of the form
w = wq1 k1 + wq2 k2 + wq3 k3 . (1.28)
In the case when the generalized coordinate system is orthogonal, satisfying

1, if i = j,
ki , kj = δij :=
0, if i = j,
where δij is the Kronecker symbol, the i-th component wqi (i = 1, 2, 3) may be rep-
resented as
wqi = (ki , w) , (1.29)
or, using the definition (1.20) of ki ,

1 ∂r
wqi = ,w , (1.30)
Hi ∂qi
we may conclude that

∂r dv
Hi wqi = , . (1.31)
∂qi dt
The additional steps require some relationships, which are the subject of the following
lemma.
Lemma 1.5. The vector v (see (1.22)) complies with the following relationships for
all i = 1, 2, 3:
∂v ∂r
= , (1.32)
∂ q̇i ∂qi
d ∂r ∂v
= . (1.33)
dt ∂qi ∂qi
∂ q̇j
Proof. Since r is not a function of q̇i and = δij , equality (1.32) follows directly
∂ q̇i
from (1.22):

∂r
3 ∂
q̇j 3

∂v ∂qj ∂ 2r ∂r ∂ q̇j ∂r
= = q̇j + = , i = 1, 2, 3.
∂ q̇i ∂ q̇i ∂ q̇i ∂qj ∂qj ∂ q̇i ∂qi
j =1 j =1
Since in mechanics the function r = r(t) during any admissible movement is assumed
to be smooth we have
∂ 2r ∂ 2r
= ,
∂qj ∂qi ∂qi ∂qj
which implies

∂r
3 ∂
∂ ∂r
3 3
d ∂r ∂qi ∂ 2r ∂v
= q̇j = q̇j = q̇j = .
dt ∂qi ∂qj ∂qi ∂qj ∂qi ∂qj ∂qi
j =1 j =1 j =1
Remark 1.5. The derivative of the scalar product of two vector functions f(t) and
ϕ(t) results in

d d d
(f(t), ϕ(t)) = f, ϕ + f, ϕ ,
dt dt dt
implying

d d d
f, ϕ = (f(t), ϕ(t)) − f, ϕ . (1.34)
dt dt dt
As the result of (1.34), for the right-hand side of (1.31) we have

∂r d d ∂r d ∂r
, v = ,v − ,v , (1.35)
∂qi dt dt ∂qi dt ∂qi
and, by the relations (1.32) and (1.33), it follows that

d ∂v ∂v
Hi wqi = ,v − ,v . (1.36)
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
The following definition is required to obtain the desired final expression for wqi .
Definition 1.9. Consider a particle of mass m and velocity v. The amount
m 2 m
T := v = v, v (1.37)
2 2
will be referred to as the kinetic energy of this particle.
Using the concept of kinetic energy with m = 1, formula (1.36) can be equivalently
represented as

d ∂T ∂T
Hi wqi = − ,
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
which finally leads to

1 d ∂T ∂T
wqi = − . (1.38)
Hi dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
In view of (1.38) and using the representation

w = (w, w), (1.39)
we get

3
1 d ∂T ∂T 2
w= − , (1.40)
H 2 dt ∂ q̇i
i=1 i
∂qi
keeping in mind that coordinate system q is orthogonal.
1.4 Movement in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate

systems
The importance of the concepts introduced before and the obtained relations are em-
phasized in the examples presented below.
1.4.1 Movement in cylindrical coordinates

The position of a particle in space is referred to using a cylindrical coordinate sys-
tem, as illustrated in Fig. 1.5. We need to get the expressions for the velocity and
acceleration vectors with respect to these coordinates.
Figure 1.5 Representation of a point’s position in cylindrical coordinates.
Following the used notation, we have
q1 = ρ, q2 = ϕ, q3 = z,
where
q1 ≥ 0, 0 ≤ q2 < 2π, −∞ < q3 < ∞,
and from Fig. 1.5 it is easy to conclude that

⎫
x = ρ cos ϕ = q1 cos q2 ,⎪
⎬
y sin ϕ = q1 sin q2 , (1.41)
⎪
⎭
z = q3 ,
which defines the component transformation from Euclidian to the generalized coor-
dinates q. Using (1.41) and (1.19), it is easy to obtain the Lamé coefficients. Indeed,
the partial derivatives of functions (1.41) with respect to q1 are given by
∂x ∂y ∂z
= cos q2 , = sin q2 , = 0,
∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1
which results in
H1 = 1.
By the same manner, the partial derivatives of functions (1.41) with respect to q2 and
q3 are
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −q1 sin q2 , = q1 cos q2 , = 0,
∂q2 ∂q2 ∂q2
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 0, = 0, = 1,
∂q3 ∂q3 ∂q3
implying
H2 = q1 = ρ
and
H3 = 1.
Having the expressions for the Lamé coefficients, the velocity components in the co-
ordinates q immediately follow from (1.24):
vq1 = q̇1 , or vρ = ρ̇,

vq2 = q1 q̇2 , or vϕ = ρ ϕ̇,
vq3 = q̇3 , or vz = ż.
Substitution of these expressions in (1.26) in view of the orthogonality of the system q

implies that
!
v = ρ̇ 2 + ρ 2 ϕ̇ 2 + ż2 .
This expression permits to calculate the kinetic energy (1.37), which for m = 1 results
in
1 2
T= ρ̇ + ρ 2 ϕ̇ 2 + ż2 .
2
By (1.38) we conclude that
d
wq1 = wρ = (ρ̇) − ρ ϕ̇ 2 = ρ̈ − ρ ϕ̇ 2 ,
dt
1 d 2 1
wq2 = wϕ = ρ ϕ̇ − 0 = 2ρ ρ̇ ϕ̇ + ρ 2 ϕ̈ = 2ρ̇ ϕ̇ + ρ ϕ̈,
ρ dt ρ
d
wq3 = wz = (ż) − 0 = z̈.
dt
1.4.2 Movement in spherical coordinates

Consider the same particle of the previous example, but now with its position referred
to using a spherical coordinate system (the situation is shown in Fig. 1.6). Get again
the expressions for velocity and acceleration vectors with respect to these coordinates.
Now the coordinates q are
q1 = r, q2 = ϕ, q3 = θ,
Figure 1.6 Representation of a point’s position in spherical coordinates.
where
q1 ≥ 0, 0 ≤ q2 < 2π, 0 ≤ q3 ≤ π.
Using Fig. 1.6, we have the relations

⎫
x = r sin θ cos ϕ = q1 sin q3 cos q2 ,⎪
⎬
y = r sin θ sin ϕ = q1 sin q3 sin q2 , (1.42)
⎪
⎭
z = r cos θ = q1 cos q3 ,
which, as can be easily checked, constitutes the coordinate transformation, so that q

composes a system of generalized coordinates. The partial derivatives of the functions
in (1.42) with respect to q1 are as follows:
∂x ∂y ∂z
= sin q3 cos q2 , = sin q3 sin q2 , = cos q3 ,
∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q1
which, according to (1.19), gives

!
H1 = (sin q3 cos q2 )2 + (sin q3 sin q2 )2 + (cos q3 )2 = 1.
Proceeding in a similar way, the partial derivatives of the functions in (1.42) with
respect to q2 and q3 result in
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −q1 sin q3 sin q2 , = q1 sin q3 cos q2 , = 0,
∂q2 ∂q2 ∂q2
∂x ∂y ∂z
= q1 cos q3 cos q2 , = q1 cos q3 sin q2 , = −q1 sin q3 ,
∂q3 ∂q3 ∂q3
which leads to
!
H2 = (−q1 sin q3 sin q2 )2 + (q1 sin q3 cos q2 )2 = q1 sin q3 = r sin θ,
!
H3 = (q1 cos q2 cos q3 )2 + (q1 sin q2 cos q3 )2 + (−q1 sin q3 )2 = q1 = r.
The calculated Lamé coefficients and (1.24) allow to determine the components of
velocity with respect to the system q:
⎫
vq1 = q̇1 , or vr = ρ̇, ⎪
⎬
vq2 = q1 q̇2 sin q3 , or vϕ = r ϕ̇ sin θ, (1.43)
⎪
⎭
vq3 = q1 q̇3 , or vθ = r θ̇ .
The presentation (1.43) together with (1.26) (taking into account that this system of
coordinates q is orthogonal) permits to conclude that the magnitude v of the velocity
v is given by
!
2
v= ρ̇ 2 + (r ϕ̇ sin θ )2 + r θ̇
and, by (1.37), we obtain the “kinetic energy” with m = 1 as
1 2
T= ρ̇ + r 2 ϕ̇ 2 sin2 θ + r 2 θ̇ 2 .
2
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place where the chest had stood, in Koku’s room, and outside the
building.
“It sure is,” agreed the young inventor. “All my plans for the train-
stopping device were in that chest. Now they’re gone, and I have no
duplicates!”
“And your tidal engine, too,” suggested Ned.
“Yes,” sighed Tom. “I guess my dream of harnessing the ocean
will not be realized for some time. Of course I may be able to work
out the ideas in some other way, but it means a big loss. And there
are other papers, too. There were dad’s designs of the gyroscope
flier, and——”
“What’s that about my gyroscope flier?” asked Mr. Swift, at that
moment entering the place. “I’ve come for those plans now, Tom. I
have just thought of a new idea in connection with the engine.”
“I’m afraid you can’t have the plans, Dad,” returned the son.
“They’re gone! The whole chest of secrets has been stolen!”
Tom had been debating in his mind whether or not to tell his
father the bad news, fearing the effect it might have on the elderly
man’s heart. But Barton Swift was no weakling. Like a charger
sniffing the powder of battle from afar, he drew himself up and
together at the same time crying:
“So our enemies are at some of their old tricks, are they, Tom?
Well, don’t let them see that we mind! Don’t show the white feather.
We’ll fight ’em, Tom! We’ll fight ’em!”
“That’s the talk!” cried Ned, while Tom was much delighted to
note that his father took the blow standing up.
“I can reconstruct those gyroscope plans!” cried the old man. “I
remember most of them, though it will set me back very much to
have them taken. Of course it’s a big loss, Tom. The whole chestful
gone! How did it happen?”
He was told, and then he confirmed Tom’s first idea that he had
heard nothing during the night to indicate an attack on the shop.
“I done t’ink I heard somethin’,” Eradicate said when they asked
him about the matter. “It was a sort of hootin’, hollerin’ sound. But I
figgered it was an owl bird, an’ I went to sleep again!”
“That was probably Koku shouting at the robbers,” decided Tom.
“He’s either still after them or they’ve done for him.”
“Koku gone?” cried Rad, and when told him that the giant was
missing the colored man forgot all his petty animosity against the big
fellow and expressed only sympathy. “I’s gwine to find him!” declared
Eradicate. “I go look for him!”
Tom did not pay much attention to his colored helper, since there
were other matters that needed his attention. The net result of the
searching on the part of his men was nothing. There were no clews
that could be followed. Reconstructing the crime, it was thought that
the gang of men had gained entrance by means of a false key. Then,
being unable to open the chest because of the special locks on it,
they had carried it away.
Surprised at this by Koku, they must have silenced the giant in
some manner and have carried him off while he was unconscious.
Doubtless an auto was used, though so many of these came and
went at the Swift office that the tire marks of no special one could be
picked out.
“All that remains is for us to make a search,” suggested Tom.
“And we have this much to go on—that I suspect my chest was
stolen by the same men, or some representing them, whose offer I
turned down when Mr. Damon made it on behalf of Mr. Blythe.”
“Then why not have Mr. Damon over here,” suggested Mr. Swift.
“He may be able to give us some clews as to these scoundrels.”
“I’ll do it!” cried Tom, and he sent an airship for Wakefield Damon
at once.
“Bless my fire insurance policy, Tom Swift, but this is a terrible
affair!” cried the odd man when he entered the office a little later. “I
wouldn’t have had it happen for a million dollars! Bless my check
book if I would! And it’s all my fault.”
“How do you make that out?” asked Tom, with a smile.
“I was foolish enough to bring you that offer from Mr. Blythe,
though I took it in good faith, and never knew he was such a
scoundrel! To think of his kidnapping Koku and taking your chest.”
“Blythe didn’t do it!” exclaimed Tom. “Nor did he have anything to
do with it! Blythe isn’t that kind of a man. I know that from my oil-
gusher dealings with him. Doubtless he has been deceived by these
men as I was deceived by Barsky. And I think if we could get hold of
Barsky we’d have the key that would unlock this whole puzzle. Why
we sent for you, Mr. Damon, is to ask if you could give us any clews
as to the men associated with Blythe.”
“I think I can,” was the answer. “Oh, Tom Swift, to think that such
a thing could happen! Bless my overshoes! it’s enough to make a
man a misanthrope all the rest of his life.”
By dint of further questioning Tom and Ned gleaned certain facts
from Mr. Damon, and these were a little later communicated to Mr.
Plum, the lawyer, with instructions to set certain confidential
investigators at work in distant cities.
“Do you think, Mr. Plum, that this robbery here had any
connection with the theft of the Liberty Bonds of which my father is
accused?” asked Ned.
“I don’t know,” was the answer. “It’s possible. There’s no obvious
connection, but I’ll check up on the matter and let you know.”
With this Tom and Ned had to be content for the time being. After
all the information possible had been collected, the foremen went
back to their shops and work was resumed. Mr. Swift at once began
to redraw his gyroscope plans, and Tom, sick at heart over his big
loss, late in the afternoon spoke to Ned about the advisability of
going for a ride across country.
“We might get a trace of Koku or the robbers in that way,” Tom
said.
“Good idea,” commented Ned. “It will be something to be on the
move. Nothing is worse than sitting still waiting for news. Come on.”
As they were about to start in the electric runabout, Eradicate,
who had disappeared soon after the discovery of the robbery, came
hurrying to the garage.
“Massa Tom! Massa Tom!” cried the colored man, much excited.
“I’s done found ’im!”
“Found them? You mean Koku and my chest of secrets?”
shouted the young inventor.
“No, I didn’t find de chest, but I found Koku! I found dat big giant!”
“Is he—is he dead?” faltered Tom.
“No, Massa Tom. Dat giant’s off in de woods tied to a tree! I
couldn’t loose de ropes or I’d a set him free. Dat’s why I came back
fo’ you all. But I done found Koku!”
CHAPTER XX
MANY STRANGE CLEWS
“Come on, Rad! Hop in! Show us where Koku is and we’ll soon
have him loose!” cried Tom, as he motioned to the rear of the
runabout, for he and Ned were seated in front.
“How is Koku taking being tied up?” asked Ned while the colored
man climbed in as quickly as his rheumatic joints would allow. “Is
Koku mad?”
“Mad? He done froth at de mouth!” cried the old servant. “By
golly, I wouldn’t like to be de one whut done tied him up after he gits
free!”
“Koku would be one of the best fellows in the world to take along
on the search for the robbers, Tom,” suggested Ned. “He’ll be so
angry he can easily handle half a dozen with one hand—if there
should prove to be that many in the gang.”
“Shouldn’t wonder but what there are more than that in the plot,”
agreed Tom. “It’s a queer game! But come on. We must help Koku.
Where is he, Rad?”
“Over by Lake Carlopa—dat place where you and me used to go
fishin’.”
“You mean Chestnut Point?”
“Dat’s de place, Massa Tom.”
“A lonely region,” remarked the young inventor, as he started the
runabout. “They couldn’t have picked out a better—or rather, a worse
—place to leave poor Koku. How’d you happen to think of looking
there, Rad?”
“Well, Massa Tom, I t’ought maybe Koku might go there of his
own se’f. Onct I kotched a big fish there, an’ I was tellin’ him ’bout it.
He always said he could kotch a bigger fish’n whut I did. So I t’ought
maybe he was tryin’ to beat me, an’ maybe de robbers didn’t tuk him
after all. So I looked an’ I done see him tied to a tree!”
The run to Chestnut Point did not take long, and, following the
directions of Eradicate, Tom guided his machine along a lonely road.
They had traversed this a short distance when Ned cried:
“Hark!”
“What did you think you heard?” asked Tom, shutting off the
motor to render the machine silent.
“Some one calling,” answered Ned. “Listen!”
A loud voice was borne to their ears by the wind, and Tom had no
sooner heard it than he cried:
“That’s Koku! And he sure is mad!”
The giant was like an enraged bull, but so securely was he bound
to a tree with many strong ropes and straps that even his great
strength was of no avail, especially as he was so cunningly bound
that he was unable to exert his full strength.
“Good you come, Master Tom,” grunted Koku, as he saw his
friends approaching in a run. “You friend of mine from now on, Rad—
you bring help to me.”
“Cou’se I’s you’ friend,” chuckled Eradicate. “De only time when
we has any disputations is when you tries to take my place wif
Massa Tom.”
It was the work of some time for Ned and Tom, even with their
sharp knives, to cut the straps and the ropes, the knots of which had
proved too hard for the colored man to loosen. Then, working his
great arms and striding up and down amid the trees to restore his
stagnant circulation, the giant cried:
“Where are ’um? Where are ’um mans that tied me? Once I git
’um—I mince pie ’um!”
“Guess he’s heard the expression ‘make mince meat of them,’ ”
remarked Ned to Tom.
“Very likely. But I’ve got to get him quieted down so I can
question him. He will be the best one to give us clews by which we
may trace these fellows.”
Accordingly Tom talked to his giant helper and finally got an
account of what had happened. Tom could do more with Koku and
understand his peculiar English better than any one else. Also Tom
knew something of the giant’s own language.
Gradually a coherent story emerged. Koku had been left on
guard the previous night in Tom’s private office building, following the
attack on the young inventor. The early part of the evening had
passed without anything to disturb the giant’s sleep. Later, however,
the alarm bell over his bed rang. Tom had not trusted altogether to
his giant remaining awake when on guard, and, as old readers know,
the whole place was wired in burglar alarm fashion.
So that, even though the door was opened with a skeleton key,
as was proved later to have been done, the swinging of the portal set
off one signal, the wire to which had remained intact, and Koku
awakened.
He had been awakened some months before by the alarm bell,
but that time it was Tom himself who entered the place late at night
to make notes on a certain plan before he should forget the idea that
occurred to him. Tom forgot about the burglar alarm, and set it off,
bringing Koku running with a gun in his hands.
Of course Tom laughed at the incident, but Koku now
remembered this, and, thinking it might be another false alarm, he
did not at once rush to the floor below, but proceeded cautiously. If
the intruder should prove to be some one with a right to enter, Koku
would go back to bed again.
Going down softly, and looking in the room where the big oak box
was kept, the giant saw several strange men trying to force the
locks. This being beyond them, one of the men had cried, as Koku
understood it:
“Let’s take the whole shooting match along! The Blue Bird will
carry it and we can open it in the woods.”
So they had picked up Tom Swift’s chest of secrets and carried it
out of the office. Even then Koku did not give the alarm, for his brain
did not work as fast as the brain of an ordinary person. Then, too,
the giant thought he had plenty of time, and could, when he got
ready, sweep the robbers off their feet and take the chest away from
them.
But he delayed too long. Following the men—there were eight of
them, he counted on his fingers—Koku went out of the office building
into the darkness. The men carried the chest to a large automobile
that was waiting in the road, the motor running and the lights off.
Then, just as they loaded it in and Koku was about to spring on
them, the men discovered his presence and jumped on the giant
before he could get into action.
Even a little man will have the advantage of a much larger and
more powerful fellow if the little man gets started first, and this was
what happened in the case of Koku. Besides, there were eight of the
robbers, and though under some circumstances Koku might have
been able to fight eight, or even ten men, taken as he was by
surprise, he was knocked down.
He struggled, but the men threw “something into his face” that
stung and made him “feel funny” and he was gagged, bound and
lifted into the auto, though his weight made the men “grunt like pigs,”
as the giant expressed it.
So the thing happened, and Koku, helpless, a little stunned, and
silent, was driven off in the night, no struggle at all having taken
place in the office.
Where he was taken the giant did not know in the darkness. But
after a while he was lifted out of the car and tied to the tree where
Eradicate found him.
“But what became of the robbers and Tom’s chest?” asked Ned.
“ ’Um robbers go off in Blue Bird with chest of secrets,” answered
the giant.
“What does he mean—Blue Bird?” asked the manager.
“It’s a big aeroplane painted blue,” explained Tom. “The men had
it hidden in a cove on the lake. It must be a hydroplane, though
possibly it’s a combination of both types of machine. Koku had a
glimpse of it because the robbers used pocket flashlights. They put
the chest in the blue aeroplane and soared off with it. Koku said he
could hear the throb of the motors for a long time after they were
gone.”
“What’s the next thing to be done?” asked Ned. “We can’t do
anything here, and it’s getting late. Did Koku see any of the faces of
these fellows?”
“They all wore masks,” Tom said. “Yes, Koku, what is it?” the
young inventor asked, for he noticed that his giant wanted to tell him
something in addition.
Followed then more of the queer, jumbled talk of the big man,
who, now and then, used some of his own words, which Tom alone
could translate. Then came silence.
“He says,” interpreted Tom, “that one of the men walked with a
slight limp and had a queer habit of throwing his left elbow out from
his side.”
“Limping! Throwing out his elbow!” excitedly cried Ned.
“Does that mean anything to you?” asked Tom.
“Does it? I should say it does. Why, that’s the very thing Renwick
Fawn does!”
“Renwick Fawn!” exclaimed Tom. “You mean——”
“The man who accused my father of taking the Liberty Bonds!”
fairly shouted Ned. “I always thought that fellow was a crook, and
now I know it. Tom, he’s in with the scoundrels that robbed you!”
“Maybe,” assented the young inventor. “I wouldn’t put it past him,
since I’ve had a look at his face. But if this is the case, we have
several clews to work on now, Ned. The limping man with the queer
elbow action, the blue aeroplane, and some other things that Koku
told me. Let’s go back and get busy!”
CHAPTER XXI
SCOUTING AROUND
Fairly well satisfied that he had secured some clews that would
be of value to him, Tom Swift hurried home with Ned, Koku and
Eradicate in the electric runabout. On the way the giant recovered
somewhat from the rough treatment accorded him by the robbers,
and talked of what he would do to them when he caught them.
“You must be hungry,” suggested Ned, as they neared Shopton.
For Koku had been taken away the previous midnight and evening
was now coming on again.
“Me eat ten loaves of bread!” cried the giant, opening wide his
enormous mouth.
“We’ll give you something else, too!” chuckled Tom. “But I know
poor Mrs. Baggert will almost faint when she sees you begin to eat.”
The giant’s appetite was always a source of wonder to the
housekeeper, and now, starved as he was by his enforced fast, it
might reasonably be expected that he would clean out the pantry.
Tom had the foresight to stop and telephone word to Mrs. Baggert of
the situation, so she sent out and got in plenty of food before the
wayfarers returned. Thus was Koku provided for.
“Well, Ned, let’s get together and talk this thing over,” suggested
Tom to his manager, leaving the giant still eating, long after the
others had finished. Eradicate, true to his promise to be friends with
the big man, remained to help serve him.
“Yes,” agreed Ned, “we had better make some plan to work on.
But this discovery that Renwick Fawn is in the plot rather surprises
me.”
“I must see if Mr. Damon knows anything about him in this
connection. He may have heard Blythe speak of him.”
Mr. Damon was communicated with over the telephone, and after
several queer “blessings” announced that, as far as he knew, Fawn
was a stranger to Mr. Blythe.
“He doesn’t know anything of Blodgett either,” Tom told Ned,
recalling the conversation Mary had overheard in the restaurant.
“Then we’ll have to tackle Fawn on our own account,” said Ned. “I
know where he lives. Shall we go to his house and ask for him?”
“What shall we say to him if he’s at home?” Tom wanted to know.
Ned thought for a moment and replied:
“We can ask him, for a starter, if he has recovered any of the
Liberty Bonds he says my father took. Then, after that opening, you
can mention the theft of your box and ask if Fawn thinks there is any
connection between the two.”
“Then what?” Tom inquired.
“Well, if things turn out the way we expect—I mean if this Fawn
has really had a part in the robbery at your place—he’ll get confused
and maybe give himself away. That’s our one hope—that he will give
himself away.”
“It’s worth trying,” decided Tom, after a little consideration. “Come
on.”
A little later in the evening the two young men set off in a small
gasoline car to call at the home of the suspected man. Ned had had
occasion to go there before some time since, months prior to the
accusation against Mr. Newton.
But it was with some feelings of apprehension and with
wonderings as to what they had best say to the man when he saw
them that Ned and Tom walked up the steps of the Fawn home.
A maid answered the door, and when they said they had called to
see Mr. Fawn she remarked:
“I think Mr. Fawn is not at home, but Mrs. Fawn is. Please come
in and I will tell her you are here.”
Mrs. Fawn, a small, pale, unimpressive woman, came timidly into
the room where the boys waited.
“You wanted to see my husband?” she asked, and Tom jumped
at once to the conclusion (in which Ned later joined) that she knew
nothing of the man’s peculiar activities. Their feeling that he was a
brute and a bully toward her was afterward borne out by facts.
“We have some business to transact with Mr. Fawn,” stated Ned.
“But the maid said he wasn’t at home.”
“No, he isn’t,” answered Mrs. Fawn, and the boys did not doubt
her. “He has gone to Chicago on business. At least I think it is
Chicago,” she added. “He goes to so many places I sometimes
forget. But I know it was out West.”
“Well, if he’s that far off, I guess we can’t see him to-night,”
returned Tom with a smile as he arose to go. “When did he leave
town?”
“The day before yesterday,” answered Mrs. Fawn.
Ned had not given his name, and though Tom had mentioned his,
he did not believe Mrs. Fawn knew enough of her husband’s
business to connect her callers with the bond accusation against Mr.
Newton.
But the two young men glanced sharply at each other when Mrs.
Fawn spoke of her husband having gone to Chicago two days
previous. If that was the case he could hardly have been engaged in
the theft of Tom’s strong box.
“Do you want to leave any word for Mr. Fawn when he returns?”
asked his wife.
“Thank you, no,” answered Tom. “It wasn’t important. We’ll see
him when he gets back.”
When they were outside Ned asked:
“Well, what do you think now, Tom?”
“I don’t know what to think. Koku is pretty sharp. When he says
he saw a thing you can make up your mind that he did. Of course it’s
possible there may be two men who limp and throw out their left
elbows, you know.”
“It’s possible, but not very probable,” answered the young
manager. “I believe Fawn is guilty, but his wife may not, and very
likely doesn’t, know anything about it. She’s a meek little lady.”
“Yes, indeed,” agreed Tom. “Well, we’re stuck for the time being.
However, to-morrow is another day. Something may turn up then.
Anyhow, even if it doesn’t, I’m going to start out.”
“Start out where?” Ned wanted to know.
“To look for that blue aero-hydroplane. I’m going to scout around
in the Blackbird and see if I can’t get on the trail of the fellows who
have my chest of secrets.”
“I’d like to go with you.”
“Wouldn’t think of taking off without you, old scout!” cried Tom.
He guided the car down the street and out on a wide avenue,
going along at a steady pace and with such an evident object in view
that Ned asked:
“Where are you heading?”
“I thought I’d stop at the Nestors’ a minute,” answered Tom.
“Then let me out here and I’ll take a trolley home,” said Ned.
“Let you out here! What’s the idea?” cried Tom.
“Well, you’re going to call on Mary, and——”
“Forget it!” laughed Tom, clapping his chum on the back. “This is
a sort of joint call, and you’re coming in. Mary isn’t fussy that way,
and she always likes to see you.”
“Thanks,” murmured Ned.
The two young men were no strangers in the Nestor home, Tom
especially; and soon the whole family was in conversation. Tom
mentioned the fact that he and his chum had just called on Mr. Fawn
but found that he had left for the West two days before.
“Left for the West!” exclaimed Mr. Nestor. “That’s queer!”
“Why so?” Tom asked.
“Because I saw him in town yesterday morning. And he couldn’t
have been going to Chicago.”
“Are you sure?” inquired Ned.
“Of course. I know the man as well as I know you. He was
limping along, tossing his left elbow out every now and then as he
has a habit of doing.”
Ned and Tom glanced at one another. If this was the case it
would explain matters. Fawn may have told his wife he was leaving
for Chicago, and even have packed a bag to go. But he went to
some other place and remained about Shopton long enough to take
part in the robbery that night.
Mr. Nestor’s mention of the peculiar gait of the man and his habit
of tossing his left elbow away from his body while walking or talking
was almost positive proof that there could be no mistake.
But Tom was not yet ready to let it be known that Fawn was
caught in a falsehood. There were many more points to be cleared
up before the affair was on the way to be solved. So, passing the
matter off as though it did not amount to much, murmuring that
possibly he had misunderstood Mrs. Fawn, Tom turned the talk into
other channels.
The chums left the Nestor home near midnight, Mary expressing
her indignation at the loss inflicted on Tom and asking if she could
not do something to help.
“I’ll let you know if you can,” Tom told her as he pressed her
hands.
For a few minutes Tom and Ned rode on in silence, each busy
with his thoughts, and then Ned asked:
“Well, Tom, what do you make of it?”
“You mean about Fawn not going to Chicago at all?”
“Yes.”
“Well it means he’s a trickster surely, but more than that. He’s in
the plot, of course. And I’m beginning to believe that it’s bigger than I
thought. Fawn and Barsky—both in the same town, both probably
working together against dad and me. It was a sorry day when I let
that so-called Russian into my shop!”
“It surely was,” agreed Ned. “But it’s too late to think of that now.
What is the next move? I want to get my hands on Fawn, as well as
on the others.”
“We start scouting to-morrow morning!” decided the young
inventor. “It oughtn’t to be hard to pick up the trail of this blue
aeroplane. I had some inquiries made around Lake Carlopa, and she
seems to have headed west. That, naturally, would be the best place
for the robbers to go—plenty of open places to land, and with widely
scattered cities and towns they wouldn’t run so much risk of being
captured. We’ll start scouting in the morning.”
Accordingly the Blackbird was made ready. This craft was not as
small nor as speedy as the Hummer, but she would carry three, and
Tom decided to take Koku along to identify the robbers if possible.
“Good luck, Tom!” called his aged father, as he was ready to take
off the next morning. “Bring back that chest!”
“I’ll do my best!” was the answer.
CHAPTER XXII
A STRANGE MESSAGE
Though he had no more than very slight clews on which to

pursue the robbers, Tom Swift was not without a definite plan on
which he proposed to operate.
As he had mentioned to Ned, he had obtained information which
indicated that the big blue aeroplane, after the robbers had put the
chest on board and had left Koku tied to the tree, had departed
toward the west. Of course there was no guarantee that it would
keep on this course, and absolutely no way of telling how long it
would hold it.
“But we can stop from time to time,” said Tom to Ned, “and make
inquiries about the plane. A big blue aeroplane isn’t easily hidden
from sight.”
“It sounds like good dope,” agreed Ned.
Koku was no stranger to aeroplane rides, and he felt perfectly at
home in the Blackbird. Indeed, as those of you remember who have
read the earlier books of this series, Koku was brought from his
home in a strange land by an airship. He rather liked to ride in them.
So Tom, Ned and Koku flew off on their strange quest.
Up into the air soared the Blackbird. She was a powerful
machine, and, as has been said, was roomy. Really, she was built to
carry four, but on account of the size of Koku a partition between two
cockpits had been taken out, making a large space where he could
dispose of his enormous legs and big body.
Before starting on the search for his chest of secrets, Tom had
caused inquiries to be made about the missing Barsky. But the man
seemed to have disappeared completely after leaving Tom in the
cistern.
“Though of course he might have been, and probably was, one of
the gang that took the chest and bound Koku,” suggested Ned.
For several hours the trio of adventurers soared along, not going
so high but what they could from time to time make observations of
the earth below them through field glasses. For of course it was
possible that the blue aeroplane might be on the ground.
She also might be soaring along in the air, and Tom and Ned did
not neglect to scan the heavens for signs. Once they saw a plane
coasting along, and gave chase. But when within good viewing
distance they made out that it was one of the government mail-
carriers, and they turned back on their original course.
It was near noon when Ned heard Tom give a sudden
exclamation.
“See anything?” asked the young manager.
“Nothing that gives me any pleasure,” replied Tom grimly. “I see a
leak in one of the oil pipes and that means we’ve got to go down and
mend it. Lucky I discovered it in time!”
An aeroplane engine, or for that matter an auto motor, that does
not receive copious and continuous lubrication is going to overheat,
bind and stop in a surprisingly short time.
A look over the side showed Tom that they were flying across
fairly open country, and, picking out a broad meadow as a suitable
landing place, he, having shut off his motor, headed for it. Koku, half
asleep in his enlarged cockpit, sensed that they were going down
and asked:
“We catch ’um robbers?”
“Not yet, Koku,” replied Tom, with a grim laugh. “So far they are a
couple of tricks ahead of us, but the game has only started.”
The Blackbird made a perfect landing under Tom’s skillful
guidance, and when it had come to a stop after a run over the
somewhat uneven field, Tom and Ned got out to begin work on
repairing the oil pipe. Ned had some knowledge of mechanics, and
could at least help his chum.
“It isn’t as bad as I thought,” Tom said, after a careful inspection.
“It’s just a loose union connection, and not a break. I won’t have to
solder anything, and I think I have a spare union in the tool box.”
It was while he was looking for this and while Koku was strolling
about, heaving big stones for his own amusement (and possibly with
the sensation that he was thus treating his enemies) that Ned called:
“Some one’s coming, Tom!”
The young inventor, who had found the union connection he was
looking for, looked up and saw a farmer approaching across the field.
“Maybe he’s going to order us off,” suggested Ned. “We’re
trespassers all right. Didn’t even ask his leave to drop in on him.”
“No, we didn’t have time,” grimly chuckled Tom. “But if he makes
a fuss I guess a few dollars will make him see the light of reason.
I’ve dealt with that kind before.”
However, the farmer, for such he proved to be, was a friendly
person. He smiled at the chums, looked with amazement at Koku,
who was lifting a rock that three ordinary men could not have
handled, and then asked:
“Are you having trouble? Can I help you?”
“Thank you, very much,” responded Tom. “It’s only a slight defect,
and I’ll have it mended in a minute or two.”
“We thought possibly you were coming to order us off,” said Ned,
as he got ready to help his chum replace the broken union on the oil
feed pipe.
“Oh, no,” laughed the farmer, who gave his name as Mr. Kimball.
“We’re getting used to aeroplanes landing here.”
“You mean the government machines?” asked Tom. “I know this
is their route.”
“Well, a mail plane was forced down in this field last year,” said
Mr. Kimball. “But I didn’t mean that. Only yesterday a big blue
machine had to come down about where you are.”
“A blue machine?” repeated Tom, concealing his excitement.
“Regular landing or a crash dive?” asked Ned.
“I guess they came down on purpose,” said Mr. Kimball. “They
landed gently enough—no crash. It seems they ran out of water in
their radiator. That’s happened to me many a time in my little Ford,
so I knew just how they felt about it. I came over and showed them a
spring where they could get water. Then they went on again.”
Ned and Tom looked at each other. They did not want to tell too
much of their plans, yet they must make inquiries and get
information. Koku was still doing his “daily dozen” with the big rocks.
“How many men were in this blue machine?” asked Tom.
“Oh, four or five, I should say. Maybe half a dozen. It was the
biggest aeroplane I’ve ever seen. But then they look a lot bigger on
the ground than when they’re up in the air.”
“It must have been a pretty good-sized plane to carry four or five
men,” observed Ned. “Did you notice any of the passengers? Did
one of them walk with a limp?”
“Why, yes, come to think of it, one of them did seem a bit lame,”
replied Mr. Kimball. “And he had a queer habit of jerking his elbow
out like this,” and the farmer illustrated.
“Was it his right elbow?” asked Tom, emphasizing the word that
indicated the dexter hand.
“No—let me see now—no, it was his left. Why? Do you know
him?”
“Yes,” answered Ned, with a queer look at Tom. “We know him.”
“I suppose they’re friends of yours, both of you being in the
airship business, so to speak,” went on Mr. Kimball.
Neither of the young men answered that, but Tom, after he had
taken off the damaged union coupling, asked:
“Did you happen to notice if one of the men had red hair?”
The farmer considered for a moment, and then replied:
“No, I didn’t see any one like that.”
This was not surprising, considering that Barsky’s hair was so
short that its redness could not be noticed until he took off his hat.
And very likely he would be wearing a leather helmet in the
aeroplane.
But Tom and Ned had established the fact that the blue
aeroplane containing the robbers had passed this way recently. Tom
made a cautious inquiry about the chest, but Mr. Kimball had not
noticed that. And, very likely, it was stowed away in the fuselage of
the craft, out of sight.
“How long did they stay?” asked Ned.
“Oh, only long enough to buy some food off me and take on
water, then they soared away again.”
“Headed west?” asked Tom.
“Headed west,” answered Mr. Kimball.
The farmer remained, an interested observer, while Tom and Ned
made the slight repairs needed. When they had finished and were
about to go on, Mr. Kimball, with a glance toward the giant, asked:
“Is he yours?”
“Yes, in a way,” replied Tom. “Why?”
“Um! I only want to say if you ever want to get rid of him I’d like to
hire him. What a hired man he’d make! My, the chores he could do
without getting tired! He’d be worth three ordinary hired men—and
they’re so hard to get now. But I don’t suppose you want to let him
go?”
“No,” answered Tom, with a laugh and a glance at Koku, who, to
amuse himself, was tossing up great rocks and catching them in his
bare hands.
“Well, I don’t know as I blame you,” said Mr. Kimball.
Having made repairs and gotten some unexpected and valuable
information, Tom and Ned called to the giant, took their places in the
machine again, and, after Koku had spun the propeller, once more
were off.
All that day they traveled, Tom and his chum keeping a lookout
for the blue machine, but not seeing it. The young inventor had so
laid his plans that before it got too dark he descended in a broad
field on the outskirts of a big city. As the aeroplane was large enough
to permit of sleeping in it and as Tom had brought along blankets,
they decided to spend the night in the Blackbird.
It was the next morning about nine o’clock, and just about the
time Tom and Ned were taking off again on the second day of their
trip, that Mr. Swift was summoned to the telephone in his office.
“Dey’s somebody dat wants to talk to you ’ticklar like,” reported
Eradicate.
“Perhaps it’s a message from Tom!” exclaimed Mr. Swift. “He may
have caught the robbers and gotten back his chest.”
“No, sah, it don’t sound like Massa Tom,” said the colored man.
The voice to which the aged inventor listened was not that of his
son. Instead, over the wire came strange tones asking:
“How much will you pay us for the return of your chest of
secrets?”
Mr. Swift was so surprised that he almost dropped the receiver.
CHAPTER XXIII
THE BLUE MACHINE
Barton Swift was the true father of his energetic son, and Tom
inherited his qualities from his father. Which is to say that in his youth
Barton Swift had been fully as active and quick as was now the
young inventor.
Though age and illness had to some extent dimmed and
enfeebled the powers of the man, still it needed but this spark—that
strange telephone message—to galvanize him into action. After the
first shock of hearing so unexpectedly about the stolen chest of
secrets, Mr. Swift was ready to take active measures to trace the
voice coming out of the machine.
“What’s that you say?” he asked, nerving himself to carry on an
ordinary conversation about a most extraordinary topic. “Who are
you and where are you?”
“Don’t you wish you knew?” came back the challenging inquiry.
“Are you ready to talk business?”
“Of course I am,” answered Mr. Swift. “We want that chest back,
and we’ll pay any reasonable amount.”
“I’m not saying the amount will be reasonable,” was the reply, and
emphasis was laid on the last word. “But you’ll pay our price or you
don’t get the chest. And I warn you that if you try to communicate
with the police or set the detectives on our trail we’ll immediately
break off negotiations.”
Trying to get in touch with the police was just what Mr. Swift was
then doing. Ned Newton’s father had entered the office, and, seeing
him, Mr. Swift at once took pencil and paper from his desk and while
he talked in a rather general way with his unseen listener, he jotted
down a few words, explaining matters and suggesting that Mr.
Newton go to another telephone to learn from the central operator
where the mysterious call was coming from.
There were several trunk telephone lines running into the Swift
office, so it was a comparatively easy matter for Mr. Newton to go to
another instrument to get the information needed.
Meanwhile Mr. Swift was holding the other man in conversation.
Having started Mr. Newton to ferreting out some information, the
aged inventor asked:
“How much do you want to return the chest and how can I get in
touch with you?”
“If you will take fifty thousand dollars in unmarked bills, make a
bundle of them and bring them——”
But at that moment the criminal either heard something—perhaps
the movements of Mr. Newton—or he suspected something, for he
sharply broke off what he was saying and cried:
“It’s all off! You’re trying to double cross me! Now you’ll never get
your chest back!”
There was a click which told that the distant receiver was hung
up, and then the line went dead.
“Wait a minute! Wait just a moment! I want to talk business with
you!” cried Mr. Swift, rapidly moving the hook of the receiver up and
down.
But it was too late. Only silence ensued until finally the operator,
attracted by the flashing light which resulted when Mr. Swift moved
the hook, asked:
“Number, please?”
“I was talking to some one, but I was cut off,” said the inventor.
“Can you get them back for me? It’s important.”
“What number were you talking to?” the girl asked.
“That’s just what I want to know,” said Tom’s father.
“I’m sorry, but if you don’t know the number I can’t ring it for you.”
Mr. Swift knew only too well that this was the case. It was not the
girl’s fault—it was the fault of the system, and not so much the fault
as the limitation.
“If I had only had Tom’s photo-telephone attachment hitched on
here I could have seen who it was I was talking with,” lamented Mr.
Swift. “How about it, Mr. Newton, did you succeed in getting any
information?” he asked, as the latter came away from the second
instrument.
“The manager said he would try to trace the call for you,” was the
reply. “But I didn’t have much time. Whoever it was got suspicious
too quickly.”

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Classical and Analytical Mechanics

Theory Applied Examples and Practice

Classical Continuum Mechanics (Applied and

A Student s Guide to Analytical Mechanics 1st Edition

The General Theory of Particle Mechanics A Special

Essentials and Examples of Applied Mathematics 2nd

Classical Mechanics Problems and Solutions 1st Edition

Soilless Culture Theory and Practice Theory and

Applied Mechanics of Polymers: Properties, Processing,

Surface Subsidence Engineering: Theory and Practice 1st

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

List of figures xiii

2 Rigid body kinematics 31

2.3.1 Absolute velocity 46

4 Non-inertial and variable-mass systems 131

5 Euler’s dynamic equations 153

6 Dynamic Lagrange equations 189

7 Equilibrium and stability 221

8 Oscillations analysis 245

9 Linear systems of second order 273

10 Hamiltonian formalism 311

10.4.3 First integrals by inspection 330

11 The Hamilton–Jacobi equation 337

12 Collection of electromechanical models 383

12.11 Robot manipulator with swivel base 424

Fig. 3.3 Relationship between a force and elementary displacement. 96

Fig. 5.10 Solid cylinder in eccentric rotation. 171

Fig. 8.8 A homogeneous elliptical cylinder rolling without slipping on a horizontal

Fig. 12.14 Two-joint planar manipulator. 434

Table 6.1 Table of electromechanical analogies. 210

Alexander S. Poznyak graduated from the Moscow Physical Technical Institute

One theory is the most impressive,

The presented material is based on more than 25 years of teaching experi-

The vectors are denoted with bold letters, for example, a, K.

Given the square matrix A, its determinant is denoted by

where n, m are positive integers.

ȧ, ä indicate the first and second time derivatives of vector a.

second derivative matrix or Hessian,

where (λ, δ) is the scalar and [λ, δ] is the vector product.

Several good books dedicated to physical, mechanical, electrical, and electromechan-

The discussion of the contents of the book is presented below.

The Lagrangian formalism is presented in Chapters 1–9.

In dynamic systems in general and in mechanical systems in particular, the deter-

The Hamiltonian formalism is presented in Chapters 10 and 11.

The canonical transformations of the dynamic variables, describing Hamiltonians

Some models of electromechanical systems (such as a robot of the PUMA type,

1.1 Products of vectors

1.1.1 Internal (scalar) product

(a, (b + c)) = (a, b) + (a, c) .

3. Criterion of parallelism: If a, b = 0, then

4. Orthogonality criterion: If a, b = 0, then

if and only if the vectors a and b are orthogonal, that is, a ⊥ b.

5. Magnitude (length) of a vector: This is defined as

Proof. Both vectors a and b have the following representation:

where the unitary vectors k1 , k2 , k3 satisfy the relation